Chapter XXI: Renaissance Architecture and Ornament 369

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG. PAGE

Monument of Lysikrates _Frontispiece_
278. Alabaster Frieze 227
279. Alabaster Frieze Plan 227
343. Alhambra Diaper, Superposed Ornament 305
331. Ambo or Pulpit from St. George’s at Salonica 287
83. Amen or Ammon 58
93. Amenophis III. Presenting an Offering to Amen 67
319. Ancient Panel, Florence 267
193. Andro-Sphinx, Robe of Assurbanipal 144
162. Anou, or Dagon, Nimroud 120
314. Anthemion, Carved 264
71. Animal Ornamented Patterns, Corrupted Figures 44
of Lions
72. ” ” ” ” 44
73. ” ” ” ” 44
132. Antelope and Papyrus 97
270. Apollo Belvedere 218
341. Arabesque Ornament from the Wekāla of Kāit Bey 302
350. Arcades in the Mosque of Ibn-Tūlūn 312
352. Arches: _a_, Ogee; _b_, Horseshoe; _c_, 313
Pointed
282. Architrave and Frieze, Mycenian Palace 229
161. Assyrian Standard 120
180. Assyrian Base in Limestone 136
163. Assurbanipal Attacked by Lions 121
181. Assyrian Capital 137
183. Assurbanipal and his Queen after his Victory 137
over Teuman
185. Assyrian Stool 139
217. Astarte, Terra-cotta 164
268. Athene Polias (Villa Albani) 216
169. Babylonian Brick 129
62. Barbarian Copy of a Roman Medallion 40
253. Base of Pillar at Susa 196
254. Base and Capital from Persepolis, Propylæa 198
255. Base and Capital, from Hypostyle Hall of 199
Xerxes, Persepolis
307. Bas-Relief on the Arch of Titus 258
382. Berkeley Castle, Gloucestershire 341
400A. Bishopstone Church, Wilts, Priests’ Entrance 361
234. Bottle with Incised Ornament, from Cesnola 176
235. Bottle with Geometric Decoration 176
237. Bowl in the Piot Collection 178
196. Bouquet of Flowers and Buds 146
125. Border from Thebes 93
41. Breast-plate, with Spiral Ornaments 24
28. Bronze Axes, Paalstabs, and Moulds 22
29. ” ” 22
30. ” ” 22
31. ” ” 22
32. ” ” 22
33. ” ” 22
34. ” ” 22
35. Bronze Swords and Spear-head 23
36. ” ” 23
37. ” ” 23
38. ” ” 23
39. Bronze Button for Sword Belt 24
40. ” ” 24
45. Bronze Bowl found in Sweden 26
47. Bronze Hatchet found in Sweden 27
50. Bronze Horn 29
54. ” 32
57. Bronze and Gold Buttons 33
58. ” ” 33
63. Bracteate, Golden 40
64. ” 41
186. Bronze Foot of a Piece of Furniture 140
204. Bronze Platter 153
205. Bronze Cups 154
206. Bronze Cup, Border of 155
209. Bronze Bucket 157
326. Brahminical Rock Temple at Ellora 275
170. Brick from Erech 129
339. Byzantine Capital from Santa Sophia 298
264. Cameo of Athenion 211
177. Capital of Temple, Assyrian 135
178. ” ” 135
221. Capital, Cypriot 168
222. ” 168
223. Capital at Djezza, Limestone 169
224. Capital from Kition 169
225. Capital from Golgos 170
302. Capital of the Lysikrates Monument 251
336. Capital from Santa Sophia 297
337. Capital from St. Demetrius at Salonica 297
338. Capital from St. Demetrius 297
372. Capital from Wartburg 335
378. Capital from Palace of Barbarossa 338
379. Capital from St. Cross, Winchester 338
148. Carpenters Making Chairs 108
212. Carthaginian Coin, Silver 161
213. Carthaginian Coin, Electrum 161
388. Cathedral of Nôtre Dame, Paris 349
123. Ceiling Decoration at Thebes 92
431. Ceiling by Serlio 401
432. Ceiling by Sansovino 402
410. Certosa of Pavia, portion of 376
