Chapter II: Part 2

Have two separate sheets rigged with snaphooks. If you come down to a mark with your balloon jib on one side and want to shift it over so as to carry it on the other, before jibing over gather the sail up and roll it out to the stay; there stop it. Unhook the sheet on that side and hook on the other. As soon as you are round break out. By doing this you don’t have the bother of passing the sheet in use forward around the stay and aft again in the other side all of which takes time and causes confusion. When not in use, keep the sheets hooked to the stay, and fast aft. You can stop the sail with the sheet, using a turn similar to that made round a flag when hoisted in a ball or bundle.

SHROUD-PARTING:

If a shroud parts, go right on the other tack; then get any tackle you can that is idle and set it up in place of the rope carried away. If you have no tackle aloft that is not working get a piece of hawser or large-sized rope and pass it round the mast above the other rigging. Take it round the spar with a clove hitch and stop the end. Seize a bight in the lower part high enough up to get the watch tackle in between it and whatever you have at the rail to make fast to. Then set it up and rack the tackle. If the chain plate is gone, and you have nothing to make fast to, you can secure the lower end in this way, as I once did. Bore a hole through the deck just inside the clamp, and one through the side just below the clamp. Pass a piece of wire rope through these holes and marry the ends. Into this loop hook your tackle. All boats of any size should have two shrouds on each side.

BURST MAIN SHEET:

If your main sheet bursts or the shackle breaks and the tackle gets away, keep the boat as near the wind as possible. Then slack up on the weather topping lift until you can reach the bight. Get this inboard and aft, and haul on it easily, slacking down the throat of the sail at the same time; then the peak. If you have only one lift rove, slack down the throat, and try to get a line on the boom, as far out as possible. If this won’t work, cut off the hoops, unship the heel of the boom and run it inboard. It is a very dangerous situation if any sea is on, and requires skill and courage to master it.

MAST CARRIED AWAY:

If you carry away a mast in a seaway get it clear of all gear as soon as possible, as it may smash in your side. If it is rigged with wire shrouds and rigging screws, and you cannot get these loose, saw off the head of the mast just below the eyes of the rigging. If the sea is not too heavy you can veer the broken spar astern and tow it, or else haul it in over the stern and lash it fast. It is better to save the spar, if possible, as it makes it easier to replace it.

BURST BOBSTAY:

This is a bad accident, as you are liable to lose your mast. Get the mainsail off of her at once. If you have a crotch, put it under the boom so as to take the weight off the mast until you have it secured. Take your jib or staysail halyards or preventer backstays, hook them to the bits or around the bowsprit close to the cranze, and heave taut. Get the yacht before the wind, if possible. Then make the best job of the bobstay you can. A watch tackle makes the best temporary repair.

WANT OF SPEED, I:

The want of speed in sailing craft is due to many causes. The most frequent is the result of over-ballasting or to the ballast being in the wrong place. This is especially so in shoal, flat-floored models. Frequently, if a boat prove sluggish, a yachtsman will attempt to improve her speed by adding more sail, and then to carry this sail, will ship more weight. Consequently, the boat is slower and worse-acting than before. If your boat does not seem to be up to her speed, try first by removing a portion of the ballast, and by continually shifting the weights. To try her, sail alongside another boat, of whose comparative speed you are aware, and you will soon find out your boat can be improved in this way.

WANT OF SPEED, II:

Sometimes the sails are to blame, usually through these not being properly set, owing to the blocks being placed in positions where they cannot properly hold up the spars; or, having too little draft. Want of draft will cause a boat to be sluggish in light airs.

WANT OF SPEED, III:

If shifting ballast or getting better sails will not bring the boat to her form, try altering the position of the centerboard or mast. Much additional speed is frequently gained by moving the mast or board. You cannot discover the faults of a boat by analysing her design; you must work it out by sailing her, and studying her actions in all weights of wind.

SPEED, TO JUDGE:

If you have no log, you can by practice get so that you can gauge a boat’s speed within a half knot by watching the water. When running along shore, make a practice of timing the boat between measured points. By doing this constantly you will get so experienced that you can judge by eye very close to the speed she is making. Another way is to time her as she passes floating objects, or while passing a stick dropped over from the bow, count the seconds one, two, three, and so on, until it passes the stern. Knowing the length of the boat by this means you can roughly estimate her speed through the water. If your boat is 25 feet long, and it takes her 5 seconds to pass an object, she is making about 3 knots.

TOWING:

When towing a heavy boat or another yacht, with the wind anywhere on the beam, make your towing warp fast on your weather quarter. This will make the load tow easier and your boat will steer better. When towing with the wind aft, keep the warp amidships, by using a bridle from each quarter. If the tow is being steered, veer a long scope of hawser, so as to get a heavy bight; this will ease the strain in a seaway.

