Chapter II: Part 2

You see a river flowing from the hills beyond. Into what is it flowing? The river that lets the water _into_ the lake is called an _inlet_.

You see another river that lets the water _out_ of the lake. This river we call the _outlet_ of the lake.

Make a lake on your molding-board, or in the sand near your home. Represent its inlet and outlet.

Out in the lake is a little piece of land round which the waters play. We could not go to this land without crossing the water; the water is on all sides of it. Such a little piece of land is called an _island_.

Did you ever read the story of Robinson Crusoe? You will remember that he went up a hill in search of water. When he got to the top of the hill, he saw that he was on an island. How did he know?

Have you ever seen an island? What island was it? Could you sail round it? What was on every side of it? What grew on it? What is an island?

If there is a brook or lake near your home, how can you make an island?

Opposite is a picture of a river and a lake. Make a map of the same river and lake on your slate. Notice how the coast or shore of the lake bends in and out.

_Write the following_:

A lake is water surrounded by land.

The land near the water of a lake is called its shore.

An island is a little piece of land surrounded by water.

LESSON XXVI.

MORE ABOUT FORMS OF LAND AND WATER.

An island, as we have learned, is a piece of land with water all round it. Now, sometimes we see a piece of land that has water _nearly_ all round it. This form of land is called a _peninsula_. The word peninsula means _almost an island_.

In the picture we see a narrow strip of land which extends far out into the water. You will notice that the land has water all round; except at one place.

What is the name for land that has water on all sides but one? What is a peninsula?

How would you change this peninsula to an island? What is the difference between a peninsula and an island?

The narrow neck which joins the peninsula to other land--just as the neck joins the head to the body-is called an _isthmus_, which means _neck_.

Here is another picture which I wish you to look at. You see where the shore bends like a bow; and the water runs a little way into the land.

Can you think of anything else that is bent like this? Yes-a bay-window.

Now, when I tell yon that bay means the same as bow, you can almost guess the name for this bend in the land. It is called a bay. You will easily remember that little word.

A wide opening or bend in the land, into which the water flows, is usually called a bay.

Sometimes, when the opening in the bend is long and narrow, it is called a _gulf_.

On the next page is shown a narrow strip of water joining two larger bodies of water. The name given to this narrow passage is strait, a word meaning narrow.

As an isthmus connects two bodies of land, so a strait connects two bodies of water.

After a rain make little lakes, rivers, bays, etc. Perhaps you may find some already made.

See whether you can find in the magazines and books at home pictures of gulfs, bays, peninsulas, etc.

_Write the following:_ A peninsula is land almost surrounded by water.

An isthmus is a neck of land joining two larger bodies of land.

A gulf or bay is a portion of some large body of water extending into the land.

A strait is a narrow passage of water that joins two larger bodies of water.

LESSON XXVII.

A TRIP TO THE HIGHLANDS.

Uncle Tom had been telling Fred and me about many strange places he had seen. Last of all, he told us about some high mountains he had climbed. We wanted to climb one very much. So father said he would go with us up a high hill not far from the city.

Mother did not need to call us in the morning, for we woke up very early. The sky in the east was bright, and we knew that soon we should see the sun. We wanted to start at once, but mother said it would be better to have breakfast first.

We put on thick shoes that the stones would not easily cut. Father gave each of us a stout stick to help us climb. Fred had a knapsack, in which mother put some bread, cold meat, crackers, and a cup to drink from. In one corner we put some towels.

We were soon outside the city, walking along the road. We passed a village, and went through fields and woods. By and by we could see the land before us rising higher and higher. We saw no longer such beautiful farms and gardens as we had passed.

In a little while we reached the foot of the hill and began to ascend. As we went up the slope, we came to steep, rugged places that were hard to climb, where we needed our sticks. The trees were smaller, and there were many bushes. There were large rocks, too, in the sides of the hill. At the foot, the weather was quite warm, but it grew cooler and cooler the higher we went.

"On the summit at last!" cried Fred, as we reached the top.

From where we stood, we could see the city with its little straight streets, that look so wide when we walk on them. We could see the house-tops, too, and the church steeples. Then father showed us the village we passed; and the woods we went through. But the trees looked like bushes, and some men at the foot of the hill looked no larger than the baby.

Down the mountain, a little way, we found a spring where the water was clear and cool. Here we sat down on a rock, and ate the lunch we had brought. While we rested, we watched the little rill that flowed from the spring--

"Blue in the shadow,
Silver in the sun."