146. Chair, Egyptian 107
147. ” 107
191. Chariot Horses 142
426. Cinquecento Ornament 398
428. ” ” 399
429. ” ” 400
430. ” ” 400
216. Coin of Byblos, Enlarged, with Sacred Cone 163
265. Coins of Elis, with the Phidian Zeus 212
149. Coffer in Wood 108
55. Collar of Bronze 33
390. Cologne Cathedral, Window Gable 352
109. Column of Thothmes III., from the Ambulatory 83
of Thothmes
110. Column from Hypostyle Hall of the Ramesseum 84
118. Column from Bas-Relief 88
252. Column with Volute Capital, Persepolis 196
189. Combat between a Lion and a Unicorn 142
335. Cornice from Santa Sophia 296
69. Corrupted Figures of Lions 44
70. ” ” 44
397. Crockets, Lincoln 359
258. Crowing Wall of the Staircase, Palace of 202
Xerxes, at Persepolis
353. Cusped Inter-Arching, Mosque of Cordova 314
363. Cursive Writing from the Alhambra 323
207. Cylinder from Soldi 156
208. Cylinder, Assyrian. Worship of Sacred Tree 156
56. Danish Bronze Knives 33
317. Decorated Mouldings from Temple of Minerva, 266
Polias
155. Demons, from the Palace of Assurbanipal 115
194. Detail from the Enamelled Archivolt, Khorsabad 145
238. Detail of the Decoration of a Cup 179
273. Diana of Versailles 221
441. Dietterlin’s Architecture 408
275. Dionysus and the Lion 223
25. Dolmen at Hesbon 20
359. Doorway of a Private House 320
384. Door of St. Gabriel’s, South of France 342
190. Dog used for Lion Hunting 142
399. Dog’s Tooth Ornament, Stone Church, Kent 360
7A. Drawing of Human and Animal Forms by Bushmen 12
7B. Drawing of Animals by Bushmen 13
157. Eagle-headed Divinity from Nimrod, with Sacred 117
Tree
233. Earring, Gold, from Cesnola 175
21. Earthenware of the New Stone Age 18
22. ” ” ” 18
23. ” ” ” 18
24. ” ” ” 18
345. East Colonnade of the Mosque of 'Amr 307
152. Egyptian Ship 110
248. Elevations and Sections of Doorways and 192
Windows of a Palace at Persepolis
162A. Embroidery from a Royal Mantle, Assyrian 123
163A. Embroidery on the Upper Part of a King’s 124
Mantle
164. Embroidery Detail of Upper Part of King’s 125
Mantle
165. ” ” ” 125
260. Enamelled Ornament on Bricks from Susa 204
140. Enamelled Earthenware Dish 102
141. Enamelled Earthenware Bowl 102
220. Entablature from a Temple at Byblos 167
283. Entablature Restored, Mycenian Palace 230
284. Entablature of C. Selinous’ Temple 231
301. Entablature, Capital, and Base of Greek Ionic 249
Temple
306. Entablature of Jupiter Tonans 257
96. Entrance to Hypostyle, Hall of Temple Amen 71
4. Esquimaux Carving 9
5. Etching of Reindeer on Bone 10
6. Etching of Reindeer on Slate 11
7. Etching of Mammoth on a Piece of Mammoth Ivory 11
303. Etruscan Door 252
98. Façade of the Great Rock-cut Temple, Ipsamboul 73
192. Fantastic Animal 143
409. Farnese Palace, Upper Story of 375
184. Feast of Assurbanipal, Enlarged Detail 138
66. Fibula in Gilt Bronze 43
67. ” ” 43
158. Figure of a Goddess in Act of Adoration 118
245. Fire Altars at Naksh-i-Rustem 189
126. Flattened form of Lotus-Leaf Ornament 93
404. Flamboyant Panel 365
405. Flamboyant Panelling 365
8. Flint Implements of the Neolithic Period 15
9. ” ” ” 15
10. ” ” ” 15
11. ” ” ” 15
12. ” ” ” 16
13. ” ” ” 16
14. ” ” ” 16
15. ” ” ” 17
16. ” ” ” 17
424. Floral Ornament, Italian 396