TOWING ALONGSIDE:

To tow a dingey alongside, make fast to the fore thwart, or to anything, about one-third aft from the stem. In this way you can tow a dingey under the lee while getting men or stores out of her. The same plan is used in towing along a canal or narrow thoroughfare by tracking on the bank.

TOWING:

When towing, never make a warp fast so that it cannot be instantly cast off. It is always best to keep a sharp knife handy, so as to be able to cut the line. In a seaway this should always be looked to.

TOWING, TO TACK WHEN:

When towing a heavy boat in rough water, or when the wind is scanty, and you have to tack, place a hand or two on the line to haul in. When ready to put the helm down have them take in considerable slack. At the call “Helm’s a-lee!” let go the line and tack your boat on the slack line. This will enable you to get round and have way before the pull of the tow comes on your boat.

ANCHORS:

Anchors should be looked to and taken care of just the same as any other gear. The same with chain. If you keep your spare hook below, see that it is a place where you can readily get at it, and not buried in a heap of old ropes, awning stanchions, and other dunnage. I have fully covered this subject and that of anchoring in the book, _On Yachts and Yacht Handling_, which I advise you to read.

TO GET AN ANCHOR IN A SEAWAY:

It is sometimes very difficult to get an anchor in a seaway with a hard wind blowing. It can be done in this way: Take a turn with the hawser round the post or bitts. Watch when she pitches. As she descends she will slack up the hawser. Quickly take in this slack and hold when she scends. In this way you can get it foot by foot, and, when close under, the sea will break the hook out for you.

TO GET A LINE ON A FLUKE:

If an anchor is lost or foul you can get a line on the upper fluke in this way, if the water is not too deep: Feel for the fluke with a pole or, better, a piece of iron gas pipe. When found, rest the pipe end on the tip of the fluke. Then send a messenger of rope with slip noose, down the pipe or pole until it falls over the fluke and on the arm. Carefully haul it taut, using the pole to keep it from slipping off until firmly fixed. By this means you can get a back pull on an anchor and shake it loose if caught under a timber or rock.

TO SWEEP AN ANCHOR:

If you have lost your anchor, and there is chain or hawser on it, you can recover it by dragging with a grapnel back and forth across where you suppose the hawser is lying. If there is no chain or hawser attached, you will have to sweep for it. Take two boats and pass a weighted line between them, then row back and forth, dragging the bight of the line across the bottom until it finds the lost hook. Sometimes you can get an anchor by making fast one end of the sweep and rowing round in a circle, paying out the line as you go. Let it sink; then bring both ends together, as fishermen do a net, and haul in slowly. The best sweep is one made with a piece of chain in the middle.

TO LAY OUT AN ANCHOR:

Get the anchor in the boat flukes toward the bow, then coil down in the boat about two-thirds of the line to be payed out. Start the boat off and pay out what you have on board. In this way the oarsman has not got to drag a heavy weight of line after him. Use the same method to run out a guess warp to be made fast ashore.

TO LAY OUT A HEAVY ANCHOR:

Get two boats and lash them side by side. Put a strong stick or oar across the gunwales and lash it fast. Lower the anchor overboard with a tackle from aloft and swing it in between the boats, ring up. Lash the ring to the beam. When you get to the spot where you want to drop it set the hawser all clear for running and cut the ring lashing.

TO RAISE A HEAVY ANCHOR:

Lash two boats together. Put a round beam or spar across the gunwales and ship a couple of hand-sticks in it so as to turn it like a windlass. Take the line on the anchor round the spar and turn, winding it slowly up. Keep the beam from rolling out of place by two guys, one at each end, with an eye over it. The guys want to lead from the end of the boat on the side that the rope from the anchor comes up.

ANCHORING:

Don’t anchor on bad bottom without putting a trip line on the anchor. The worst bottom for fouling is one over which boulders are strewn. Also be careful how you anchor in any place where sunken wrecks are likely to be found.

MOORINGS:

The weight necessary to furnish a secure mooring depends upon the locality, the amount of exposure, the depth and character of the bottom, and the weight and model of the boat. It is always better when on the safe side by using as heavy a mooring as possible. For ordinary conditions, multiply the length over all of the boat by five, the answer being the weight in pounds that is needed. In exposed situations this weight should be largely increased. The best moorings are mushroom anchors, where the bottom is suitable for their use, as they can be readily recovered when it is desirable to take them up.