Down the hill, it was larger, and we saw other rills flowing into it. When it reached the valley, it was much larger; and farther down, father said, boats could sail on it.

Before us, in the valley, lay a large sheet of still water.

"Oh, how pretty!" exclaimed I.

"Yes, that is a lake," said father. "How beautiful it looks as the sunlight plays on its smooth surface! It reflects in its clear water the sky and the trees around it."

"I can see an island in the lake," said Fred. "Vessels are sailing all round it."

"Are all islands small, like that?" he asked.

"Oh, no!" said father. "Some islands are hundreds of miles round, and have many people living upon them."

Fred then pointed to a piece of land extending out into the water, and asked whether that, too, was an island.

"No," replied father, "that is a peninsula. It is land almost surrounded by water. And the narrow neck which joins the peninsula to the mainland is called an isthmus.

"You see the bend in the land, with the water from the lake running in?" asked father.

"Yes," said Fred.

"That is called a bay. Around every ocean, which is a much larger body of water, there are many such bays.

"The narrow strip of water, which a boat is just entering, is called a strait. The strait separates the island from the mainland."

Stretching far away to the east was flat, level land, which father called a plain. Scattered here and there were many farmhouses and quiet villages. Little bright, sparkling streams wound their way like silver threads through the green grass of the meadows. It was a lovely scene indeed!

The sun was already low in the west as we made ready to return. As it set--

A wonderful glory of color,
A splendor of shifting light--
Orange and scarlet and purple
Flamed in the sky so bright.

LESSON XXVIII.

SPRING.

Drops of rain and bits of sunshine
Falling here and gleaming there,
Tiny blades of grass appearing.
Tell of springtime bright and fair.

Budding leaves are gently swaying,
Merry glad notes sweetly ring;
Robins, bluebirds, gayly singing,
Tell of happy, pleasant spring.

Violets, in blue and purple,
By the twinkling water clear;
Fair spring beauties, frail and dainty,
Tell the story, spring is here.

Cherry, peach, and apple blossoms
Scattering fragrance far and wide;
Buttercups and pure white snowdrops
Tell of gracious, sweet springtide.

Lillian Cox.

LESSON XXIX.

USEFUL VEGETABLES.

In the heart of a seed buried deep, so deep, A dear little plant lay fast asleep. "Wake!" said the sunshine, "and creep to the light."

"Wake!" said the voice of the raindrops bright.

The little plant heard, and it rose to see

What the wonderful outside world might be.

What vegetables grow in your neighborhood?

Of which do we use the roots as food? Of which the leaves? Of which the seeds? Of which the stems or stalks?

Which is the most useful garden vegetable? There is no common garden vegetable so highly thought of as the potato. How are potatoes planted?

Answer the questions in writing so as to make a little composition about vegetables.

LESSON XXX.

USEFUL GRAINS.

Wheat and corn are called grain because they are small, hard seeds What other kinds of grain can you name?

Which of these grains is used the most? Which makes the choicest flour?

Some kinds of wheat are sown in the spring. These are called spring wheat.

Winter wheat is sown in the fall. A few days of sun and rain, and the plants spring up like grass, remaining green through the winter.

What color does the wheat turn as it ripens? When it is ripe what is done with it?

For what is the flour of wheat used?

What is sometimes done with the stalks, or straw?

Indian corn is one of the most useful of plants. Do you know why it is called Indian corn? It is because the Indians first raised it.

When is corn planted? How is the land prepared for planting? What is done to the corn while the plants are small? When does it ripen? How tall does it grow?

What is the stem of the corn called? What are the flowers on the stalk of corn called? On what do the grains of corn grow?

What use is made of the green stalks and leaves? What use is made of the ripe grain? For what are corn-husks largely used?

Sweet corn, if boiled when green, is an excellent vegetable. It is preserved by canning.

A large cornfield, with its tall, straight stalks, covered with green shining leaves and crowned by flowers, is a very pleasant sight.

Corn is sometimes called the national emblem. What does emblem mean?

What use is made of oats; barley, rye, and buckwheat? Some of these grains are useful in two or three ways.

There is another grain which we find on almost every table. It is rice. The rice plant, when growing, resembles wheat; but, unlike wheat, it needs a great deal of moisture. So the rice-grower sows it in fields which he can flood or drain at will.