396. Florence Cathedral, Window Gable 358
144. Fragment of an Ivory Castanet 105
167. Fragment of Border of Fig. 166; from a 127
Threshold of Khorsabad
179. Fragment of an Assyrian Building, from a 136
Bas-Relief
247. Fragment of Door Frame, from Hypostyle Hall, 191
Susa
281. Fragment of Frieze, Mycenæ 228
310. Frets, Greek 262
311. Fret, Greek, Carved 263
244. Funeral Tower at Naksh-i-Rustem 187
171. Gates of the Harum at Dur Sargini 130
330. Gateway of Temple of Confucius 282
27. Giant’s Tomb, Sardinia 20
86. Goddess Bast or Pasht 60
53. Gold Bowl 32
59. Gold-plated Ornament 38
143. Golden Hawk, Egyptian 104
230. Gold Bracelet, from Tharros 174
291. Gold Pendant, from Troy 237
292. Gold Ornaments, from Troy 237
293. Gold Plate, from Troy 238
294. Gold Disc, from Troy 238
295. ” ” 239
296. Gold Cup, from Troy 240
297. Gold Ewer, from Troy 241
101. “Gorge,” Egyptian 76
406. Gothic Arches 366
407. Gothic Tracery 367
401. Gothic Mouldings 362
102. General Appearance of an Egyptian Temple 77
87. Great Pyramid of Kheops 62
91. Great Sphinx 65
315. Greek Border with Fret Bands 265
316. Greek Ivy Meander Border 265
156. Griffin in Egyptian Style 116
200. Guilloche Ornament on Enamelled Brick 149
312. Guilloche, Treble Ornament 263
313. Guilloche, Ornament, Double 264
304. Half Capital, Mars Ultor 254
65. Harness in Gilt Bronze, Fibula Decorations 42
114. Hathoric Pier 85
120. Hathor-headed Campaniform Capital, Temple of 89
Nectanebo, at Philæ
263. Head of one of the Lions from Frieze at Susa 207
267. Head of Hera 214
272. Hermes, Statue of 220
414. Holland House, Ancient Parlour of 385
1. Horse, Upper Cave Earth, Robin Hood Cave 8
127. Hunting in a Marsh, from a Bas-Relief in the 94
Tomb of Ti
131. Hunting in the Desert 96
2. Ibex Carved on an Antler 8
80. Ideal Lake Settlement 52
360. Illuminated Koran of the Sultan Sha’ Ban 321
241. Intaglio on Chalcedony 182
427. Italian Panel 398
172. Interior of a Temple after Layard’s 131
Restoration
329. Interior of the Palace at Delhi 279
369. Intersecting Blind Arcade 333
82. Isis Nursing her Son Horus 56
145. Ivory Plaque 106
201. ” 150
202. Ivory Plaque found at Nimroud 151
203. Ivory Fragment in British Museum 152
280. Ivory Plaque from Mycenæ 228
308. Jewish Candlestick from Arch of Titus 259
97. Khita, Rout of the 72
362. Kufic Writing, from the Alhambra 323
78. Lacustrine Habitation in Lake Mohrya, Central 49
Africa
79. Lake Dwellings, Sections and Plans 50
385. Landgrave’s Room at Wartburg 344
81. Lake Dwellings, Objects from 53
356. Lattice-work, Saracenic 317
357. ” ” 318
358. ” ” 318
138. Lion from a Theban Bas-Relief 101
187. Lion coming out of his Cage 140
188. Lion and Lioness in a Park 141
262. Lion from the Lion Frieze in Enamelled Bricks 206
at Susa
277. Lion’s Gate, Mycenæ 226
122. Lotus, Drawing from the Tomb of Ptah-Hotep 91
124. Lotus and Water-Leaf Ornament 93
106. Luxor, Plan of Temple 80
107. Luxor, as Restored, Bird’s-eye View 81
298. Lycian Rock-built Tomb 243
299. ” ” ” 244
395. Marienberg Town Hall 357
290. Marseilles Ewer 236
348. Mausoleum at Cairo 309
228. Medallion from a Cup from Griffi 173
274. Melpomene, Vatican 222
26. Menhirs, Sardinia 19
92. Memnon at Thebes, Statues of, Colossi of 66