MAKING A MOORING:

To do this properly requires judgment and practice. Nothing looks worse than to see a man make a bungle of getting a mooring. If he is familiar with his boat, there is no excuse for mismanaging the job. The first thing to learn is how far your boat will carry way when thrown into the wind. This you can find out only by observation and practice. Having discovered this, set a range on shore to use when coming to; one that will place you at about the right distance. A better plan is to calculate your distances by lengths of your boat. If your boat is thirty feet long, and will carry way for six lengths, luff up at a distance of 180 feet. Always, if you have good way on, go directly to leeward of the mooring. Luff with a long sweep, for if you put your helm over too quickly you will kill the boat’s way and fall short. If the wind is light, go to leeward and come to the buoy at an angle, with your sheets lighted up; then by trimming and spilling you can baby her up to the mooring. If a boat is coming with too much way on you can kill her speed by shoving the helm hard across, first one way and then the other. Take an afternoon off some day and practice picking up your mooring and you will soon have it down to a science.

MAKING A MOORING TO LEEWARD:

This should never be done unless you have to, as it is more likely to get you into a mix-up. But in places where there is strong tide running against the wind it is the only way. Go well to windward, and take enough sail off so that she will just about stem the tide; then steer right for the buoy and pick it up, getting sail down at once.

MOORING HOOK:

Get an iron hook made, shaped like the hooks used by women on their dresses, only longer in the shank. Splice a rope to this and then fasten to it and the rope a short piece of stick, long enough to reach from the rail to the water. When you come to the mooring the bowman can hook this into the ring and hold her until you get the sail down and can pass the mooring warp. A little practice with one of these contrivances will make a man so expert that he can catch the ring every time, even by throwing the hook several feet.

MOORING WARP:

If your boat lies at moorings where there is constant jump of sea on, or where the tide and wind keep her yawing about, the warp should be well-armored where it comes through the chock or over the rail. Leather is best for this. A boat will lie much easier if a bridle is used, an end being brought aboard at each bow. Don’t leave the warp hanging to the buoy, especially if the water is foul or the bottom muddy. Not only will it rot, but every time you take it on board it will dirty the boat.

MOORING CHAIN:

It is best to use a heavy chain, much heavier than is really needed, to stand the strain, as the boat will ride in all ordinary weather to the weight of the chain, and not to the block or anchor. In this way she will take the seas easier and not try the gear so much.

DROPPING A MOORING:

This is a simple proceeding, if you have plenty of sea room on either side of you. If not, use a cant line, as it will enable you to cast your boat on either tack. To do this take a light line and pass it through the ring on the buoy, and bring both ends aft outside the rigging to the quarter. If you want to go off on the port tack, bringing it on the port quarter, and on the starboard tack on that quarter. Let go the mooring warp and hold on to the cant line until she swings and fills; then let go one end of it and it will slip the buoy ring. If you want to go off before the wind hang on until she comes stern to the buoy, then slip. This is a much simpler and surer way than trying to cast her with the mooring warp.

MOORINGS:

Most accidents happen to moored yachts, not through the anchor failing to hold, but through the line or chain parting. Frequently the line is too short, and an extra high tide, such as often accompanies a storm, causes the boat to lift the anchor. Most accidents happen late in the season when the gear is rotted after months of laying on the mud. Mooring gear should be frequently looked to.

HAWSERS:

Hawsers, such as are employed on yachts, are very perishable articles, and should be frequently aired. Excessive dryness is very bad for manila rope. To prolong the life of a hawser that is used for anchoring it should be turned end-for-end frequently. If used in water where sewerage or chemical refuse is present, wash the rope thoroughly in clean water before stowing away.

CHAIN:

Chain is much cleaner than rope for use as anchor warp where the bottom is muddy. Chain should be frequently examined and tested, as it is liable to develop weak links, which will give way when least expected.

ANCHORED IN AN EXPOSED HARBOR:

If anchored in an exposed harbor, before turning in at night reef your principal sail or sails, so that if it comes on to blow you will be in shape to get quickly away.

ANCHOR LIGHT:

Pay strict attention to the rule requiring a riding light to be set from sunset to sunrise, if in a place where other vessels are likely to come. Hoist it in such a position that it will not be completely shadowed by the mast from astern. If in close quarters, it is as well to have another light aft, or at the end of the main or mizzen boom.

LIGHTS:

Make a practice of looking to your lights early in the day. Fill and clean them all so they will be ready for instant use. Side lights, riding, and binnacle lights, are too often neglected, and when suddenly wanted are empty and cannot be shown. It is difficult, and sometimes dangerous, to fill lamps in the dark.

LIGHT, A FLARE:

If sailing in waters where big vessels are frequenting the fair ways, always keep a flare handy during the dark hours. A bunch of rags tied on a stick, with a can of kerosene to dip it into, makes a good flare. In case a vessel does not see your side lights and bears down on you, you can warn her off with a good bright flame.

LIGHTS, BINNACLE:

The ordinary brass or wooden binnacles made for small yachts are pretty, but of very little use at night. The lamps will not burn if the lid is closed, owing to the heated air driving or keeping out the fresh and starving the flame of oxygen. The best binnacle is a box large enough to hold a small lantern. The lantern should be of brass, not iron. Such lantern can be bought for 25 cents in nearly any hardware store. Get two, keeping one in reserve in case of accident. Bore plenty of holes in the sides of the box. The best oil to use is railway signal oil, which is a mixture of lard and kerosene.

