Chapter IV: Part 4

Many years ago, when your great-grandmothers were children, in many New England communities a cow’s horn, sawed across the top, and fitted with a wooden stopper, was used to hold the tinder, but later, the more stylish and luxurious tinder-box took its place. This box, made of tin, and somewhat larger and deeper than a good-sized blacking-box of to-day was fitted with an inside cover, a simple disk of tin with a ring of wire in the top for a handle, and was filled with a quantity of cotton or linen rags, which were set on fire with a brand from the hearth. When this burning cloth had reached a black color, but before it was reduced to ashes, the inside cover was let down upon it, and the flames were extinguished. After this, another outside cover was put on the box to prevent dampness penetrating, and thus rendering the tinder worthless. To insure further protection against the intruding damp, the box, with its companions of flint and steel, were generally kept in the chimney closet beside the fire-place.

In those primitive days of our country, it was a very common thing for a farmer’s wife to run into a neighbor’s and borrow some one of these necessary articles, and it was usually the tinder, which she had neglected to prepare when fire was plenty, that was the thing needed. Occasionally, when two or three houses were near together and the inmates on friendly terms with each other, one set would answer the demands of the neighborhood, and would be used by all with equal freeness. Later on, each family made their own matches, by simply dipping bits of wood into melted sulphur, and allowing it to dry on the end. These matches were kept in another tin box, and when the spark had ignited the tinder, the sulphur end was touched to the smoldering fire, and would immediately burst into flame.

Before these matches were invented, however, when the housewife wished to make her fire (stoves were of course unknown), she would seat herself near the fire-place, and, grasping the uncovered horn or box between her knees, would hold her steel in her left hand just above it, and with the flint or quartz in her right, would strike upon the former, till two or three sparks fell upon the charred surface; the bit of glowing tinder would then be carefully taken from the box, wrapped around with a bit of rag, and blown upon with her breath until the cloth burst into flames. A candle was quickly lighted from this, to keep the flame till the fire was well under way.

Every boy has probably felt the inconvenience of being without matches, when a fire on the beach in summer, or near the skating-pond in winter, would have been such a luxury. The next time the emergency occurs, strike a piece of quartz or hard white stone upon the large blade of your jackknife, over any bit of dry cotton or thin paper you may have at hand, as a tinder-box would probably not form part even of the very miscellaneous collection of the average school-boy’s pockets.

―――――◀▶―――――

EXPERIMENT WITH FLOWER-SEEDS.

Split a small twig of the elder-bush lengthwise, and having scooped out the pith, fill each of the compartments with seeds of flowers of different colors, but which blossom about the same time. Surround them with mold, and then tying together the two bits of wood, plant the whole in a pot filled with earth, properly prepared. The stems of the different flowers will thus be so incorporated as to exhibit to the eye only one stem, throwing out branches covered with flowers of different colors, analagous to the seed which produced them. If the plants are somewhat alike in the texture of their stems, and germinate at about the same period, there will be less danger of the strong choking the weak.

―――――◀▶―――――

HOW TO SKELETONIZE LEAVES.

Among the many desirable subjects for photographic printing, none are more satisfactory or so delicate as a graceful arrangement of skeletonized leaves. It may be very simple, and composed of only three or four leaflets; or it may be so elaborate as to embrace specimens from trees and weeds, wild flowers and garden shrubs; while the beautiful seed-pods and grasses, readily found in our fields or along our brooklets, answer for the blossoms in this dainty, fairy-like bouquet.

The methods employed in freeing leaves from their pulpy element, or cellular tissue, as it is more properly called, are very unlike, as practiced by different individuals; but the following, given the author by a lady friend who has a large and extremely beautiful collection of remarkably fine specimens, is very simple, and can be practiced with success by a boy or girl of ten.

Take a wash-bowl, and fill it half full of soft water, into which a heaping teaspoonful of baking soda should be thrown; place this in a sunny window, or one with a southern exposure if possible, and put in your leaves; care must be taken that they are all under water, and not too crowded, although three or four dozen can safely be done at a time. Any leaf which has a firm, well-defined frame-work will make a good specimen. The leaves of the horse-chestnut, maple, silver-leaf catalpa, and magnolia; those of the currant, pear, English ivy, and plum, all make fine skeletons, and many delicate seed-covers, like those of the strawberry-tomato, are very easily treated. Do not confine yourself to this list, however, but try any which resemble these in texture, as a great variety is particularly desirable, if you would have a good collection.

After you have put your leaves to soak in the soda-water, leave them in the sun for three weeks, as that is the shortest time in which any will do. Then look them carefully over, and should any be found nearly free from their tissues, take them out, and wash them off in a bowl of clean water; then with a soft brush liberate any tiny particle that may still adhere to the frame-work, as any blemish of this kind is considered a defect in the specimen.