Amenophis III.
347. Minaret of the Mosque at Kaloum, Cairo 309
105. Model of an Egyptian House 79
60. Mountings, Metal 39
61. ” ” 39
218. Model of a Small Temple in Terra Cotta 165
351. Moorish Capital 313
349. Mosque of Kāit Bey, Cairo 310
130. Mummy-Case, Painting on 96
420. Mural Painting, Pompeii 392
323. Mural Painting, from Pompeii 270
242. Naksh-i-Rustem, General View of the Rock-cut 184
Tombs
416. Nest of Scroll, Roman 388
133. Netting Birds, from a Tomb 98
381. Norman Doorway, Semperingham Church, 340
Lincolnshire
121. Nymphæa Nelumbo 90
104. Oblong Building, Egyptian 78
239. Œnochœ, New York Museum 180
240. ” ” ” ” 181
322. Ogee Decorated—Astragal, Jupiter Stator 269
324. Ornament from Asoka’s Pillar 272
361. Ornament from the Portal of Sultan Hasan 322
422. Ornament, Ghiberti Gates 393
365. Ornament on an Arch of the Wekāla Kāit Bey 326
439. Ornament from Doorway, Crewe Hall 407
321. Ogee and Fluted Cavetto Moulding; Jupiter 268
Tonans
85. Osiris 60
318. Ovolo with Egg and Tongue, from the Erectheum 266
320. Ovolo and Astragal Mouldings, Roman 268
334. Opus Alexandrinum Pavement 293
198. Painted Ornament on Plaster 148
332. Painting from the Catacombs of St. Agnese 289
269. Pallus Athene, Naples 217
119. Palm Capital from Sesebi 88
300. Parthenon; Greek Doric 247
366. Panel from the Maristan of Kalaun 328
367. ” ” ” ” 328
434. Panel, Carved, Henri II. Style 404
435. ” ” ” ” 404
436. ” ”French, Sixteenth Century 404
437. ” ”from Louvre 405
440. ” ”Elizabethan 407
438. Panelling, Elizabethan 406
227. Patera from Curium 172
142. Pectoral; Egyptian 103
402. Pedestal, Henry VII.'s Chapel 363
232. Pendant, Wild Goat; Gold 175
150. Perfume Spoons 109
151. ” ” 109
243. Persepolis; Tomb on the North-east 185
246. Persepolis; Staircase of the Palace of Darius 190
249. Persepolis; Doorway to Royal Tomb 193
113. Pier with Capital 85
433. Pilasters, Louis XII. 403
421. Pilaster by Donatello 393
287. Pilgrim Bottle 234
115. Pillar, Octagonal, Beni-Hassan 86
116. Pillar, Sixteen-sided, Fluted 86
117. Pillar Osiride, from Medinet-Abou 87
328. Pillar and Bracket, Doorway of a Pagoda 278
210. Phœnician Merchant Galley 159
211. Phœnician War Galley 160
226. Phœnician Silver Platter 171
51. Pinak or Plate, from Rhodes 30
139. Pitcher of Red Earth 102
403. Place House, Cornwall 364
168. Plan and Elevation of a part of a Façade at 128
Worka
346. Plan of the Mosque of 'Amr 308
383. Pointed Arcading from the Cathedral of Palermo 341
17. Polished Stone Hammer and Celts, Neolithic 17
Period
18. ” ” ” ” ” 17
19. ” ” ” ” ” 17
20. ” ” ” ” ” 17
417. Pompeian Objects 389
371. Porch of the Heilsbronn Monastery 334
380. Porch of St. Zeno at Verona 339
76. Pottery of the Iron Age 46
3. Prehistoric Carving 9
99. Principal Hall in the Great Temple 74
108. Principal Façade of the Temple of Luxor 82
84. Ptah 58
354. Pulpit of the Sultan Kāit Bey 315
364. Pulpit in the Mosque of Barkuk; Stone 328
111. Quadrangular Pier 84
112. Quadrangular Pier, Tapering 85
134. Quadruped with Head of a Bird 98
136. Ram or Krisosphinx 100
100. Rameses II., Louvre, Portrait of 75
68. Rim of Fig. 67, Part of 43
153. River Transport of a Mummy 110