SIDE LIGHTS:

Side lights should be carried well up the rigging, so as to make them visible as far as possible. On launches they should be put on top of the cabin house. Six feet above deck on a small yacht is about the best height. This is high enough to keep them from being washed out.

STERN LIGHT:

A lantern should always be kept handy just inside the cuddy doors to be shown for a stern light if a vessel comes up from aft. If a steamer is coming down on you from anywhere astern pull back the companion slide and let the cabin light shine on the sail; they will be sure to see the reflection and know what it is ahead of them.

WATER TANKS:

Water tanks, no matter how small, should be fitted with splash plates, and plenty of them. Else when half full they will be the worst nuisance possible in a seaway. If the tank is large it should not only have athwartship plates, but plates fore-and-aft. In power boats especially they should be fitted in this way, as such craft are generally bad and persistent rollers.

WATER:

Drinking water causes more sickness than all other foods combined, and yachtsmen cannot be too careful where they get their supply. If you are not certain sure of the fluid, boil it before using. Also keep your tanks clean, and don’t put new water in on top of old that has been in the tanks for weeks, or perhaps months. One time I was going on a cruise and ordered the crew to fill the tanks, but cautioned them not to take the supply from a pipe that led to the dock, but to go to the clubhouse for it. When my back was turned they decided that the pipe water was good enough, and filled up with it. Consequently we got a dose of iron rust that laid the whole crowd out for three days with an attack that would have turned Mr. Beacham green with envy. If the water gets riley from shaking up in a seaway you can instantly clear it for drinking by putting in the glass a few drops of lime juice.

MEDICINE CHEST:

When off cruising, a yacht should have in her locker some simple remedies. Much suffering has been entailed by neglect of this precaution. A roll of bandage, and some absorbent cotton, some Pond’s Extract, salve, a few pills, and a diarrhæa medicine, are good things to have. I have known of a man being badly burned, and having to suffer for hours before a port could be made, because there was nothing on board to ease the pain.

LOG:

A log is a most useful instrument, not only to register distance, but to tell you what your boat is doing under different sails. There are several logs now made suitable for small craft. By watching the log when you are sailing you can tell whether or not your craft is doing her best. By employing it I have frequently found that a measure that I supposed would add speed has worked just to the opposite. For instance, I have put on more sail, and found by the log that instead of making the boat go faster it has made her move slower. It will also aid you in properly sheeting your sails, so as to get the most effective work out of the canvas. Logs are a great comfort in thick weather, when running for a landfall, as they give you warning of your approach to it, and save a lot of worry. But they must never be implicitly trusted.

BAROMETERS:

Always when cruising carry a barometer, and constantly watch it. This instrument does not foretell the weather except indirectly. It is simply an instrument for measuring the weight of the atmosphere. No change of weather takes place without a change of the weight of the air; therefore, when the barometer remains steady there will be no change. If it goes up or down it means that some change will take place. By learning what usually follows such fluctuations you can employ it to help you in determining or foretelling the future weather conditions.

WEATHER:

The study of the weather is a most necessary as well as an interesting occupation. To make a success of it you must constantly observe the barometer, the sky, and the sea. By learning the meaning of the colors in the heavens at sunset and sunrise, and by knowing the different forms of cloud, you can nine times out of ten foretell the weather for the next day or two. The color of the sea and its movements are also a guide. The actions of fish, birds and animals, like whales and porpoises, will also aid you. Nothing should be too minute to escape the seaman’s observations, if he wants to become weather-wise.

WINDS:

Make a study of the winds in the locality in which you sail. You will find that nine times out of ten they go through the same routine in shifting. By learning the manner in which they change you can take advantage of these shifts. The winds in summer generally follow the sun in its circuit, until they get back to their proper place. If they go the other way, what is called back, you can never trust them to stay long, and it is usually a sign of bad weather. In sounds and estuaries the wind usually comes in with the flood tide. If this tide makes in the morning the wind will stay all day; if the flood makes in the p. m. hours it will not last long. If the wind comes in strong against the tide look out for a long blow. Offshore winds usually come and go with the sun, reaching their maximum velocity at noon and midnight.

WINDS:

After a heavy squall you will usually have a calm spell or an offshore breeze. Winds blowing in from the ocean are weaker on the weather side of an island and heavier and puffy on the lee side. On calm nights a gentle air can often be found close under the land, when there is none in mid-channel.