During this process, be careful to retain the fine threadlike bit of fiber that entirely encircles the leaf and forms an outside frame-work or edge. If it is found impossible to entirely clean the skeleton by aid of the brush, it should be put in a bowl or saucer of clean water and left in the sun for two or three days longer. When they are thoroughly cleaned, place them between the leaves of an old book, and lay them aside until the time for bleaching.

If you live in or near the latitude of New York, the best time to collect and treat your leaves is in June, while they are still fresh and tender, and before the insects have destroyed their shape; but should your home be further south, April or May would be a better time.

After your collection is complete, and all are dry, they will be much improved by bleaching. This process is also very simple, consisting, as it does, of merely dipping them in a weak solution of chloride of lime, and letting them remain there until the proper color is attained; then by slipping a piece of unglazed paper—ribbon paper is best for this purpose—beneath the surface of the water, and bringing it up with the leaf lying flat upon it, the skeleton can easily be taken from the water.

If the form is not inclined to spread out on the paper as it should, take a long slender darning-needle, and with the point carefully arrange it to your satisfaction. Another drying is now necessary, but the bleached leaves should be left on the ribbon paper, which may be put between the leaves of a book as before.

These can be kept for years, and should you be successful and obtain a number of perfect specimens, they will form a very valuable addition to your materials for Christmas gifts, and, prettily arranged, a very acceptable present to any dear friend.

―――――◀▶―――――

CAMERA OBSCURA.

Camera Obscura, a Latin name, meaning literally a dark chamber, belongs to an instrument invented by Baptista Porta in the sixteenth century.

The principle involved in the simplest and most refined forms is the same, and may be illustrated by the following experiment: Let a small hole be cut in an opaque window-shade, and the room darkened. If, now, the beam of light entering the room by this hole be intercepted by a sheet of white paper, held at a small distance from the hole, an inverted image of objects without will be seen upon the paper. By placing a small convex lens over the hole this image is rendered much more distinct. It will also be found, that at a certain distance from the hole the image attains the sharpest or clearest outline, and that if the paper be removed from this point to any position either nearer to the hole or further from it, the image becomes indistinct and confused. At the point of greatest clearness the image is said to be _focused_. Such being the principle of the camera, it is evident that in practice the instrument may assume many forms, provided always that it consists of a darkened box or chamber, having a hole at one end for the insertion of a lens or combination of lenses, and at the other a screen, generally made of ground glass, on which to receive the image. One of the first home-made cameras I remember seeing was constructed by a boy friend many years ago. In it he used a lens from an old ship’s spy-glass, which still remained incased in its brass tube. Fig. 1 gives a view of this form of camera. As every boy is not as fortunate as my friend in having a brass mounting for his lens, it would be well to inclose it in a small tube of papier-maché or pasteboard, so that it may be moved in or out of the opening at will. The box itself was made of cigar-box wood, with the cover sawed in two parts. After the hole had been cut at one end and the lens inserted, a piece of looking-glass was placed obliquely across the lower corner of the other end of the box, the longer piece of the cover nailed on the front part of the top, and a piece of ground glass carefully fitted, with the ground side downward, over the remaining open space; the smaller part of the cover was then fastened on one side with small pieces of tape. When not in use, this little cover fell down over the glass, but when any object was to be viewed the little lid was lifted into the position in the cut, and served as a shield to the ground glass beneath. A piece of black cloth thrown over this cover, and allowed to fall over the triangular side-openings, so as to still further prevent outside light from reaching the ground glass, is a great improvement.

In the diagram, the dotted lines show the course of the light from the object in view, through the lens (where the rays cross each other) to the looking-glass, and thence to the ground glass above.

A SIMPLER FORM OF THE CAMERA OBSCURA.

A simpler form of the camera obscura is seen in Fig. 2. Here the case is a small soap or spice box, the lens a convex spectacle-glass, and the board marked _b_ a partition, serving as a screen upon which the image is thrown. In this form the lens may be fixed in the end of the box if desired, which is much easier than adjusting it in a sliding tube. The focal distance of an ordinary spectacle-glass averages about twelve or fourteen inches, and the box should be, of course, somewhat longer than the focal length of the glass used. A glass from “near-sighted” spectacles will not do, as it is concave instead of convex.

The box is now pointed out of the window, at some well-marked object, such as a sun-lighted building, and the partition-board moved backward and forward, till the point is found at which the image on it is best defined. Then the board may be fastened (as _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, Fig. 2) and the top put on, of which the end should be cut off about four inches from the screen, as shown in the figure.

A piece of black cloth thrown over the head, and completely covering the ends of the opening, renders the image more distinct.

THE SKETCHING CAMERA.