305. Roman Corinthian, Pantheon 255
373. Romanesque Shaft and Base 335
375. Romanesque Ornament, late 335
376. Romanesque Moulding Ornaments 336
386. Romanesque Ornament from Hinge from “Notre 345
Dame”
387. Romanesque Panel from a Church at Bonn 346
374. Roof Cornice of Church at Alstadt 335
370. Rose Window 333
342. Rosette in Mosque of Suyurghatmish 303
195. Rosette of Lotus Flowers and Buds 146
415. Rosette from Trajan’s Scroll 387
368. Round-Arch Frieze 333
309. Roman Composite Order; Arch of Titus 260
215. Sacred Emblems from Carthaginian Votive Stele 162
411. San Marco Library 377
325. Sanchi Tope; Bhopal, Central India 274
174. Sargon’s Palace 133
175. Sargon’s Palace, a Bedroom in the Harem 134
251. Sarvistan, Palace of, Principal Façade 195
88. Section through the Great Pyramid of Kheops 63
95. Seti with Attributes of Osiris between Amen 70
and Chnoum
166. Sill of a Door from Khorsabad 126
231. Silver Pin; Cesnola 175
52. Silver Brooch 31
74. Silver Goblet, with Gold-plated Decorations 45
90. Southern Pyramid of Dashour 64
94. Solar-Disk, Adoration of, by Amenophis IV. 69
103. Square Building; Egyptian 78
257. Staircase Wall of the Palace of Xerxes at 201
Persepolis
344. Stalactite Vaulting 306
89. Stepped Pyramid 64
412. St. Paul and St. Louis façade 381
340. St. Nicholas at Moscow 299
408. Strozzi Palace, portion of 374
355. Street in Cairo 316
48. Sun Signs 27
49. Sun Snakes 27
400. Spandrel, Stone Church, Kent 360
135. Sphinx, or Man-headed Lion; from Tanis 99
137. Sphinx with Human Hands 101
391. St. Lawrence, Porch of 353
392. St. Lawrence, Interior of 354
393. St. Sebaldus, Shrine of 355
394. St. Sebaldus, Bride’s Door of 356
197. Tabernacle from the Balâwât Gates 147
423. Tabernacle, Fifteenth Century 395
176. Temple on the Bank of a River, Khorsabad 135
259. Temple in a Royal Park 203
327. Temple of Biskurma at Ellora 276
398. Temple Church, From the 359
219. Tomb at Amrit, restored 166
377. Towers and Round-Arch Frieze, Abbey of Komberg 337
199. Tree of Life, Upper Portion of 149
173. Triumphal Gate at Entrance of the Palace 132
288. Three-handled Amphora 234
75. Under Side of a Fibula 45
42. Urns of the Bronze Age 25
43. ” ” ” ” 25
44. ” ” ” ” 25
46. Urn of the Stone Age, found in Swedish Dolmen 26
261. Upper Part of Parapet Wall of Staircase, Susa 205
256. Upright of Royal Throne, Naksh-i-Rustem 200
285. Vase in Woman’s Form 232
286. ” ” ” ” 233
289. Vase with Geometric Decoration 235
271. Venus of Milo 220
425. Venetian Panel 397
229. Vessels Figured in Tomb of Rekhmara 174
236. Vessel in Shape of a Goat 177
276. Victory, Figure of 224
250. View of a Group of Domed Buildings, from an 194
Assyrian Bas-Relief
214. Votive Stele from Carthage, with Sacred 162
Emblems
128. Vultures on a Ceiling 95
333. Wall Painting, from Catacombs of S. Calixtus 290
418. Wall Painting, Pompeii 390
419. Wall Painting, Herculaneum 391
389. Westminster Abbey 351
129. Winged Globe with Uræus 95
154. Winged Bull, Assyria 114
159. Winged Globe, with the Figure of a God 119
160. Winged Globe 119
182. Winged Sphinx carrying Base of Capital 137
413. Wollaton House 384
77. Woollen Cloth with Gold and Silver Threads, 46
Piece of
266. Zeus of Otricoli 213