SQUALLS:

Never parley with a squall. Take in sail at once. You can never tell from the appearance of a squall how much wind is in it. The most innocent-looking are generally the most dangerous. I was once on a yacht when a squall appeared that looked more like rain than wind. All hands except the skipper, an old man, decided that it would not amount to much. The skipper, much to our disgust, insisted upon taking all sail off. We had scarcely got the canvas lowered and gasketed before the squall struck, and laid the yacht over on her side and kept her there until the blast had spent itself. The force of the blow was terrific; probably the air was traveling at the rate of 70 or 80 miles an hour. A large lumber-laden schooner close to had her foresail blown clean away and lost part of her deck load. This taught me a lesson I have never forgotten.

SQUALLS:

If becalmed, at the approach of a squall, get the vessel headed toward the point you expect the blast to come from, so that the wind will strike her bow on, and not on the broadside. If the squall looks to be a lasting one, anchor, if in shallow water.

SQUALLS, TIME OF:

Squalls on the seacoast generally come off at either high or low water. If they come between tides they are apt to be bad ones. If your feelings or the barometer tell you a squall is likely to come off, carefully watch inshore for the appearance of the wind. White squalls--that is, sudden blows unaccompanied by cloud or rain, are the most likely to catch you napping. They sometimes precede a sudden change of wind. If you see the water suddenly whiten inshore, look out for trouble, and lower all sail at once.

SQUALL, STRUCK BY A:

If struck by a sudden squall, let go your main throat halyards first--not the peak. By keeping the peak up you will be able to luff the boat; letting go the throat will relieve her until you can get in the wind and get your sail down and muzzled. If you cannot get your sail down, get her off before the wind and haul your mainsail flat amidship; then steer so as to bring the wind dead aft. This will split the force and give you a chance to take in sail.

TIDES:

The time of the tide has much to do with the strength of the wind in sounds, bays, and channels. If a morning flood brings in the wind it will usually blow all day. Ebb tide in the morning is apt to produce calm or light winds during the summer months on our Eastern seaboard. Thunder squalls are also affected by the condition of the tide, coming off land at either high or low water.

TIDES:

Roughly speaking, the tide is one hour later every day. It is theoretically high when the moon bears directly South, either on one side of the world or the other, but actually the friction of the water causes a retardation which delays the wave until sometime after the moon has made its southing.

TIDES:

Channels open at both ends have generally very strong tidal currents, but a small rise and fall. The highest tides are in funnel-shaped bays or estuaries directly open to the sea. The day tides are generally higher than those at night.

HIGH WATER:

High water does not in many cases coincide with the stop of the current. In places situated upon sounds, channels and passages, the current continues to flow long after it is high water. The same with the ebb, which runs after the tide has reached its lowest level.

HIGH WATER:

Frequently the tide is not found to be high at the time given in the tables, and very often the current does not turn at the hour and minute predicted. This does not prove that the tables are unreliable or worthless. The tide is frequently prolonged or retarded by the wind, which, acting either with or against it, causes the current to run with greater or less force.

TIDES:

A correct and extensive knowledge of the tide is essential to good work, if navigating salt water. A constant study should be made of the tides, learn their strength, direction and height. Always carry a tide book, and make a habit of consulting the tables. By knowing the exact time of the current changes and the locations where they change earliest you will save hours of time in getting from port to port. In estuaries and sounds the current generally runs longest in mid-channel and changes on the inshore first. So if carrying the last of a tide keep in midstream; if using the first of it keep inshore. Eddies can be found by examining the shore line, and drawing conclusions from the trend of the coast. Much distance can sometimes be gained by working eddies if sailing against an adverse current.

ATTRACTION:

Floating objects have a tremendous attraction for each-other, and if lying becalmed will gradually draw together. This is an influence shared by every particle of matter in the universe, but passes unnoticed upon land where we only see it manifested as weight. It no doubt accounts for many of the collisions at sea in thick weather. Many strandings are also due to this attraction which draws vessels towards the land. In sailing at night or in thick weather along a coast, this force should be allowed for. It is most likely to be felt on high, bold shores, and least on low, shallow ones. It is this attraction that causes your dingey on a still night to insist upon lying against the stern or side of the yacht.

WORKING CRAFT AND STEAMERS:

Yachtsmen should never unnecessarily bother coasters or steam vessels, or any craft that is on the water for business. A yacht can be easily cast from tack to tack, whereas it is a laborious job to turn a heavily laden schooner round. But if you are not going to insist upon having the right of way always tack or shift your helm in plenty of time, so that the other man can know what you are about. If you decide to stand on, do so, and don’t balk at the last moment when close aboard of the other vessel. It is this indecision which leads to collisions.

COASTERS:

The lookout on coasters is generally badly kept, owing to their being short-manned, and sometimes to carelessness. At night and in foggy weather keep out of their track, if possible. Also, keep out of the way of tugs towing barges, as they are bad customers, who pay little or no attention to the rights of small craft. Large steamers are as a general thing very carefully navigated, and can be trusted to go clear, if they see you; but remember that yacht side lights are poor things, and cannot be seen at any distance.