This form of camera may be also used for sketching from nature, by raising it on end, and providing it with an inclined mirror, as shown in Fig. 4. The opening _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, should in this case be sufficiently large to admit easy play of the hand in sketching, and also allow an unobstructed view of the image. The mirror may be prepared without much difficulty. Get the glazier to cut for you a piece of looking-glass three or four inches square, and cover the back with a piece of thick paper or card, to prevent scratching; then take a wire of sufficient length, and double it as in _A_; now bend this double wire in the form of _B_, letting the ends come at _a_ and _b_, and placing your mirror, face downward, upon the frame as in _C_; hold it in place by two bands of strong paper, passed around the glass and wires, and pasted strongly on the back, at the top and bottom of the mirror. When in use this frame is placed over the lens, and reflects the image down upon the drawing-paper placed on the screen below. The four round-headed screws in the top are intended for attaching an opaque curtain to the box, which, however, is only needed when the artist is working in the open air. Then the dark curtain is buttoned in place, and falls over the head and shoulders, completely shielding the image from any invading rays of light which might otherwise confuse the draughtsman.

As a matter of fact, in using the sketching camera, it is necessary to turn one’s back to the objects sketched, if it is desired to draw them in an upright position. I have represented the artist facing the house, as it would look strangely in the illustration to see him seated with his back to the view; but he is compelled, in consequence, to draw his house, sister, and everything else which is included in the image thrown upon his paper upside down, as a penalty for appearances.

THE DARKENED ROOM.

To those boys living in the country, and having a wide, extended landscape stretched out before their windows, the “darkened room” is a very interesting feature. It simply requires a room which can be made perfectly dark. At the window (if there are more than one) commanding the broadest prospect have a perfectly tight, opaque screen fitted, with a small hole cut in the lower part for the insertion of the lens. Over this fasten a small mirror to receive the image, at such an angle as will throw the reflection down upon a stand placed two or three feet from the window, and thus make it possible for the spectator to view the scene in its normal condition. Should you be desirous of having the whole sweep of the horizon at your command in the darkened room, a simply constructed frame-work is necessary for the accommodation of the movable mirror, and also for the lens; this would further necessitate the cutting of a larger hole in the curtain. Fig. 5 represents this arrangement; _a_ being the movable lens, which can be readily taken from its socket if desired; _b_, the hole in the bottom of the bracket, which should correspond to a larger hole in the shelf _d_, upon which the bracket rests, and can be easily turned in any direction desired. This hole should be large enough to allow the passage of all the diverging rays, and _c_, a small mirror, fitted like the one for the sketching camera just described, to receive the image and reflect it down through _b_ upon the stand, or a sheet placed upon the floor for the screen. The height of the shelf _d_ from the floor is determined by the focal length of the lens, and must be decided by experiment before the hole is cut in the shade. It is fastened in place by strings attached to small screw-eyes at its corners, and tied upon tacks driven into the window-frame. The arrangement shown in Fig. 5 can be moved on the shelf, so as to face the lens toward any portion of the view commanded by the window.

―――――◀▶―――――

PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING.

If all boys are not so fortunate as to possess a camera, there is no reason why they should be debarred from all the pleasures of photography; and as there is much entertainment to be derived from this simple amusement, it is advisable for every boy throughout the land who is old enough to give it a fair trial. The first thing needed is a frame for holding the print while it is being exposed. This can be made by an ingenious boy, but as it is a rather troublesome job, it is better to buy a small transparent slate for five or ten cents, and discarding the copies, use the frame and glass for your work. The sensitized paper should next be prepared. This can be bought at any place where photographers’ supplies are to be found; many boys, however, are too far away from our great cities to have access to such stores, and even those who have will find more delight in making it for themselves. There is a great satisfaction in the feeling of perfect independence, and the more we can do for ourselves without aid or hinderance from the world at large, the nearer we come to the ideal state. So, presuming that every boy has this independent spirit well ingrained in his nature, I will give two formulas for this kind of paper, and leave it to the reader to decide for himself which he will use. The first produces a negative impression; that is, one in which all the parts that are dark in the copy come out light in the print, and _vice versâ_; and the second makes a positive print, or one in which all the shadings remain the same as in the original.

FIRST PROCESS.

Paper by this process is very easily prepared as follows: Make two solutions:

1st.—Water, 1 ounce.
Prussiate of potash, 60 grains.

2d.—Water, 1 ounce.
Ammonia citrate of iron, 70 grains.