Do you know what people live on rice without any meat at all? Ask your teacher to tell you how rice is raised in China and Japan.

You ought to find something to tell your teacher and classmates about the grains.

Perhaps you would enjoy drawing some of the grains you have seen.

Choose one of the grains, and write what you have Learned about it from conversation and observation.

We plow the fields, and scatter
The good seed on the land,
But it is fed and watered
By God's almighty hand.
He sends the snow in winter,
The warmth to swell the grain,
The breezes and the sunshine,
And soft refreshing rain.

LESSON XXXI.

FRUITS.

Name some trees upon which grow things to eat. What do we call such trees?

What fruit trees have you seen? What do we call the place where many fruit trees grow?

Did you ever pick berries? What makes it hard to pick blackberries?

Name fruits that grow about here. Which grow on trees? Which on bushes? Which on vines?

Mention the different uses of these fruits.

The orange is one of the most delicious and wholesome of fruits. It grows only in the warmer parts of our country. In winter as well as in summer, the orange trees are loaded with golden fruit and fragrant blossom. The blossoms are white, and are very beautiful.

Name other fruits that grow in warm parts of the country.

People who live in cold countries need such food as will make them warm. What kinds of food are best in cold countries? What people live mainly on fish and the flesh of animals? Do any fruit trees grow in very cold countries?

What kinds of food are best in hot countries? The people cannot eat fatty food, for that would heat the body. Do we find in such countries grain, vegetables and cooling fruits for the people to live upon?

_Write_ answers to some of the questions asked in the lesson, so as to make a composition about fruits.

LESSON XXXII.

USEFUL PLANTS.

What plant supplies us with much of our clothing? Name articles of clothing made of cotton.

Did you ever see a field of cotton? In the summer the young plant is covered with pretty, pale-yellow flowers. In the autumn you see the pod or boll which contains the cotton.

As the pod ripens, it bursts open. The cotton-field is now a pretty sight--the bright green leaves, yellow blossoms, and snowy cotton all mingled together. Form a picture in your mind of a field of cotton in bloom.

The cotton is now picked. The first thing is to separate it from its seed. This is done by a machine called a cotton-gin.

Now it is ready to be pressed in great bales and sent to market. It will, at last, go to the cotton mills and be spun into thread, then woven into muslin, calico, etc.

Are the seeds of any use? They contain a great deal of oil, which is pressed out by machinery. What is the name of this oil? What use is made of it?

There is another plant from which clothing is made.

Do you know what plant linen is made from? Linen comes from the flax plant.

Flax is a small plant which grows two or three feet high, bearing on the top a bunch of pretty blue flowers. A field of flax in bloom is a very pretty sight.

The flax does not grow in a pod like cotton. The stalk of the plant is covered with a bark, or skin, containing fibers. These fibers are spun into thread, which is woven into a cloth called linen.

The seeds are used for making an oil called _linseed oil_. For what is linseed oil used?

Do you think people who live in hot countries need the same kind of clothing as those who live in cold countries?

What kind of clothing should you think was needed in cold countries? Would such clothes be comfortable in hot countries?

There is a plant that yields no food, drink, or clothing, yet it is used in nearly every country in the world. Can you tell its name?

Every one has seen it growing. It is tobacco.

Do you think the tobacco plant is as useful as the cotton and flax plants?

Everybody eats sugar. Did you ever see a table set for supper without a sugar bowl?

The sugar in common use in this country is made chiefly from sugar-cane. The sugar-cane is a tall plant which looks much like Indian corn when growing. It is called the sugar-cane because it is filled with the sweet juice that is made into the sugar.

When the stalks are cut they are taken to a sugar mill. Here they pass between great rollers which press out the juice. The liquid is then boiled until it turns to sugar.

Much sugar is made from the sap of the sugar-maple tree. In the early spring the sap begins to rise. A hole is bored in the tree and a tube inserted, through which the sap passes to a bucket or other vessel placed to receive it. The sap is boiled in large kettles and becomes syrup. More boiling turns the syrup into sugar.

_Write_ what you have learned of _cotton_ and _linen_.

LESSON XXXIII.

FOREST TREES.

In your walks what things please you the most? Is it not the trees? Trees are very useful to us, and we ought to be very grateful for them.

Name some trees along the streets and in the parks. Are they useful to us, especially on a hot day? Why? Then what kind of trees do we call them? (Shade.) Which of these are the first to put on their green dresses in the spring? Which are the brightest in autumn?