ANCHORED VESSELS:

Never try to cross the bows of anchored vessels, especially sailing craft, unless you are well to windward of them. Trying to shave a jib-boom has cost many a man a spar or a sail. It is always best if there is any doubt of clearing to go under the vessel’s stern.

UNDERWAY, VESSELS:

Don’t attempt to cross the bows of another vessel, especially a larger one, when underway, unless you are certain you can clear her. You will be clear of the other vessel, providing she holds the same course, when you can see her anchor on the further bow. In meeting a large sailing vessel, head to head, don’t pass close along her lee side; your boat may become becalmed, soak in, and get a nasty swipe from a boom end.

CRUISING:

The rule for a cruiser is to start early and finish early. Map out a run that with the expected conditions you can complete easily in the allotted time. This, doing as many shippers do, starting after the sun is well up and finishing late, is the cause of discontent among a crew. Getting into harbor after dark, hungry and tired, all hands are in a bad humor, and work is neglected or scanted, and the pleasure of the run spoiled. If you have wind, and the tide is right, get away at daylight and finish your run before sunset; then you will have light to find an anchorage, and get all snug before getting supper and turning in.

MAKING A QUICK RUN:

To make a quick run in a sailing vessel wait until you get the conditions favorable and start. Then carry all she will, and push her right through. In this way I have made 120 miles in 24 hours. It is seldom on our Eastern Seaboard that you can make a run like this during the summer season, the winds as a general thing losing their strength after sunset.

ACCIDENTS TO MEN:

The principal accident that endangers the life and limb of yachtsmen is that inflicted by the main boom. I have known several men to have lost their lives through being struck by this spar, and have been twice badly hurt myself. A jibing boom comes over with tremendous force, and is likely, if it hits, either to fracture the skull or knock the unfortunate person it hits overboard. In cruising boats the foot of the sail should be cut up sufficiently aft to raise the boom above the head of the man standing in the cockpit. In very small boats this cannot be done. Another source of danger is the mainsheet. Great care should be exercised in bad weather when handling it. Also, look out for the blocks on the clew of the jib, as they will give you a nasty rap.

LEAD LINE, TO MAKE A:

It is no use marking a lead line as seamen do, as not one man in a hundred can ever remember the marks. Again, frequently you have to put a green hand to work taking casts, and he never could tell one piece of rag from another, or a hole in a piece of leather from one in the water. Get a good-sized piece of corded rope, like that used for window weights, measure of either five or ten fathoms. Ten is best, if you intend to cruise far. At one fathom clove hitch a short piece of marline round the line and tie one knot in the end. At two fathoms two knots and so on. In this way the greenest greenhorn can tell by simply feeling with his fingers. I use a line like this, and can tell in the darkest night just what the cast is.

LEAKS:

Leaks are most dangerous in the middle body and least dangerous at the ends, but the latter are most difficult to find and stop. Sometimes a small leak may have its outside opening far away from where it appears inside. This is especially so if it comes through the bow or stern timbers. It is seldom that a leak can be stopped from the inside, although it may be temporarily checked. You should always carry a small calking iron, some cotton, a piece of sheet lead, copper or rubber, for use in stopping leaks.

LEAKS:

Centerboard boats, if old or not properly built, will leak constantly, especially if they are hard-pressed. They should be thoroughly looked to before being put overboard in the spring, and any bad places cleaned out and re-calked. The king bolt should also be removed and repacked. Another source of leaks is the rudder port. In many boats this opening is not carried high enough, and in bad weather the sea slops in through it. It should be boxed in and carried up to the deck.

LEAKS:

Frequently a boat will leak in her topsides when heeled down, causing a lot of annoyance, as water running in there is apt to wet the bedding, etc. These leaks are sometimes the effect of straining, owing to poor construction. At other times they are due to sun exposure. If a vessel is allowed to lie constantly with one side exposed to the rays of the sun her plank will dry and open up. If a boat is not put into commission early in the spring she should be kept well-covered up to prevent this.

LEAKS:

Leaky decks are difficult to make tight, and are the worst possible nuisance. Wooden decks on small sail-boats cannot be kept tight, unless they are covered with canvas and kept well-painted. Wherever the canvas is pierced, be careful to see that the cloth is carried well up and closely tacked to the object that goes through it. If a bolt or screw for a fairleader or hook passes through have a wide washer at the base and screw it down hard. Around the mast at the partners use a coat made of sheet lead.

LEAKS:

A very common place for leaks to develop is in the rabbet between the garboard and keel, just under the mast. This is due to the downward thrust and working of the spar. If a boat persists in leaking there, lengthen the mast step so as to distribute the strain over a larger space. Our modern plank-keel boats are liable to develop cracks in the plank, which will only leak when underway, and are difficult to discover, as they close up when the boat is at rest. If the leak is bad it can be readily found by hauling the boat out, filling her bilge with water and watching where it drips out.