When these are dissolved, mix them together, and pour them through a piece of filter-paper into a tumbler, and then into a clean glass bottle. If filter-paper cannot be had, nice clean cotton wool answers the purpose nearly as well. This solution should be kept and also used in a dark room. To sensitize the paper, pour out a little of the liquid into a saucer; then having cut note-paper into rectangular pieces, a trifle smaller than the glass in your frame, take one of these pieces at a time, and place it evenly upon the surface of the liquid; let it lie in this position until it is flat and not inclined to curl. Now take it out by one corner, and thrusting a pin through this point, drive it lightly into the edge of a shelf in your dark room, and leave it to dry. It is now ready for use; should any be left after printing, roll it up and place it in a tin box which has a cover, to keep it from the light and dampness. To print on this paper, place your glass in the frame, and next to it any engraving you may fancy, provided it is printed on thin paper and has no type on its back. If a copy is desired precisely like the original, place the engraving face downward on the glass, but if a reverse is wished, that is, one in which all the objects in the original are turned about, and its left side is to correspond to the right in your print, then place it with its face toward you in the frame. When this is adjusted to your satisfaction, take the frame to your dark closet, and put in your sensitized paper, being careful to cover it closely with the back of the frame well fastened in place before bringing it to the light. Place the frame, glass side upward, on a window-ledge, or in any place where it will be exposed to the free rays of the sun, and let it remain until it is printed to the desired depth. It will be noticed that at first the light changes the portions exposed to a bluish color; the operation, however, is not finished at this stage, but must be continued long enough to turn these portions a deep metallic gray. Care must be exercised in examining the print, that the paper is not moved from its position relative to the copy to be printed; with the above frame this will be a very delicate matter, and it is doubtful if it can be successfully done. A better way would be to make one or two prints, without caring for accuracy of form, but simply with a view of obtaining a good color, and time the operation; this would form a sort of basis from which to work. If some subsequent engraving was upon thicker paper, it would take a somewhat longer time to print it, and if on thinner paper, the time required would be proportionately shorter. It would be a great source of convenience if the back could be cut in two equal parts, and a piece of canton flannel be pasted over both, joining them as they were at first. This with the soft side outward will keep the paper from slipping, and act as a hinge to either half. Now instead of one fastening, two will be required, one on either half of the cover; if then you wish to examine your print, you have only to open one end of your frame, and carefully lift up the edge of the paper, while the other end, remaining firmly closed, holds the whole thing in place.

After your print has reached the proper degree of color, take it out and immerse it in clean water, when it will become a rich blue, except those parts which are to remain white. Change the water once or twice, or until every part comes out distinctly; then take it from the bath and dry between sheets of blotting-paper.

The second way to prepare paper consists in washing good letter-paper with the following solution:

Bichromate of potash, 10 grains.
Sulphurate of copper, 20 grains.
Water, 1 ounce.

Papers prepared with this are of a pale yellow color; they may be kept any length of time in a tin box, and are always ready for use. For copying engravings, the wings of dragon-flies, or of cicadas, the beautiful skeletonized leaves or delicate ferns, arranged in tiny bouquets on the inner surface of the ground glass, this paper is excellent.

After it has been exposed to the influence of the sunshine, take the frame to your dark closet, and after removing the print, wash it over with a solution of nitrate of silver of moderate strength. As soon as this is done, a very vivid positive picture makes its appearance, and all the “fixing” it requires is well washing in pure water.

The dark closet spoken of above is necessary in all kinds of photography, as light let in upon the sensitized paper would darken the whole surface. To make a “dark room,” stop the upper part of the window with any opaque substance, and pin a large sheet of dark orange paper over the lower sash. The yellow paper used in making envelopes is excellent for this, but if it cannot be found, four sheets of tissue-paper, two red and two yellow, placed over each other, answer the purpose very well.

A friend of the writer utilizes an old disused chicken-house for his dark room, and it answers its purpose capitally, while it was at the window of this little room I first saw the tissue-paper successfully used.

The prints used for copy might be rendered more translucent by rubbing them over with a little linseed oil mixed with turpentine. This, of course, should be thoroughly dried before it is used in connection with the sensitized paper.

A great number of graceful, pretty things can be photographed in this manner; the delicate maiden-hair fern, so common in several parts of our country; the fine, feathery leaves of many of our wild flowers, some of the finer flowers themselves, and many of the beautiful mosses and sea-weeds after they are pressed, make exquisite little photographs, worthy of a place in any collection.

A dozen or more of these prints carefully taken, pressed, and trimmed, would make a pretty Christmas present to a dear friend. The cover could be of plain paper, with the name of the person for whom it was intended neatly written upon the top, an appropriate sentiment on the middle, and the donor’s name with the date upon the lower part of the page.

The stencils, for the making of which full directions are given in another part of this book, make very line subjects for photographs. If intended for this purpose, however, they should be of a slender, delicate pattern, small in size, and cut with extreme care. A snow-flake caught upon a black surface, and examined in a cold room, will furnish many suggestions for stencils designed for copy.

―――――◀▶―――――

THE TOY PANORAMA.

The modern stereopticon has almost entirely superseded the old-fashioned panorama, so popular a quarter of a century ago.

Your parents will probably remember with what delight those itinerant exhibitions were greeted by the young people of those days; how the very handbills, those wonderful precursors of so many entertaining spectacles, were studied and commented upon, and when the happy day came, how we all rejoiced to see the manager enter the school-house door, and after a few words with the teacher, address the school, and offer to us children an afternoon exhibition, for the trifling sum of ten cents apiece, if enough could be induced to attend.