Name some trees that grow in the woods.

Name a tree whose wood is dark. A tree whose wood is light. A tree whose wood is hard. A tree whose wood is soft.

Name some trees that are valued for the color and hardness, or the beautiful grain, of their wood.

What kind of wood are the desks made of? The teacher's table?

What kinds of wood are used in making chairs? tables? pianos? windows? floors?

If we wish to make a carriage, omnibus, cart, or wagon, which wood should we use? Why?

From which trees do we get lumber for building?

Can you name a wood which is very hard and tough, and is used in building ships?

What do we call many trees together, like these?

What is Arbor Day? Why need we plant trees?

What do we plant when we plant the tree?
We plant the houses for you and me.
We plant the rafters, the shingles, the floors,
We plant the studding, the laths, the doors,
The beams and siding, all parts that be--
We plant the house when we plant the tree.

What do we plant when we plant the tree?
A thousand things that we daily see.

We plant tie spire that out-towers the crag,
We plant the staff for our country's flag,
We plant the shade, from the hot sun free--
We plant all these when we plant the tree.

There are trees much larger than any we find growing here. I am sure you must have heard of the great trees of California. Some of them are one hundred feet around, and nearly four hundred feet high,--twice as high as a very tall steeple. In one of these trees, if hollowed out, a large family might live.

In your rambles in the woods, notice and examine the trees which you see. Learn to know the trees so that you can call them by their proper names.

Draw and paint some of the objects noticed; as grains, vegetables, trees, etc. You will enjoy this very much, and it will help you to see these things better.

LESSON XXXIV.

FLOWERS

A flower is a weak and tiny thing; but there are many flowers, and by helping together they cover the earth with beauty and fill the air with sweetness. They seem to have been made to give us pleasure.

It will be easy and useful to learn something about the flowers that grow where you live. How many flowers can you mention by name? Which do you know at sight? Where would you go to find them?

Would you find them all growing in the same place? Which can live only in wet places? Which thrive best where there is but little moisture?

If we take a walk in the fields in the early spring, which flowers shall we be likely to see? Which later? What color are they? Which are fragrant? Which most beautiful? Which would you like for your flower vase? Which would you like to plant and care for in a box of earth or a garden-bed?

Can you find and name the parts of a plant--root, stem, leaves, bud, flower? Learn the uses of each part.

Here are some pretty verses on "Spring and the Flowers." Perhaps you will commit them to memory.

In the snowing and the blowing,
In the cruel sleet,
Little flowers begin their growing
Far beneath our feet.

Softly taps the Spring and cheerly:
"Darlings, are you there?"
Till they answer, "We are nearly,
Nearly ready, dear.

"Where is Winter with his snowing?
Tell us, Spring," they say.
Then she answers, "He is going,
Going on his way.

"Poor old Winter does not love you,
But his time is past;
Soon my birds shall sing above you--
Set you free at last."

LESSON XXXV.

WHAT IS NECESSARY TO MAKE PLANTS GROW.

Plants do not grow in winter. Can you tell why? Plants do not grow in hot places called deserts. Can yon think of any reason for this?

What two things are necessary to make plants grow? At what time of the year can they get these?

If a country has a great deal of heat and rain; what can we be sure of about its trees and grass and flowers?

There are places that have rain enough, but very little heat. How do you suppose the trees grow there?

You may get information about plants and things by seeing for yourself, by asking others, and by reading books.

_Write the names_:

Of some grains that we use for food.

Of some vegetables that we use for food.

Of two plants from which clothing is made.

Of woods used in making furniture.

Of woods used in building our houses.

LESSON XXXVI.

SUMMER RAIN.

Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!
Let not the silver lily pine,
The drooping lily pine in vain,
To feel that dewy touch of thine,
To drink thy freshness once again,
Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!

In heat the landscape quivering lies,
The cattle pant beneath the tree;
Through parching air and purple skies
The earth looks up, in vain, for thee;
For thee--for thee it looks in vain,
Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!

Come thou, and brim the meadow streams,
And soften all the hills with mist,

Oh, falling dew! From burning dreams
By thee shall herb and flower be kissed;
And earth shall bless thee yet again,
Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!

LESSON XXXVII.

THE PARTS OF ANIMALS.

Animals which live in or near people's houses and are tame are domestic animals; others are wild.

What animals are found where you live?

Which are domestic? Which wild?