LEAKS, STOPPING:

You can sometimes stop or check a leak by calking from the inside, if you can get at it; but great care should be exercised in driving the cotton not to push it in too hard, as you may drive out what calking is in the seam, and make the leak worse. Holes, if they can be got at from the outside, can be covered with sheet lead, copper, or a piece of rubber boot leg. In an emergency the same can be used inside to check the flow. Barge men frequently use horse manure to stop leaks in the seams when near the water line; they throw it overboard and let the water draw it into the crevice. I have checked a leak by running a boat on a bar of soft sand, thus getting sand in the seam.

LEAK, TO FRAP A:

If you get a hole in the bottom from striking a rock or other obstruction, and cannot put the boat ashore on a safe place, you can check it enough to keep her afloat by what is called frapping. Take a sail or large piece of canvas, and fasten a line to each of the four corners, then on the inside of the canvas sew a lot of oakum or cotton so as to make a wad big enough to completely cover the hole and a large space around it. Pass two of the lines under the boat and bring them up on the side opposite to the one the leak is on; keep the other two on the side the leak is. Work the canvas along until it covers the hole, and then haul all the lines taut, and make fast, the pressure will force the wadding into the hole and check the inflow of water until you can lay the boat ashore.

SCUPPER-PIPE LEAKING:

If you get a bad leak in the scupper pipe, and cannot get at it from the inside, the following method is a quick and sure way of stopping the inflow of water: Cut a round disk of wood about five times bigger across than the outside opening of the pipe. Bore a hole in the middle of this disk just small enough to pass a strong cord through and knot. Then on inside of the disk fasten a good big wad of cotton batting, or oakum; this you can do with tacks, thread or glue. I have used thick paint and cotton wadding pulled out of an old quilt. When the disk is ready, take another line and weight it with a sinker, drop it down the scupper pipe until it hangs outside, then fish it up with a boat hook and bring the end on board. Marry the end of this cord to the cord attached to the disk. Then haul the cord in through the pipe until the disk comes up against and closes the scupper hole. By taking a stick and making a windlass of it you can roll the cord up tightly and secure the disk so it will not slip.

LOOKOUT REPORTS:

The lookout should examine the side lights, at least every half hour, and report to the man aft in command their condition. He should also see that the set of the headsails do not cover the lee light. If so, be prepared to show it clear if a vessel approaches on that bow.

SIDE LIGHTS:

The side lights should be kept clean and the lamps properly trimmed. Use signal oil in them. After lighting the lamps below place them in the lanterns, and let them burn for some minutes with the door open. This will dry out the moisture and allow it to escape. If you don’t do this, your glass will cloud with watery vapor. The cause of these lights refusing to burn is generally want of air, owing to overheating. The gas inside preventing the fresh oxygen from entering.

WORKING FORWARD AT NIGHT:

If you send a man forward of a rough dark night, put a light line around him and have it fast aft, or else have another hand hold it. This should always be done if a headsail is to be taken in, as more men are lost off the bowsprit than from any other spar.

LOOKOUT:

Always at night, if sailing in waters frequented by other vessels, keep a good lookout. If two men are in the watch, have one forward whenever you get among other craft, as it is difficult to keep a close watch to leeward from the cockpit. The helmsman should keep a lookout to windward and astern.

WATCH TACKLE:

A watch tackle or Handy Billy is most useful contrivance, and should have a place on every cruising boat. It is made of a single and double block, both having hooks, or else the single having a hook and the double an eye. For a small yacht, blocks carrying a 15-thread rope are heavy enough. When stretched to its best there should be at least 15 feet drift between the blocks. This tackle saves oceans of labor, and makes the heaviest job light. If your anchor sticks, Handy Billy will bring him to terms. If you get aground, he will give a strong pull on the warp to get you off. If the bobstay breaks, or a shroud parts, he will help to keep the mast in while repairs are being made. You want good, strong blocks, as there is a tremendous strain when all the beef is on this tackle. Keep Handy Billy in a safe and easily accessible place, and he will pay you well for his lodgings.

TACK, WHICH:

This is something that many men get sadly mixed on, and consequently are frequently violating the rules of the road. A vessel is on the starboard tack when her boom is on the port side and the wind is blowing on her starboard side. She is on the port tack when the boom is on the starboard side and the wind is blowing on her port side. Not only are there men sailing who in an emergency cannot tell the port side from the starboard, but who do not know their right from their left hand. One day I was watching a sergeant drilling a squad of recruits. He said to me, “would you believe it, half these men don’t know their right from their left hand.” Upon my questioning this, he suddenly commanded them to raise their right hands, two lifted the right, one the left, and the other three looked doubtfully at both for some seconds before raising the right one up. You can always know when you are on the starboard tack in this way: Standing at the helm and facing forward, if your right hand is on the side from which the wind is blowing you are on the starboard tack. When I was a boy, and even to-day in an emergency, I always tell my right hand by thinking which hand I would throw a stone with.