The panoramas the writer remembers most vividly occurred during the war of the Rebellion, and as the subjects of the paintings were of a very patriotic character, we had little difficulty in urging our parents to permit us to go; and the afternoon session of the school was gladly sacrificed for so good a cause.

The battle of the _Monitor_ and _Merrimac_, was a favorite subject, and, as the vessels moved to and fro, and sent forth from their tiny port-holes volleys of real fire and smoke, while a big drum, out of sight, gave forth the answering boom, the scene was very impressive, and struck a kind of fascinating terror to our childish hearts.

After the many accounts and fine illustrations which subsequent readings have given, at the simple mention of that famous battle, my mind instantly wanders back to the darkened hall, filled with boys and girls, all intently gazing at the sham battle in progress before them; while far back in the rear end of the hall stood the two brass field-pieces, captured from Burgoyne at the battle of Saratoga, nearly a hundred years before, grim and awful, and silently waiting for the time when they should be called to take their place in the mighty conflict then so fiercely raging in our land.[1]

-----

Footnote 1:

This building was erected for an armory, but served the purpose of
town-hall as well.

-----

But finally the war ceased; and after all, the only part the old cannon played was to thunder forth resoundings of joy, which shook our old town to its very foundations, when peace was again restored.

Although children’s hearts will never again be gladdened by these great, clumsy shows, there is no reason why the little toy panorama should also be banished from among us. The mere delight of making it is sufficient reason for its existence, and when it is once finished it will continue to be a source of enjoyment to each little member of the household in turn.

The simplest form this can have is represented in Fig. 1, the foundation being a small soap-box, the rollers, sections of a broomstick, with small wooden pins glued into each end, which extend through holes made in the box for that purpose. The pictures, taken from any illustrated paper, are all cut the same width, about an inch narrower than the length of the rollers, and pasted together at their ends, the only limit to the length of this strip being the capacity of the box.

When the paste is dry, attach an end to each roller. It is necessary that the upper peg of each roller be also fitted with a strong crank, as an even motion is requisite for the proper display of the pictures; and this crank can be made in two ways: first, like Fig. 2, where a piece of wood is nicely fitted and glued on the pin, or like Fig. 3, which is the better arrangement, where a stiff wire is bent into the shape _a_, and then passed through two holes pierced through the crank-pin as shown at _b_; this arrangement securing the needful firmness, the projecting ends of the wire are then bent, the upper one upward, the lower downward, so completing the crank.

After the mechanical part of the panorama is finished so that it runs smoothly, two strips of stiff pasteboard can be fastened over the front, corresponding to the dotted lines _a_ and _b_ in Fig. 1, which will hide the rollers and give a neater appearance to the whole. If liked, a second piece of the pasteboard can be cut, in length corresponding to the width of the box, and wide enough to cover the cranks, and extend down to the top of the pictures.

When exhibiting the pictures, place the box on a table with its front well lighted, turned toward the audience, and turn the pictures slowly, by an even motion of the cranks, pausing slightly at each scene, at the same time giving, if possible, a brief description of the thing illustrated, as this will add considerably to the enjoyment of the little folks. I forgot to add, in its proper place, that for a final finish the whole thing should be covered with any pretty paper at hand. Nice wall-paper or even common brown wrapping-paper gives it a neat appearance.

―――――◀▶―――――

A MORE ELABORATE PANORAMA.

Having thoroughly mastered the construction of the simpler form of the panorama, a more elaborate one can be made by simply devoting to it considerably more time and attention; but as this is greatly superior to the other in every respect, it is well worth the extra trouble.

This will necessarily require a much larger box than the one previously described. For convenience in description, suppose we have a soap-box two feet long, twelve inches high, and eighteen inches wide. We shall first take away both top and bottom, then standing it upon its side, we have the frame-work of our structure, which is still two feet long, but now eighteen inches high, and twelve inches deep, that is from front to back; next, we cut from the discarded top a false bottom, or shelf, like Fig. 2, which, if your box is of seven-eighths inch material, will measure twenty-two and a quarter, by eight inches. Mark the point _a_, four inches from one side of the board, and equidistant from the ends; through this draw the line _b c_, five inches long on each side of _a_, or ten inches in all; mark at three and one-half inches from the ends of the board the points _d_ and _e_, and draw the lines _b d_ and _c e_; then cut out the piece thus marked off.

The holes at the bottom for the rollers are four and one-half inches from the back _f g_, in order to insure that the line of pictures when in motion shall not fall back from the line _b c_, and are equidistant from the ends of the board and the oblique lines _b d_ and _c e_, to secure as much room as possible for the roll. Make corresponding holes in the top of the box, taking particular care that they are exactly above those in the shelf, when that is in position. The rollers are made from sections of broomstick, with holes bored in the ends, and the wooden pins glued firmly in place. Remember that the upper set of pins are to be much longer than the lower to allow for the insertion of the crank. These rollers are about eleven and one-half inches long, and when the glue has thoroughly dried, should be put in place and kept there by inserting the shelf, and fastening it in place by nails driven through the sides as at _i i_, in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 represents what is called a horizontal section; that is, the work is supposed to be cut across from front to back, a little way above the shelf just mentioned, and the observer is supposed to be looking downward at it. Fig. 4 represents the work in an upright position, and the observer sees the front of it.