Which of these animals feed upon grass? grains? fruits? flesh?

You know what sharp claws a cat can put out when it pleases. What use does the cat make of its claws?

How does a cat's paw differ from a dog's? How does a dog seize its prey?

Compare a duck's bill with an owl's. What use does the duck make of its broad flat bill? The owl, of its sharp hooked bill?

How do the bills of the hen and the duck differ? Would a bill fitted for pecking be as useful to the duck as its own bill?

Can you draw a picture of a duck's foot and a hen's foot? For what does each use its feet?

Would broad web-feet be as useful to the hen as slender toes?

What kind of feet has the sheep? For what are its feet only used? Could a sheep use feet like those of a cat or a hen?

You see each animal has parts well fitted for the life it leads.

LESSON XXXVIII.

THE COVERING OF ANIMALS.

Name two animals covered with fur.

Two covered with hair. Two covered with feathers.

What do we call the covering of a sheep? Of a pig? Of what use is hair to animals?

What covering has an oyster? A lobster? A turtle? Of what use is it to them?

The duck's feathers are covered with an oily coating, which keeps them from getting wet. Are the feathers of the hen so covered? Why?

Suppose a squirrel's covering were like that of a turtle's, what would result?

What would result if a bird had scales instead of feathers? You see that each animal has that covering which suits its habits best.

LESSON XXXIX.

USES OF ANIMALS.

What domestic animals are used for food?

What wild animals are used for food?

From what animals do we get beef? pork? mutton? veal?

What birds and fowls are used for food? What fishes?

From what animal do we get wool? How is wool taken from the sheep? What articles of dress are made of wool?

Name the animals whose skins are used to make leather. How is leather prepared? Did you ever see a tannery? What do they do there?

From what animals do we get furs?

What is silk?

Silk is made by little worms called silkworms. When the worm is fully grown, it spins round itself a small ball of silk, called a cocoon. If this cocoon were left to itself, the worm would change to a moth, and the moth would eat its way out of this little house. But this, of course, would cut the little threads and spoil the silk. As soon, therefore, as the cocoon is made, it is put into hot water to kill the worm. In this way the silk is saved.

Almost every part of the cow is made use of. For what is the flesh used? What use is made of the hoofs? horns? hair? What is done with the skin? What other uses has the cow?

What animal shows the most affection for his master?

Mention some kinds of dogs.

You may have seen a dog called the St. Bernard. He is large, with long curly hair. In the Alps mountains, where traveling is dangerous, the St. Bernard dogs have saved many lives. Who use their dogs, as we use horses, to draw their sledges?

Which is the most useful animal to man?

Draw and paint some of the animals spoken of in the lesson.

_Write the names:_

Of animals useful for food.

Of animals which work for man.

Of animals useful to us for clothing.

Of birds and fowls used for food.

LESSON XL.

THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS.

What does it mean when the bluebird comes
And builds its nest, singing sweet and clear?
When violets peep among blades of grass?--
These are the signs that spring is here.

What does it mean when berries are ripe?
When butterflies flit, and honeybees hum?
When cattle stand under the shady trees?--
These are the signs that summer has come.

What does it mean when the crickets chirp,
And away to the south the robins steer?
When apples are falling, and leaves grow brown?--
These are the signs that autumn is here

What does it mean when days are short?
When leaves are gone, and brooks are dumb
When fields are white with drifted snow?--
These are the signs that winter has come.

LESSON XLI.

THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH.

The earth contains many things that are of great value to us. These we must find and dig out.

The coal we burn in our grates to warm us; iron, from which so many useful things are made; gold, silver, tin, lead, and copper,--all come out of the earth.

But these are not all the valuable things hidden away in the earth.

From salt wells we get a great deal of the salt used on our tables. From oil wells is obtained the oil we use in our lamps to give us light. Diamonds which sparkle so beautifully, and the stone we use in building, are also taken from the earth.

Coal, iron, gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, and salt are called minerals.

The opening dug in the earth from which minerals, except stone, are taken; is called a _mine_.

One of the most useful of minerals is _coal_. Did you ever stop to think how much hard work coal does for us? It grinds our wheat, it weaves our cloth, it carries us by sea and by land over the earth. Hardly any labor can be done without coal.

You have noticed that some coal burns with a great deal of flame and smoke. That is called soft or bituminous coal. That hard, clean-looking coal, which burns with little blaze, yet gives out such great heat, is anthracite coal.

Coal has many uses. Mention all you can think of. From which kind is gas obtained, hard or soft coal?

What is coal? Some day you will be able to understand how coal was made, and how it got deep down in the earth.

What article used with food is found in mines? Does all _salt_ come out of the mines? How is the salt made that is not found in mines?

There are salt mines where men, women, and children live all their lives, and never see sun or sky. Many great rooms and galleries, with tall pillars to hold up the roof, are cut out of the salt. When lighted up with torches, they glitter as if studded with precious stones. It is like a fairy palace.

Some minerals are called metals. Iron, gold, silver, copper, tin, and mercury are metals.

Iron is the most useful of all metals. Did you ever think what we should do without this hard, strong metal? The following lines tell some of the uses of iron:

Iron vessels cross the ocean.
Iron engines give them motion;
Iron pipe our gas delivers,
Iron bridges span our rivers,
Iron horses draw our loads,
Iron rails compose our roads;
Iron houses, iron walls,
Iron cannon, iron balls,
Iron lightning rods on spires,
Iron telegraphic wires,
Iron hammers, nails, and screws,
Iron everything we use.

Steel is iron made very hard. Knives, axes, hatchets, and other tools are made of steel. Many little things are made of steel. Mention some of them.

Which is the most valuable of all metals? Is all the gold made into money? Is money made of pure gold? Why? Name articles of ornament made of gold. Articles of use. Are gold watches, chains, and rings usually made of pure gold? Why? What do you call the man who makes these articles?

Silver is the whitest and most lustrous of all the metals. What does "lustrous" mean? Is iron lustrous? Are silver articles usually made of pure silver? Why?

Silver and gold are found among the mountains in the west. Sometimes they are dug out of the ground. Sometimes they are found in rocks, and the rocks must be broken up before they can be taken out.

Sometimes men wash down the hills with streams of water in order to get at the silver or gold among the rocks.

Gold and silver are called the _precious metals_ because they do not rust, and on account of their scarcity.

Tin is white and bright, but too soft to make articles which shall be light and strong. Therefore, thin plates of iron are dipped into melted tin. The tin adheres to the iron and makes it bright like tin itself.

A thin sheet of iron, covered with tin, is called tin-plate. It is of this that our tin cups, pans, and kitchen utensils are made. A tin cup is really made of iron.

Lead is a very heavy metal. It is so soft that it can be cut with a knife. It is used in making shot, and water pipes.

Do you know how shot is made? Did you ever see a shot-tower? Small shot is made by dropping melted lead through a sieve in rapid motion, from the top of a high tower. The drops fall into a vessel of water below. They are next polished and made black, and then are ready for sale.

You think, I suppose, that the lead pencil with which you write is made of lead. It is not made of lead, but of graphite, which is a kind of coal.

Copper is softer than iron, but harder than lead. It will not rust. Cooking vessels are often made of copper.

Zinc is another valuable metal, and is almost the color of tin. Brass is made by mixing copper and zinc together.

Mention some articles made of brass.

Write five lines about tin.

Write five or more lines about coal.

Write what you know of iron, gold, silver, copper, lead.

LESSON XLII.

MORE ABOUT THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH.

We have seen that there are many kinds of metals. There are also many kinds of stone. Those which are strong and do not crumble by exposure are useful for building. The place from which stones are taken for building is called a _quarry._

The more common stones are granite, sandstone; limestone, marble, and slate.

We will first examine a piece of _granite._

How hard and firm it is! What a beautiful clean surface when polished!

Granite is used for steps, for paving streets, and for sidewalk curbings. Are houses ever built of granite? Can you think of other uses of granite?

Why is granite used for these purposes? It is easily shaped. It is hard enough to give strength. It is enduring. What does "enduring" mean?

This is a piece of _sandstone_, made of little grains of sand. It will crumble more easily than granite. What does "crumble" mean? Brownstone, used in building, is a kind of sandstone.

And this is the common gray _limestone_ of which lime used in building is made. The large oven in which lime is burned is called a lime-kiln. Did you ever see one? Can you tell how the lime is made?

Here are three pieces of _marble_. This piece is pure white. This is colored. It is marked by many strange forms, as you see in your mantel-pieces and table-tops. In this piece, you see many colored spots--mottled it may be called.

Marble is beautiful when polished.

In what different ways have you seen marble used? What parts of furniture are sometimes marble? Why is it suitable for this? Is marble ever used for building houses? Do you think it would be good for that purpose? Why? Which, do you think, is the best of all building stones? Why?

Marble and granite are the most beautiful and enduring of all building stones.

_Chalk_ is a variety of limestone. Could it be used as a building stone? Is chalk harder or softer than other stone?

You need not to be told the name of this dark stone. You could not get along well in school without _slate_. Slate is easily split into thin plates, and has a smooth, firm surface.

Slate is used to write on. It is used in house building. What part of a house is sometimes slate? Think of other uses. Why is it useful for these purposes?

We must not forget _brick_ in our talks about things that come out of the ground. Brick is not found in the earth, as the metals and stone are found; but it is made of clay, which is itself a part of the ground.

Have you ever seen a brick-yard? What are some of the uses of bricks? What is the man called who builds houses of bricks?

Is glass taken out of a mine or quarry? No; but glass is made from sand; which is also a part of the ground.

In laying brick or stone, the mason uses _mortar_. Mortar is made chiefly of lime. Lime is made of stone which comes out of the ground.

If possible, visit mines and quarries. Take careful notice of all you see, and on your return to school tell what you have learned.

LESSON XLIII.

HOW PEOPLE LIVE AND WHAT THEY ARE DOING

Can you think of anything used in building houses that does not come from the earth?

Do all people have large, fine houses of brick or stone to live in? What is a tent?

A wigwam? Who live in huts? Did you ever hear of people who live in snow houses?

In some places houses are built of bamboo. Bamboo is a kind of cane that grows in warm countries.

What building is now going up in this place? Tell the use of stone, brick, mortar, iron, tin, lead, and glass in building the house. Where and how are they obtained?

We could not live without food. We must also have clothes to wear and houses to live in. Besides these, we need schools, books, and churches, which make us wiser and better. Now, if you think a little, you can name many other things which we need to make our homes beautiful. To supply us with all of these things, men must do many different kinds of work.

Where does the food we eat come from?

We get most of it from plants. Wheat, corn, peas, and beans are seeds of plants. Almost all our bread is made from wheat. Beets, turnips, and radishes are roots of plants. Lettuce and cabbage are the leaves of plants.

Apples, peaches, pears, and other fruits grow on plants. All these we use for food.

Plants also supply us with material for clothing. Some clothes are made from cotton; cotton grows in the pod of a plant. Some clothes are made from linen; linen comes from flax, which is a plant. Hats are made from straw; straw is the stem or stalk of plants.

Now, these plants, which supply us with so much of our food and clothing, do not grow of themselves.

The ground must be plowed, the seeds planted and taken care of while growing. So, outside the city, you may see a great many people at work raising grain, vegetables, and other plants. This occupation we call _agriculture_ or _farming;_ the people we call farmers.

Animals, as well as plants, furnish much of our food. All meat comes from animals. We get milk from cows. From milk we make butter and cheese.

Animals also supply us with clothing. Many articles of dress are made of wool. Wool, you know, grows on the sheep. Shoes and kid gloves are made of leather. Leather is made from the hides of cows; sheep, oxen, and goats.

But animals could not live and grow if people did not carefully raise them. In the country, yon may see flocks of sheep and herds of cows and oxen feeding on the fresh sweet grass of the pastures. Those animals are called stock. The business of those who raise them is called _stock-raising._

Most farmers raise cows, horses, and other animals. Which land does the farmer use for pasture? What is a pasture? What is a meadow?

Grazing means feeding on grass. What animals have you seen grazing? Does a dog graze? A cow?

Mountains, so rough and rocky, are not good for farms and gardens. But many of them contain coal, on which millions of people depend for heat and light. In mountains, too, we find iron, which is more useful to us than gold and silver.

To get these, thousands of men are at work in places called mines. A mine is like a great cavern. There is neither sun nor sky. Torches and lamps give the only light the miners have to see by. The air is damp and close. I suppose you would not like to work in such a place. Yet great numbers of persons are employed in _mining._

How is coal taken out of a mine? What are the dangers of coal-mining? Try to find answers to these questions for yourself. If necessary, your teacher will help you.

In some parts of the country are forests of pine, oak, and other trees. Some of these forests are so large we might travel for days or weeks through them. From trees we get lumber. Lumber is needed for building houses and ships, and for furniture. So a great many men are employed in cutting down trees and preparing the wood for use. This is called _lumbering_.

The lumbermen go into the woods in winter, and build themselves little huts to live in. All through the winter months they work in the woods from sunrise to sunset, felling the best trees and cutting them into logs. Then they haul them over the snow-covered ground to the frozen streams, and pile them upon the banks.

Here the logs must rest till the snow and ice have melted and the streams are full. Then they are floated down to the great saw-mills; and cut up into boards, laths, shingles, and other kinds of lumber.

What is a forest? Name some forest trees that grow near your home.

The sea yields much that we eat. Some parts abound in codfish, mackerel, and herring. Sardines, the little fish that come in boxes, are also found in the sea. It is the business of thousands of people who live near the ocean to catch fish, salt them, and pack them, to send to those who want them for food.

Have you ever seen the ocean, or eaten any of its fish?

Name some fishes found in fresh water.

Name some kinds of fishes found in waters near where you live. How may they be caught?

LESSON XLIV.

MORE ABOUT WHAT PEOPLE ARE DOING.

In the city or town we shall find many of the people busy about something else than the occupations we have learned. What do you suppose it is?

If you go about the city, you will see large buildings several stories high, with long rows of windows, and great smoking chimneys. These are mills or factories, full of machines in motion doing their work almost like human beings.

The people who work in them make almost everything that is needed for our use. Wheat is changed into flour; cotton, into thread, fine muslins, and pretty calicoes; leather, into boots and shoes; iron and steel, into plows, stoves; and cutlery; lumber, into wagons, carriages, and all kinds of furniture. Other articles which we must not forget are elegant jewelry, all sorts of ornaments for parlors, and beautiful toys which you admire so much.

It would take a long time to name a small part of the things made in the busy mills and factories; but think of the articles used in your home, and you may be sure they are manufactured articles. You see, _manufacturing_ gives work to many thousands of persons.

What is cutlery? Name some articles of cutlery.

We need many things which we do not produce. Other people need things which they do not produce. How can each obtain what he needs? By exchanging one thing for another. This exchange of goods, or buying and selling them for money; gives rise to another occupation called _trade_, or _commerce_. So many people spend their time buying and selling grain, vegetables, clothing, boots and shoes, or in sending them to places where they are needed.

On all the large rivers and lakes you may see boats going up and down, carrying goods from one part of the country to another.

Can you think how goods are carried from place to place where there are no rivers? In countries where few people live, goods are often carried in wagons and on the backs of animals.

I wonder how many people have to work to get food and clothing for us. Make a list of all the occupations you can think of. Perhaps you can think of other occupations we have not named. Is dressmaking an occupation? Teaching? Which occupation would you prefer? Why?

If you think, perhaps you can tell why men do different kinds of work. What people do to make a living, depends very much upon the place they live in. For men almost always do that kind of work that pays them best for their labor.

Those who live where the land is rich and level will raise grain to make flour, or cotton and flax to make clothing. Some people among the mountains work in the mines. Some keep cows for their milk and butter, and sheep for their wool; for the hills and many of the mountain sides afford excellent pasture. People who live near the sea will be apt to catch fish along the coast, or engage in trade upon the water.

Employments in the city differ widely from those in the country. Here, as we have learned, most people make their living by working in factories, or as merchants in buying and selling goods which come from all parts of the world.

All people do not live in the same way. Some people have no churches, schools, books, or factories.

What do people who live in this way eat? What do they wear? How do they spend their time?

LESSON XLV.

A REVIEW LESSON.

What kind of work is done by the people among whom you live? Are they farmers? How does the farmer make his living? Where does he sell the things which he raises? Where does he buy his sugar and tea and other things which he needs?

Do you live in a city? What are the chief occupations of the people? Do they work in shops or mills or factories?

Name some mills or factories in or near your city. What articles are made there? What manufactured articles are in the schoolroom? At home? What do you call the men who make these articles?

What kinds of goods are sold in the stores? What is a grocery store? A dry-goods store? A shoe store? Where did the things in these stores come from? Which were made in your city? Which were brought from other places?

What railroads or canals are in the city? Do boats come to the wharves? What do the boats or railroads take away? What do they bring in return?

_Write the following:_

Farmers raise (write the names of all the things you can think of).

Miners dig _______________ out of the earth.

Quarrymen dig ___________ from the quarries.

A shoemaker makes ___________.

A blacksmith makes __________.

Merchants buy and sell __________.

End of Project Gutenberg's Home Geography For Primary Grades, by C. C. Long