HISTORIC ORNAMENT.

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

It can hardly be doubted that, for the education of the student in ornamental design, or in architecture, a study of the history of ornament and a knowledge of the principal historic styles of architecture is indispensable.

Historic styles of ornament remain for us, vast accumulations of tried experiments, for the most part in the character of conventional renderings of natural forms; for however remote from nature some of these may be, they can, as a general rule, be traced back without much difficulty to their natural origin, where in most cases they were used symbolically. Even the most arbitrary forms—for instance, those found in Saracenic ornament—were only developments from natural forms, and the innocent Greek key pattern, that has earned the reputation of being the ornament most unlike anything in nature, is supposed by some to be but a rectilineal development of the rippling waves; and, on the other hand, there is the hypothesis that it is developed from the _fylfot_, a sacred sign that is supposed to symbolize the rotary motion of the planets.

There is no ornament more common or so universal in prehistoric, savage, Egyptian, Assyrian and Mediæval decoration than the ubiquitous zigzag, or chevron, and though extremely simple in itself, at least two-thirds of all conventional ornament is based or constructed on its lines: yet this simple ornament has been used as a symbol of totally opposite and different things, by nearly all the various tribes and nations that have used it in decoration. With the Egyptians and Assyrians it has been a symbol of water, with some savage tribes it denotes lightning, with others it does duty for a serpent, with some others it represents a series of bats, birds, and butterflies; as with the original tribes of Brazil, with the magic-loving Semang tribes of East Malacca, it means a frog, and in some instances the branches of trees; and lastly, with the natives of the Hervey Islands, it symbolizes the human figure when placed in duplicate parallel rows.

(For a fuller description, and illustrations of this and cognate savage ornament, the reader is referred to Haddon’s “Evolution in Art,” 1895.) We can hardly think of an ornament more simple or more common than the zigzag, and yet how varied in different countries are the sources from which it springs.

This may be taken as a warning that it is not safe to accept the same forms as always having the same origin, when we find them in the art of different countries.

Apart from the symbolic origin of ornamental forms, students of to-day may learn, from examples of the past, how far they can go, in the converting of natural forms to conventional ornament, without absolutely adapting such examples to their present needs. The past styles in ornament have, in one sense, died out with the nations that created them, and can never be satisfactorily revived, although, as we have often seen, a new style may be built on their foundations. The tendency of to-day is to undervalue the teachings of historic art, and, as a result, we see much work in which both fitness and beauty are conspicuous by their absence.

In any notice of the historical development of ornamental art, the concurrent styles of architecture should, in their general features at least, be illustrated, for it is not always possible to divorce ornament from architecture, and it is hardly possible to design or construct good ornament otherwise than according to the laws that govern good architecture. Of course, we must admit that some very beautiful ornament, or rather decoration, has been designed otherwise than on architectural lines, but this kind of decoration has its beauty of technique and execution to recommend it, rather than its constructive qualities. Chinese and Japanese ornament will occur to the reader as examples of this kind of work, but the best ornament the world has ever seen has been constructed and is based on the laws that govern good architecture.

Some of these laws, such as stability, repose, variety, and proportion, are derived from nature. As all architectural styles, however, possess them more or less in common, we must look elsewhere for the sources from which the peculiar characteristics that distinguish the styles are developed and derived. The causes and forces are so subtle and the developments so gradual, that it is almost impossible to arrive at a satisfactory explanation, as religions, inventive faculty, and symbolism play an important _rôle_ in style development. It is rather to the inventive faculties of man, than to hints supplied by nature, that we must look for the origin and development of what is called style in architecture or ornament. In every case this is arrived at by a slow process, and by the extensive and persistent use of distinguishing features selected according to the needs and requirements of the time, to satisfy the prevailing tastes. “Style” is then the something that man has invented or created; it may be called the soul of architecture, without which, a building, however pretentious, ceases to exist as an artistic conception.

Apart from the greatest or more striking features in the various divisions of historic architecture, such as the horizontal beam in Greek, the round arch in Roman and Romanesque, the pointed arch in Gothic and Mohammadan buildings, there are the mouldings that are so important in determining the period—they alone of themselves will often determine the style or date of a building—and these features, above all others, are the least derived from nature. On the other hand, the decoration of mouldings, though suggested by their contours, is generally derived from natural forms.

The “best period” in the life of historic styles and its duration corresponds with that of the highest culture and religious thought of the people, at their settled and most flourishing epochs. When a change or revolution in the order of things sets in, we find generally the style of architecture changing also to adapt itself to the new laws and new thought. This illustrates, to a certain degree, the reason why the so-called Victorian Gothic has not developed to any great extent in England, although some of our best architects sought to revive the earlier Gothic some years ago.

The Mediæval mysticism, love for symbolism, and reverence are wanting in the mass of the people of this century, which characterized the people of Europe in the palmy days of Gothic architecture.

It has always been found that whatever the people ask for the artist is generally able to give, although he may not be always willing; but he must satisfy the popular demand if he is to live by his work, otherwise he must make way for others who are willing to produce work that will reflect the taste of the period.

We are handicapped in the development of anything new in the way of an architectural style by traditions of the past. Our knowledge of what has been done in the past, paradoxical as it may appear, has proved itself a great stumbling-block to the progress of new ideas. This partly accounts for the slowness of style-development in the present century. If fashion does not step in and disturb the march of events in the immediate future, we may hope for something distinct, if not exactly new, as an architectural style, in which a mixture of Gothic and Renaissance forms will be seen, the latter perhaps predominating. It may happen that later generations will look back and be able to discern something distinct in the way of style in buildings erected in the last quarter of this century, in the midst of much that is somewhat chaotic and confused.

In a book like this, which is intended chiefly as an introduction to the study of historic ornament, one cannot pretend to criticise the various styles of ornament, either from an artistic or scientific standpoint. It will be enough to attempt to point out the principal beauties or characteristics, to trace the history and overlapping of one style with another, and to trace, where possible, some units of ornamental forms to their symbolic ancestry. It is absurd to criticise the ornament of any period or country dogmatically, for we must remember, that although certain forms of art may not conform to the critics’ idiosyncrasy, they may be quite orthodox and good art when judged by the artistic laws of their own country. The difference in race, religion, manners, and customs, must always be taken into account, before we begin to criticise the art of a nation to which we do not belong.

As already remarked, we are hampered by tradition in our attempts to produce originality in ornament, but there is very little tradition for the absolute copying of a particular style, except from nations who have had no decided art of their own. As far as we know of the history and practice in the whole field of ornamental design, from its remote beginnings it has been mostly all along a series of systems of developments, sometimes for good and sometimes for the opposite, but rarely, if ever, a system of copying. Some notable exceptions to this may be noticed, as when, for the expediencies known as “tricks of the trade,” the Phœnicians made ivory carvings in exact imitation of Egyptian designs, and sold them to the Assyrians; and likewise bronze bowls and platters in both Assyrian and Egyptian imitations, and traded with them throughout the Ægean and Mediterranean, or when the Siculo-Arabian silks were made at Palermo in imitation of Saracen designs, with mock-Saracenic inscriptions, and sold for the real articles. Other instances might be cited, but these were among the most successful.

As regards the purity of styles it may be safely said, that, with rare exceptions, it is well-nigh impossible to find a well-designed and complete scheme of decoration, or a building that will stand the test of having perfect unity in style; in fact, it may be more artistic on account of its incompleteness in this respect, for any work of art that is designed by receipt, like the Egyptian temples or Mohammadan ornament, is rather wearisome. It is pleasant to see at times a little bit showing here and there of the designer’s individuality. When the monotonous repetition of the laws peculiar to any arbitrary style are broken by a wilful and, perhaps, sinful artist, we often get a refreshing and original rendering that is not by any means displeasing.

In transitional design from one style to another, much beautiful work may be seen. In connection with this the Byzantine style may be mentioned, with its Classic and Oriental forms, Elizabethan, Jacobean, Lombard Gothic, and the French styles of Henri Deux and François 1^{er}, in most of which Gothic and Renaissance forms are happily blended; and in the beautiful Siculo-Arabian textiles, where Italian and Saracenic forms make an interesting union. We learn from these examples that the successful designer of ornament should have a thorough knowledge of the historic styles, not for the purpose of reproducing their forms, but in order to discover for himself the methods by which the old artists arrived at the successful treatment of nature and of former styles, so that by the application of his knowledge, derived from the study of nature and the works of former artists, he may be enabled to give to the world some original and interesting work.