From the top of the shelf to the lower outside edge of the box should be just five and one-half inches. Next come the two uprights, _a b_, _c d_, Fig. 3, and _A A_, Fig. 4. They may be made from the bottom of the box, which was taken out, it will be remembered, and let their width correspond to _a b_ and _c d_, Fig. 3. Round off the edges at _a_ and _c_, and smooth it with sand-paper, as it would soon tear the pictures if left in a rough state; place these two boards in position, and secure them by nails at the top and bottom. Now cut two oblong pieces from stiff cardboard, as long as these wooden uprights, and wide enough to cover the spaces left at _e b_ and _d f_, and tack these in position; they are shown by dotted lines in Fig. 4.

From a thin board cut two other strips to cover the spaces _g h_, but leave the placing of these till the work is nearly finished. A board two feet long and about three inches high is also necessary for the lower edge of the front, and should be put on after the other parts are in position, to hide the flame of the foot-lights (consisting of a row of short candles) from the spectator. The two pieces like Fig. 5 are made of pasteboard and are designed to furnish the upper and lower portions of the frame for the pictures. Their position is indicated by dotted lines in Fig. 4. As it is somewhat difficult to arrive at the exact proportions of these irregular pieces, without the actual box before one, it will be easier to leave this to the maker, as it is simply necessary to take a stiff piece of paper and place it in the position desired; then crease the lines so that they shall meet the proper points on the uprights; the lower piece comes up to the top of the shelf, and the upper piece comes down just below the top of the picture. After fitting this paper, it is an easy matter to trace the form on the pasteboard, taking care that all the lines are perfectly straight. The curtain should be next adjusted, and a piece of dark blue or green cambric is best suited for this purpose.

Cut (do not tear) from your cloth a piece of the required size, making sure that the sides are at right angles to each other, and prepare another roller from your broomstick twenty-one and one-half inches long. This roller is seen between _e_ and _f_ in Fig. 3. Paste or glue one of the ends of the cloth, which corresponds to the length of the roller, smoothly around it; now letting this roll just touch the floor, draw the other end up evenly, and tack it along the under-side of the top of the box, on a line three inches from the edge. In order that the curtain may roll up smoothly, it is best to mark straight lines with a pencil and ruler, on both roller and box, and adjust its edges carefully to these lines.

Just in front of this line, and at two inches from either end, tack to the box the ends of two pieces of fish-line, and, carrying the strings down the front of the curtain, bring them under the roller, up on the other side, and through two small holes bored for the purpose in the top of the box, about three and one-half inches from the ends; next bring the two strings together, and pass them through a screw-eye placed at the middle and back edge of the top to receive them. At one side of the back, in any convenient place, drive a small nail to wind the strings upon when the curtain is up. By simply undoing this, the curtain can at any moment be made to fall. It is also well to tie the two strings together, and fasten a button to them just back of the point where they pass through the screw-eye, when the curtain is down, and they are evenly drawn, as this prevents an extra play of the cord, and obviates entirely the danger of their slipping. Before the curtain is nailed on, it is best to paper the whole beveled surface picture frame with some neat plain paper; very dark red or green “velvet” house-paper being preferable to all others.

After the curtain is in a good working condition, fasten on the two uprights, _g_ and _h_, indicated in Fig. 3, and the long piece across the front which you have already prepared; make a fancy design for the top out of stiff cardboard, taking especial care that it is wide enough to cover the cranks on the top, while at the same time it extends low enough to cover the upper edges of the curtain and the rough unfinished wood in front.

Cover the outside and edges of the box with fancy wall-paper, letting it extend well over on the inside, wherever there is the slightest danger of that surface being exposed to view; and lastly, fasten the long strip of pictures on the rollers, and nothing is wanting but posters and tickets, to insure a first-class show, of the best approved, old-fashioned style.

―――――◀▶―――――

REPOUSSÉ WORK FOR BOYS.

The term Repoussé is applied to any sheet-metal in which a pattern is hammered out or left in relief, by means of a hammer and common nail, or a regular tool made for the purpose. It does not simply refer to brass-work, but applies equally to work of like character either on silver or gold.

If you have friends who have made the voyage of the Nile, you have probably seen the beautiful silver bracelets bought by them of the Nubian workmen as souvenirs of their Eastern travels. These bracelets are made, I was told, by the natives of the interior, with simply a nail and a stone, but the effect is very artistic and pretty. So, if ignorant Nubians can make these beautiful things with such primitive tools, certainly an intelligent American lad can do equally good work, with a little instruction and better materials.

REPOUSSÉ, OR HAMMERED BRASS.

This work is chiefly produced by means of a punch and hammer. An ordinary tack-hammer can be used, but that generally in use by most workers is of rather peculiar shape, like that in Fig. 1.

The round end will be found very useful in working from the inside of the pattern, which will be explained hereafter. The punches are of various forms; but a set of common board nails of different sizes, and varying shaped ends, make good tools for beginners. A very nice piece of work can be done with a common French nail whose end has been ground flat.

It is desirable that a beginner should practice upon the thinnest sheet-brass until he becomes perfectly acquainted with the use of his tools. Brass can be obtained for about twenty-five cents a pound, and one-quarter of a pound of No. 25 will be amply sufficient for this practice.

A tool which is of great assistance in all brass work is a dull chisel or screw-driver, with a serrated edge, so that a dotted line is left when it is pressed upon the metal; however, if this is not readily procurable, a common screw-driver will answer the same purpose in most instances. In this practice, the first thing to be done is to draw a line of some design upon the brass with a soft lead-pencil or with impression-paper, taking extreme care that this line is precisely like that in the copy, as all irregularities should be corrected in the drawing, and none left for the punch. It is, indeed, very difficult to make the proper corrections after the work is commenced. Then having traced your line as perfectly as you can do it, lay the brass upon a piece of soft wood, and with the end of the screw-driver pressed evenly upon the line, give the head a light blow with the hammer; then move the blade along the penciled line, so that its edge shall just touch the end of the last indentation, and give it another slight tap with the hammer. If you strike with too much force your line will be unequally deep in some places, and your work will not present as good an appearance when finished. This process should be repeated along the entire design, and a perfect unbroken line should be the result. Until this is accomplished it is best to attempt nothing further. After you have succeeded in making one unbroken even line, mark two parallel lines upon the metal, and do them in the same manner. When these present a satisfactory appearance, trace some very simple design upon the same thin sheet, and after nailing the sheet at each corner to the block, commence with the chisel and mark lightly around the figure. It is often necessary to do this tracing over two or three times during the process of working, as too deep denting at first warps, or, as the regular brass-worker would say, “buckles” your pattern. Now commence at the outside edge of your design, with your nail placed near the line, strike upon it with a light blow, and continue this operation until your whole background is covered with little dents, and presents a thickly mottled appearance. When this is removed from the block, the pattern will seem to stand out from the rest of the surface.

Care must be taken at first not to crack or break holes in the brass, but after a little practice, and a thicker quality of brass is used, you will learn to avoid this danger.

PLAQUE IN HAMMERED BRASS.

When quite confident in the use of your tools, you can proceed to make a card-receiver decorated with an antique head, as in the figure; or by enlarging the design, and making the background circular, a plaque will be the result, which will be useful for holding fruit, or, set in a velvet frame, will make an ornament for your walls. A sheet of brass nearly one-eighth of an inch in thickness, and at least seventeen inches square will be required.

As in work of this character a deeper relief is desirable, you will find it more agreeable to work over a bed of composition, which is more yielding than wood, and can be made with but little trouble; this composition can be obtained in small cakes at any store where jewelers’ tools are for sale; but you can easily make it yourself by thoroughly mixing fine sand, well-sifted wood ashes, or even brick-dust, with equal parts of pitch or resin; a tiny bit of tallow improves it considerably. This pitch bed, as it is called, can be spread on a flat table or board, and the sheet of brass, after the design has been carefully traced thereon, fastened down upon it by means of four screws at the corners. To draw the design for the plaque, with a strong pair of carpenter’s dividers describe a circle whose diameter shall be sixteen and one-half inches, and within this draw a second circle, with a diameter of fifteen inches. The space between these two circles is to be left untouched, as it will be turned over to inclose the wire which forms the edge, if for a platter; or will extend under the edge of the velvet, if intended to be framed. Be sure and put your screws outside the large circle, as holes in the body of the plaque would ruin its effect. In this work heavier blows with the hammer will be needed; and a large, well-shaped nail used for the background. Work around the pattern until it stands out in line relief.

The brass will become discolored and black during the process of hammering; but, when done, it can be readily cleaned, at first with oxalic acid and rotten-stone, then a final polishing with chamois-skin.

When well polished, take it to a tinsmith and he will make it up for you as a platter, or trim and bend the edges for a plaque.

CARD-RECEIVER.

In making the card-receiver, take the design off on tracing-paper, and then carefully trace it with a sharpened stick or end of a bone crochet-hook, over the impression-leaf on the sheet of brass. In this also the relief should be high, thus rendering it necessary that it should be hammered on the composition-bed. Polish and finish this in the same manner as the plaque.

FOXING.

Foxing, or sticking the metal to be embossed upon a block covered with pitch, is a favorite method with many workers. The block can be of iron or wood, and should measure eight or nine inches across; this rests upon a deep ring of straw, which is readily made by an ingenious boy, as it simply consists of the twisting several wisps of rye straw in the form of a large cable, and then bending them into a small ring of even thickness. Catch them in place with a large darning-needle filled with wrapping-twine. Nice rings, made of leather, and designed expressly for this purpose, can be obtained in the trade, but the home-made ones answer as well for any work a novice would be competent or even desirous of undertaking. The top of the block is covered with pitch, which should be warmed, and then given the slightest possible coating of oil, whenever a new object is to be placed upon it. Care must be taken that too much oil is not used, as in that case it will be impossible to make the surface of the brass adhere to the bed. In work of a nice nature, where the lines are many and fine, and the background complicated, this is by far the most satisfactory bed to use, and when the metal is “annealed” it will be found invaluable.

ANNEALING.

When working in very heavy metal, it is often necessary to soften it somewhat, especially if a deep relief is desired. This is accomplished by placing the plate upon a bed of glowing coals, and allowing it to remain there till it becomes soft, but not in the least melted, and then removing it with pincers. Hammering upon the cold metal is inclined to make it brittle, and at times slightly unmanageable, and this unpleasant quality can be overcome by annealing; but so much care and patience are required to accomplish this process successfully, that it is not very popular with young workers. In many larger designs, a very high relief is obtained by turning the brass after the plaque has been hammered upon the right side as much as seems necessary, and with the round end of the hammer sending strong, even blows into the figure, at whatever points the highest work is desired. By annealing the metal, and working the pattern from the inside after the background is finished, a very fine bunch of well-rounded grapes is easily formed, and makes a very nice subject for a fruit-dish or dining-room plaque. A dragon, and the emblem of St. Mark, both make unusually fine designs for a mediæval plaque.

As you become more expert in this art you will constantly desire new punches. Designs will suggest themselves to you, and it will be impossible to obtain them ready-made, so it is well for a boy to learn to make his own tools. A kind of square steel wire about one-eighth of an inch thick is made for this purpose, and can be bought in any quantity; this can be cut with a file, and the ends formed into the desired shapes.

A SALVER IN REPOUSSÉ.

A very beautiful salver, which will not only be ornamental but exceedingly useful, can be easily made by one accustomed to work upon sheet-brass. A piece twenty by fifteen inches in size, and about one-eighth of an inch thick, will be required for one of medium size. Strike off with the dividers a quarter circle in each corner, to give it a slightly oval effect, and draw a line around the salver parallel to the intended edge, and one and three-fourths inches from it. The entire central surface can be hammered in the honey-comb pattern, which is so popular just now, and is done with a perfectly straight-edged punch, its length determining the side of the hexagon, or if preferred the pentagon, as both forms are equally attractive; or it may contain some graceful design done in low relief. The more original the design the more unique the salver, provided it is artistic and in harmony with the object and use for which it is intended.

It would be well for all young workers in brass to examine carefully any work of that nature which comes within their field of view, especially any antique or foreign brasses, with a view toward perfecting their own designs, or gaining ideas for others.

When the work on this salver is completed, take it to the tinman, and tell him how you wish it made up, and he will do it for you for a very small sum.

A SILVER BANGLE FOR A LADY’S BRACELET.

For the past few years there has been an increasing passion among young girls for the little round bangles, which tinkle so musically with every movement of the slender white wrist, that we are forcibly reminded of the old nursery rhyme:

“With rings on her fingers,
And bells on her toes,
She shall have music
Wherever she goes.”

And as it has long been a matter of rivalry, as to who should display the greatest number of these resonant favors, it is quite certain that one of the pretty trifles will make a very acceptable present to any of your sisters or girl friends you may desire to please. They are usually made from ten cent pieces, but occasionally a bit of silver no larger than an old-fashioned three-cent piece is used. The coin is beaten or rolled flat, and the giver’s initials or monogram, with perhaps a date, is engraved on one side. Now a much more unique and artistic thing could be made by annealing the coin, and beating its surface flat on some firm, hard bed. After the silver is reduced to the proper size and thinness, with a pen or pencil draw some odd designs, and hammer it in shape with a small, blunt-pointed nail. Ancient coins, such as are frequently on exhibition in store windows, afford excellent subjects for this class of ornaments. When the design is well indented, the work can be cleaned by boiling it in sulphuric acid and water, and polishing it with chamois-skin.

A BANGLE BRACELET.

A bangle bracelet can be easily made of hammered work, from a narrow strip of sheet-silver, which can be obtained from any silversmith at a small cost. The design is to be traced on the silver in the same manner as upon the sheet-brass, and great care must be taken in the working out of each little detail. When the work is finished, it should be sent to a jeweler to be made up and polished. This is of course an expensive, as well as a very nice piece of work, and should not be tried until considerable skill in the manipulation of sheet-metal has been acquired, and success seems in a large degree certain.