OFF THE WIND:

When a vessel is sailing off the wind the tack is determined by the position of the main boom. For instance, if a schooner or yawl is running wing-a-wing with the main boom off on the port side she is on the starboard tack.

RIGHT OF WAY:

A sailing vessel has the right of way over all steam or power vessels, except when she is the overtaking craft; then she must keep out of the way of the vessel overtaken. A “steam vessel” in the eyes of the law is any vessel driven by machinery, no matter of what kind or sort, and includes all gasolene, kerosene and electric boats. An auxiliary, if using her engine, is a steam vessel, and must keep clear of sailing craft, no matter whether she has sail set or not. Sailing craft must keep clear of rowboats.

SWIGGING A TACKLE:

When taking a swig on a tackle, in order to get a sail up, especially on the lee side, if the boat is heeling be careful to get a firm brace of your body or a good leg hold. Sometimes the pin will fly out, or your turn on the cleat slip, and you are liable to go overboard backwards.

REEF POINTS:

The best way is to have the different sets of points made of different kinds of line. Use cotton for the first and manila for the second. Then when tying in, especially in the dark, you will be sure to get the right ends knotted together.

PEAK HALYARDS:

The hauling part of the peak halyards is usually brought down and belayed on the starboard side of the mast. I bring mine down on the port side, for this simple reason: The terms peak and port begin with the same letter, and thus it is easy for a green hand to find the right rope. Frequently a trained hand in a moment of excitement will let go the wrong halyard, but by remembering the letter P you are less likely to make the mistake.

CREW AND SKIPPER:

If you are to command, show yourself a leader, not by talk, but by action. Always be first in everything that requires skill or courage. Thus you will win your crew’s respect, and if they respect you they will obey you. Never send a man to do a task you fear to do yourself. If there is any danger, lead, and your men will follow; but you cannot expect men to risk their limbs or lives to save your vessel if you shrink from the position who have the most at jeopardy. Don’t put all the hard work on the crew; do your share of it; also the dirty jobs. If you are working watch and watch, be sure to be the first on deck when your watch is called, and don’t leave it, unless you are sure that the yacht is in safe hands and that your care and skill is not needed.

SKIPPER’S DUTIES:

It is your duty as skipper to know and see everything that goes on. If you order the lead to be hove see that it is. See that the lights are attended to and ready. See that the course is being properly steered. Before turning in at night inspect your riding gear, likewise when coming to an anchor. Don’t trust to a report, go and look at it. See that the pump is used and the vessel kept clear of water. Make a practice of doing these things until they become a habit.

SKIPPER AND MATE:

If you have a second in command, and he is a man who understands his work, if you place him in charge of the deck don’t be constantly interfering with him. If he is not competent to take charge of the yacht, he has no business to be where he is. If you put confidence in a man, and he is worthy of it, it will strengthen him and enable him to do better work all along the line.

STANDING ORDER TO MATE:

My standing order, and one that I always enforce, is this: When in charge of the boat no reefs are to be shaken out or extra sail made without my order; but sail can be taken in or reefed at any time without waiting to call me.

CREW, DISCIPLINE:

In order to insure safety, comfort and good work, you must enforce a certain amount of discipline upon your crew. You can only do this by showing that you are amenable to it. You cannot expect men who are sailing with you for pleasure to obey orders or respect rules if you do not obey and respect them yourself. This is the prime fault with many young skippers. If you shape your own conduct according to your rules you will find that your crew, if they are any good, will do likewise. But do not make foolish rules or issue unnecessary orders; the less you restrict and domineer the better you will get along with your hands.

INJURY TO SAILS:

Sails are most often torn or split through carelessness in tieing in the points when reefing, or not untieing when shaking out. The first man will tie his points hard, the second slack, consequently bringing undue strain on one cloth. All the points should be tied with as nearly equal strain as possible. Another cause is allowing sails to fall and lie over pointed things, like oarlocks, anchor stocks and belaying pins. Somebody steps or hauls on the sail and the point goes through.

MENDING SAILS:

If you have a sister, or know somebody else’s sister, get her to show you how they herringbone or darn a rent, such as they frequently have in their clothes. This knowledge will enable you to mend a rent in your sail, and perhaps save the canvas from being torn to pieces. A small hole in a sail can be temporarily mended with court plaster. If the sail rends and starts to split up the cloth put in a safety pin at top and bottom of tear until you can get at it with a needle. Always carry a spare yard or two of canvas when cruising, as it will frequently come in handy for mending and other purposes.

KNOTTING AND SPLICING: