Chapter XIV: Part 14

Their drums are of two kinds. The most common is made like a tambourine without its bells, the skin forming the head being stretched over the hoop while wet and kept there by sinews being passed through it and the hoop a few inches apart. (Pl. 80, fig. 1.) The inside portions of the skin have cords made of sinew extending across from several places, meeting in the middle and forming a handle to hold it up by (2). It is held up in one hand and beaten with a stick by the other, no more beats being made than are necessary to correspond with the accents of the notes, thus preserving the time.

The other kind of drum is made of a piece of hollow dry tree about 2½ feet long, scraped to a shell and smooth inside and out, resembling in shape a staff churn (3). The head or skin is stretched on the smaller end with a hoop, which is retained in its place by sinews passed through. The other is left open. When beaten but one stick is used, the drum being set on end. Both are often painted with different devices. The rattles, wag-ga-mó (Sioux) or Chi-chi-quoin (Cree), were originally and in a measure still are gourds dried with the seeds in, or after being dried the seeds, etc., are taken out and pebbles put in (4). Others are made of the rawhide of elk stretched over a slight frame of woodwork while wet and dried in that shape, pebbles being put therein at holes left in the top or in the handle (5 and 6). No. 7 is the rattle used by the “braves” in their dance. It is made of rawhide like the rest, but in the form of an open ring.

No. 8 is the rattle made out of deer and antelope hoofs scraped thin and light, reduced in size, and a number of each attached to small strings, so closely that they clash together when shaken. The flute (9) is made of wood, and the whistle (10) is the wing bone of a swan. These have before been described. From what has preceded it will be understood that there are no verses in their songs evincing their patriotism, or other chants representing their triumphs; that all is chorus and tune. Their laments for the dead are of the same description, adding a few words and calling upon the departed by stating the degree of relationship, the few mournful words to deplore their loss, and the rest of the chant is in meaningless ejaculations.

Their music is never recorded nor have they such things as music boards or bark songs. In their bacchanalian songs they often repeat catches of whatever comes into their minds at the time, adapting the words to the song, but these words or any particular expressions do not properly belong to the songs, which in their original are of the same description as the others.

Many lullabies are sung to children by their mothers, but as usual but few words introduced, consisting mostly of humming of different tunes to put them to sleep, adding sometimes, “Sleep, sleep, my pretty child,” or “Red fox come here; you will get a marrow bone to eat”—this when they are 2 or 3 years old.

There is nothing in their painting or sculpture worthy of notice. All are rude drawings and carvings scarcely intelligible without explanation.

PRESENT CONDITION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

The nations we write of are as yet in their savage state. But few steps have been taken by them in the path of knowledge. Their original manners and customs, if not entire, are but slightly changed, their superstitions the same as their ancestors, and their minds deplorably void of moral truth or useful science. Their idol worship remains undisturbed by religious teachers, and the humane efforts in this respect, extended to China and the South Seas, are withheld from the coppered brethren residing next door.

There are some points not to be overlooked, inasmuch as they have a general bearing upon the whole race, involving a subject of great interest to which the foregoing details form but the prelude. The principal of those to which we allude is this: “How far has knowledge, art, and commerce, and the progress of civilization, affected the improvement of the Indians, and changed or modified their original manners, customs, and opinions?”

As art and knowledge are yet in their infancy among them and as has been stated but little improvement in their moral condition is visible, yet great and important changes have been brought about by the commerce of trade, without which any plan for their future advancement would be retarded a century, and by correct appreciation of which views can be formed regarding contemplated measures for their prosperity.

In the foregoing pages, which present their savage life in detail, nothing speculative has been ventured upon, no conjectures hazarded, by us or by anyone well acquainted with the wild tribes, nor will any new opinions be perceived. The whole is merely a collection of facts, thrown together in the form of answers to certain questions without further comment than necessary for their illustration and clothed in the simplest garb of verbiage to facilitate their comprehension.

When we entered the fur trade in the spring of 1833, now 21 years since, all the Indians herein treated of, from the Sioux to the Blackfeet, inclusive, were much more ignorant in everything, degrading in their habits, slovenly in appearance, and barbarous in their actions than they now are. Life was then held by a slight tenure, crime was frequent, atrocious disorder and family feuds were general, and their occupations confined to slaughtering their enemies, murdering each other, and providing for their families only in extremes of necessity.

The traders of the Columbia Fur Co. and after them those of the American Fur Co. were men of ability, honesty, and truth. In the course of their dealings, intermarriages, and conversations with the Indians, the minds of the latter were enlarged, a different train of thought and action engendered, new desires created which gave a stimulus to industry, which raised the Indian from the level of the brute to the standing of an intellectual being.

The enmities formerly existing between different bands of the same nations, arising from the petty jealousies of chiefs or private family animosities, were soldered up by the traders. To be sure their object in this was personal gain, but that is immaterial, the beneficial results arising from their traffic, etc., were consolidation of force and interest of the Indians, unity of purpose and action, entailing order in their government, a great diminution of family feuds and private quarrels, and an application of their time to the comfort and welfare of their families instead of its being spent in bloody contention or domestic idleness or discord.

The introduction of firearms, metallic cooking utensils, and other tools gave them a greater reliance on their own powers, increased their hunting operations, and with them their domestic comfort, by these means withdrawing their attention from their barbarous practices and opening a new field for their exertions. With the substituting of European instruments and clothing arose a different kind of pride than that of olden time. The distinguishing features of the original savage were fierceness, obstinate will, and bloody determination, leading to barbarous and disgusting practices. Their women were worse than slaves, the extent of their labor was more than they could bear. With the stone ax, the bone awl, the clay pot, the rib knife, and all their primitive tools, even their most pressing wants were met with great difficulty. The process of procuring fuel alone was one of much toil, and occupied most of the time of one female to a lodge. On account of their inadequate instruments for dressing hides their clothing was wretched, often insufficient to protect from cold or to cover with decency.

Commerce has changed all this by facilitating their means, and the character of their women has risen from a state of intolerable slavery to one of ordinary labor scarcely more servile than that of European female operatives. Their persons are cleanly dressed, combed, and adorned, a desire to appear genteel is manifested, a neatness in their lodges and domestic arrangements perceptible, proving the transfer of their time and ideas to these ends from those of original filth and savage recklessness.

In former times the trade was carried on in their different camps by paying a number of desperate men (Indians) to restrain the populace from robbing the trader. This force was effective and necessary at the time, because the wants of the Indians were so numerous and pressing, their cupidity so great, that it was impossible for the trader publicly to display his goods or deal with them on anything like fair terms. And the Indians thus employed considered it an honorable station; it flattered their pride to rely for protection on their bravery, and no robberies could be committed nor the traders insulted without killing these men at the door of the lodge, which was never attempted. This gave rise to a body of men called soldiers, and the power first invested in them by the traders formed a nucleus around which collected a superior and coercive force, which, in the course of time, was applied to their own civil organization, producing order in their government, unity of action, and rendering effective the decisions by council.

The original natural authority was centered in the chiefs of small bands, supported only by their family connections, who could not or would not enforce decrees for general welfare nor interfere in any public differences not touching their private interests. Power being thus confined and circumscribed, separations into small camps took place and minor subdivisions into heads of families, resembling in this elementary form of government that of the ancient patriarchs who as their interests jarred or covetousness increased made war upon each other and were insufficient for any general purpose. But when the body of soldiers was established and their efforts united to support the chief and council, they soon collected in large bands, from two to four or six hundred lodges each, entered into effective measures of defense from the surrounding tribes, regulated their hunts to advantage, and by this consolidation of interest extinguished the principal sources of private discord. This was a great step in advancement produced by the traders and their commerce, for through the chief and council as the organ of public opinion and soldiers as its support the nation could be spoken to, their interest consulted, their feelings known, and the mass made to advance toward a further point of improvement.

Property by means of commerce having been acquired, rates of exchanges established, and hunting operations enlarged and facilitated, other things besides scalps became valuable in the eyes of the Indians. Each having something to lose, perceived the necessity of respecting the rights of others, giving rise to a spirit of compromise in difficulties, so that arms were less resorted to in settling disputes, payment in most cases superseding that ancient and barbarous custom; also they evinced a disposition to aid each other in times of need, which minor obligations bound still closer their hitherto feeble bonds of society.

These were some of the effects of the introduction of commerce. A still further improvement is visible in their expansion of ideas arising from association with white traders, exhibited in their amelioration of manners, desire for knowledge, doubts of their own superstitions, increase of their vocabulary and modes for expressing thought, reason supplying the place of passion, and the general usefulness of the whole, resulting in their minds having been made capable of comprehending religious or scientific instruction and their time and talents to be applied to either their moral or spiritual welfare.

This is the point to which these wild tribes are supposed by us to have arrived, but no further. Their future condition depends more upon their white allies than themselves. Traders have instilled education enough to serve their purposes and let them alone. It would be inexpedient for them to do more.

It is also apparent, if their present attainments be not improved upon by those in power, that they must recede, and in case of a discontinuance of trade or a worse influx of whites, their now to them useful organization must dissolve. In this event they must become more miserable than at first, because the desires and necessities induced by their partial elevation can not be satisfied from their original resources, these having been lost and abandoned during their advancement, consequently their present support withdrawn, their hunting ruined, distress, famine, and dissolution as nations must certainly follow.

If they are left in their present condition until the tide of emigration has reached their as yet undisturbed hunting grounds, and the green plains, now covered with multitudes of buffalo, shall be strewn with innumerable grog shops, occupied by nests of gamblers, and hordes of outlaws, bringing with their personal vices a host of infectious diseases, where will the poor Indian be then? Bitter would and should be the reflections of our great national reformers that they had not in time stretched out a saving arm to the aborigines.

It may be said, point out a way, state some feasible plan. Heretofore our policy has been lame, and our efforts retarded by our being but partially informed as to their capacity of improvement, or the practicability of bettering their condition.

To all this we would answer the course to be pursued is plain and can be easily gathered from these pages, which, like other productions of the kind, most probably will be thrown aside as soon as read or disbelieved because the facts recorded do not coincide with preconceived notions of Indian character.

We do not feel ourselves called upon by the inquiry to present a plan of operations, neither do we feel capable of instructing superior men. A plain statement of facts is sought and herein presented, though more could have been done had it been requested. Extensive establishments having for their object the civilization of the Indians have already been commenced with several nations within the boundaries of the United States and have met with success. Let others be tried, adapting the means to the situation and necessities of the roving tribes. A sudden revolution of feeling, an entire change in their habits and occupations, can not immediately be expected, would not be natural, neither would it be durable, but a gradual change brought about in their present employments, by combining them with pastoral and agricultural pursuits, a judicious introduction of mechanical arts, their superstitions carefully undermined and replaced by moral truth, their temporal welfare consulted, and a certain chance of subsistence presented; these things being accomplished, the eyes of the present grown generation would close in the rising prosperity of their children.

We perceive in the closing remarks of the inquiry these words: “In all questions where the interests of the tribes clash with those of the persons whom you may consult, there is much caution required.”

Now, our personal interests and those of every trader are at direct variance with any innovations in the present employments or organization of the Indians. Any improvement in their condition mentally or the introduction of other pursuits such as arts and agriculture, even the inculcation of the Christian religion, would immediately militate against the trade and unfit the Indians for being only hunters or being regarded only as a source of profit. We are perfectly aware that the policy advised in these pages, if acted upon, would effectually ruin the trade and with it our own personal interest and influence in that capacity. All these things have been well considered and had they any effect would only have led to our remaining silent on the subject; but, having written, we prefer placing things in their proper light, aiming at great general good, and thus without further comment the whole is left in the hands of those for whom it is intended.

INTERMARRIAGE WITH WHITES

The prairie tribes have not been much affected by intermarriages with Europeans except the Cree. Most of the Red River settlement of half-breeds are of Cree and Chippewa extraction, who though not generally having the advantage of education, are, however, a bold, hardy, and fearless people, invariably good-looking, active, and brave. They unite hunting with agricultural operations but prefer the former, the indisposition to work showing itself equally in the descendant as in the original stock. Their parents and the Cree Nation generally have been, if not benefited, much instructed by these people, and are superior in intellectual acquirements to any of the other tribes. The history of this settlement is no doubt well known to all, so that we need not describe it here.

As far as these other tribes are concerned the only intermixture has been of the fur traders and engagees of the fur company. Of these, all that can afford it take their children to the States to be educated, who usually make intelligent and respectable men. If it were not for the popular prejudice existing, or if it were possible, we would advise amalgamation of the races as the most efficient means for saving the remnants of the Indian tribes.

POPULATION

Regarding the comparative population of these tribes with the years 1833 to 1854, the decrease is very great. Smallpox, cholera, measles, and influenza, together with other diseases and wars, incidental to the climate and their pursuits, have reduced the Sioux about one-third, the Mandan three-fourths, the Arikara one-fifth, the Assiniboin one-half, the Cree one-eighth, the Crows one-half, and the Blackfeet one-third less than they were at the former period. They—that is, from the Sioux up—are now slowly on the increase.

LANGUAGE

To answer the queries on this head would require a volume of itself, but the Assiniboin being the same or nearly the same as the Sioux, and as the Sioux has already been translated into the English letters, books published in it, and the same taught in schools on the Mississippi, it is presumed that any and all answers to these queries can be obtained by procuring the books printed in the Sioux language and by examining their manner of instruction. We have seen the New Testament in that language, also several letters, and believe it to be well adapted to the purpose of Christianity or general usefulness. Should, however, it be the desire of the department that extensive vocabularies be made out and explanations of their language given, or should any other information regarding these tribes be sought, we will at any time satisfy it on these topics, provided the efforts now made for their instruction regarding the prairie tribes meet with the success it is presumed to deserve.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following bibliographical list of works is submitted to enable the student to verify and extend the work of Mr. Denig.

BACQUEVILLE DE LA POTHERIE, C. C. LE ROY DE LA. Histoire de l’Amérique Septentrionale. Tomes I-IV. Paris, 1722. (Same, Paris, 1753.)

CATLIN, GEORGE. Illustrations of the manners, customs, and condition of the North American Indians. Vols. I-II. London, 1848.

[To be used only with caution.]

CHITTENDEN, N. M., and RICHARDSON, A. T. Life, letters, and travels of Father Pierre-Jean De Smet, S. J., 1801-1873. Vols. I-IV. New York, 1905.

COUES, ELLIOTT, ed. New light on the early history of the greater Northwest. The manuscript journals of Alexander Henry and of David Thompson, 1799-1814. Vols. I-III. New York, 1897.

DE SMET, FATHER PIERRE-JEAN. _See_ Chittenden, H. M., and Richardson, A. T.

DORSEY, GEORGE A., and KROEBER, A. L. Traditions of the Arapaho. (Field Col. Mus. Pub. 81, Anthrop. ser. vol. V, Chicago, 1903.)

DORSEY, J. OWEN. A study of Siouan cults. (Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn., pp. 351-544, Washington, 1894.)

—— Siouan sociology. (Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn., pp. 205-244, Washington, 1897.)

DOBBS, ARTHUR. An account of the countries adjoining to Hudson’s Bay in the north-west part of America. London, 1744.

FLETCHER, ALICE C. The Elk mystery or festival. Ogallala Sioux. (Rept. Peabody Mus. Amer. Archaeol, and Ethn., vol. III, pp. 276-288, Cambridge, 1881.)

—— Hae-thu-ska Society of the Omaha tribe. (Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, vol. V, pp. 135-144, Boston and New York, 1892.)

FRANKLIN, JOHN. Narrative of a journey to the shores of the Polar Sea. Philadelphia, 1824.

HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIANS NORTH OF MEXICO. Bur. Amer. Ethn., Bull. 30, pts. 1 and 2, Washington, 1907-1910.

[The tribal and other articles in this work are arranged in
alphabetical order.]

HAYDEN, F. V. On the ethnography and philology of the Indian tribes of the Missouri Valley. (Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., n. s. vol. XII, pt. 2, Philadelphia, 1862.)

[Largely based on information supplied him by Edwin T. Denig.]

HENRY, ALEXANDER. Travels and adventures in Canada, and in the Indian Territories, between the years 1760 and 1776. New York, 1809.

—— _See also_ Coues, Elliott, ed.

HIND, HENRY YUEL. Narrative of the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition of 1857, and of the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition of 1858. Vols. I-II. London, 1860.

JESUIT RELATIONS. Relations des Jesuites contenant ce qui s’est passe de plus remarquable dans les missions des pères de la Compagnie de Jesus dans la Nouvelle-France. Embrassant les années 1611-1672. Tomes. I-III. Quebec, 1858.

—— Jesuit Relations and allied documents. Travels and explorations of the Jesuit missionaries in New France, 1610-1791. Reuben Gold Thwaites, editor. Vols. I-LXXIII. Cleveland, 1896-1901.

KELSEY, HENRY. A journal of a voyage and journey undertaken by Henry Kelsey ... in anno 1691. With an Introduction by Arthur G. Doughty and Chester Martin. _In_ The Kelsey Papers, published by the Public Archives of Canada, ..., Ottawa, 1929.

[He mentions “ye Stone Indians” and also has an “Account of
these Indians beliefs and superstitions,” which seems to be the
first sketch of the life and customs of the Plains Indians.]

KROEBER, ALFRED L. Ethnology of the Gros Ventre. (Anthrop. Papers Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. I, pt. 4, New York, 1908.)

—— The Arapaho. (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist, vol. XVIII, New York, 1902.)

_See also_ Dorsey, Geo. A., and Kroeber.

LEWIS, MERIWETHER, and CLARK, WM. Original journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804-1806. Reuben Gold Thwaites, editor. Vols. I-VIII, New York, 1904-1905.

LA POTHERIE. _See_ Bacqueville de la Potherie.

LONG, JOHN. Voyages and travels of an Indian interpreter and trader, describing the manners and customs of the North American Indians. London, 1791.

LOWIE, ROBERT H. The Assiniboine. (Anthrop. Papers Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. IV, pt. 1, New York, 1909.)

MARGRY, PIERRE. Decouvertes et etablissements des Francais dans l’ouest et dans le sud de l’Amerique Septentrionale (1614-1754). Memoires et documents originaux. Pts. I-VI. Paris, 1875-1886.

MAXIMILIAN, ALEX. P., PRINZ ZU WIED. Reise in das innere Nord-America in den Jahren 1832 bis 1834. B. I-II. Coblenz, 1839-1841.

MOONEY, JAMES. Mescal plant and ceremony. (Therapeutic Gazette, 3d ser., vol. XII, Detroit, 1896.)

—— Calendar history of the Kiowa Indians. (Seventeenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pt. 1, Washington, 1898.)

—— The Ghost-dance religion and the Sioux outbreak of 1890. (Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn., pt. 2, Washington, 1896.)

PERROT, NICOLAS. Memoire sur les Moeurs, Coustumes et Relligion des Sauvages de l’Amerique Septentrionale, publie pour la premiere fois par le R. P. J. Tailhan. Leipzig et Paris, 1864.

RADISSON, PETER ESPRIT. Voyages of Peter Esprit Radisson ... with historical illustrations and an introduction by Gideon D. Scull. Publ. Prince Society. Boston, 1885.

SCHOOLCRAFT, HENRY R. Historical and statistical information, respecting the history, condition, and prospects of the Indian tribes of the United States. Pts. I-VI. Philadelphia, 1851-1857.

[In his fourth volume he publishes Denig’s Assiniboin
vocabulary.]

SCULL, GIDEON D. _See_ Radisson, Peter Esprit.

THWAITES, REUBEN GOLD, ed. Early western travels 1748-1846. Vols. I-XXXII. Cleveland, 1904-1907.

WISSLER, CLARK. The Blackfoot Indians. (Annual Archaeol. Rept. for 1905. App. Rept. Min. Ed. Ont., pp. 162-178, Toronto, 1906.)

MANUSCRIPT

KURZ, FREDERICK. Journal. Copy of translation in the archives
of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution.
1,076 typewritten pages with 125 drawings.

INDEX

Page

ABORTION, means used to produce 521

ACCOUNTS, method of keeping 420-421

ADOPTION OF CAPTIVES 552

ADULTERY, punishment of 482 _See also_ INFIDELITY

ADVANCEMENT OF TRIBES 579-580

AGED PEOPLE, treatment of 422, 443-444, 576-577

AGRICULTURE— among the Missouri Indians 463-464 claim to land based on 477 need of 543 of the Plains tribes 407

AMERICAN FUR COMPANY, traders of 621

AMPUTATION, practice of 427-428

ANIMAL LIFE, of the upper Missouri 410-412

ANIMAL SYMBOLS, use of 412

ANIMALS— belief concerning: 487 custom regarding killing of 412 list of, used for food 583

ANNUITIES, distribution of 473

ANTELOPE, hunting of 535

ANTIQUITIES, absence of 413, 414

ARIKARA— migration of 405 pottery of 413

ARROW AND BOW, used in buffalo hunting 542

ARROWS, game played with 570

ASSINBOIN INDIANS— advancement of 579-580 attitude of, toward debts 476 character of 459 characteristics of 397,468 discussion of method of dealing with 470-474 etymologic interpretations of the name 381 intellectual capacity of 593-602 intertribal relations of 403-404 names of 396 origin of 395 progress of 620-623 strength of, compared with white man's 529 territory occupied by 396-397 traditional origin of 382

ATONEMENT, no conception of 490

AUDUBON, assisted by Denig 381

BAD ANIMAL, Assiniboin war leader 402

BALL GAME, described, 565-566

BAND, composition of 431

BEADS— use of 590

BEAR— claws of, worn as necklace 553 dead, invocations to 499-500 killing of 537-538

BEARD— extraction of 593

BEAVER, trapping of 411, 538

BELIEFS— concerning animals, 487 concerning astronomy, 414-418 concerning crime, 479-483 concerning future life, 418 concerning Great Spirit, 397 concerning territorial rights, 476-478 concerning the earth, 406

BETTING, on races, 566

BIRDS— list of, eaten by Indians, 583

BLACK ROOT, medicinal use of 425-426

BLACKFEET, migration of 405-406

BLEEDING, practice of 426

BLUE THUNDER, Assiniboin warrior, 402

BODY PAINTING, for the dance 559, 562

BONES— of prehistoric animals 411-412 of the dead, reinterred 574-575

BOW AND ABROW, use of 542, 555

BOWL GAME, description of 567-569

BOYS, ASSINOBOIN, characteristics of 444

BRAVERY, exhibition of 550

BRAVES' DANCE, described 558-560

BUFFALO— as food 581-582 discussion of destruction of 460-462 hunting of 530-536 importance of 410-411 parts of, eaten raw 581 _See also_ GAME; HUNTING

BULLS' DANCE, described 532

BULL'S DRY BONES, doctor and soothsayer 422

BURIAL CUSTOMS 570-576

BURIAL MOUNDS, absence of 573

BURIALS— in lodge 573 in sitting position 573, 574 on hilltop 572 orientation in 572, 573 scaffold or tree 493, 571, 572, 574 _See also_ GRAVES

CALUMET, ceremonial use of 446-447

CAMP— Indian life in 508-510 organization of 440-446

CANNIBALISM, in time of famine 523, 534

CANOE INDIANS, an Assiniboin band 430

CANOES— use of 579

CAPACITY, INTELLECTUAL, of the Indian 593-602

CAPTIVES, treatment of 551, 552, 553

CATAMENIAL CUSTOMS 524

CHARACTER, of the Indian 693-602

CHARMS— animal symbols used as 412 belief in 495

CHASTITY— attitude toward violation of 482 of captives, violation of 553 _See also_ ADULTERY; VIRGINITY

CHIEFS— authority of 622 duties of 431-432, 441 _See also_ HEAD CHIEF; WAR CHIEF

CHIEFTAINSHIP— settlement of 432-433, 435 succession in 449

CHILD BEARING, age of 513

CHILDBIRTH, customs connected with 429, 516-517

CHILDREN— behavior of 520 care of 444 correction of 620 customs concerning 519 grief over loss of 573 male, most desirable 521 mortality among 513 orphan, care of 576 torture of, as captives 551, 552

CLAN TOTEMS, absence of 435

CLANS, of the Upper Missouri Indians, 434-435

CLIMATE
of the Upper Missouri 410

CLOTHING
decorated with hair 560
made of skins 504, 506
of men 585-586
of the Assiniboin 464-465, 584-590
of women 587-588
renewal of 588
worn while sleeping 590
_See also_ COSTUMES

COLUMBIA FUR COMPANY, traders of 621

COMMERCE, effect of, on Indian, 464, 485, 621-623
_See also_ TRADE; TRADERS

CONJURORS, _See_ DOCTORS

COOKING, methods of 582

COSTUME
of warriors 548, 552-554
worn at Bulls' dance 562
worn at Fox dance 561
worn at Soldiers' dance 563

COUNCIL, description of 436-440, 446-448

COUNCIL LODGE, diagram of 437

COUNCILS, discussion of 451

COUNTING, system of 418-420

COUP, counting of 560

COURTSHIP, customs of 510-511

CRADLE BOARDS, use of 519-520

CRAZY BEAR, Chief
account of 401
made head chief 431
speech of 597-599

CREATOR, conception of 486

CREDIT, among the Indians, 459

CRIME
beliefs concerning 479-483
Indian conception of 483
punishment of 448, 452, 455
_See also_ RETALIATION

CROW DANCE, described, 584

CROW INDIANS
amputation practiced by 427
crime among 454
dress of 587, 588
treatment by, of captives 551, 552

DANCES
description of 556-565

love making at 558 purpose served by 556, 557, 563, 564-565

DEATHS, causes of 478 See also BURIAL CUSTOMS; MOURNING CUSTOMS

DEBTS, payment of 459

DECORATION— _See also_ ORNAMENTS.

DEER hunting of 536

DENIG, E.T.— ancestry of 383-384 brief account of life of 380-381 character of 382 Indian name of 386 tribes described by 379

DE SMET, REV. G.I.— acknowledgment by, to Denig 386 object of correspondence with 467

DESTRUCTION— rarity of 425

DIVINING DANCE, briefly described 564

DIVINING MAN application of the term 494 dress of 586 _See also_ DOCTORS; PRIESTS

DIVORCE, right of 512

DOCTORING, _See_ MEDICINE

DOCTORS— activities of 443 character of 492 fear of 485 office of 492-493 payment to 423, 424 _See also_ DIVINING MAN; PRIESTS

DOGS ceremonial eating of 489, 491 feast on, at soldiers' dance 563

DREAMS— beliefs concerning 494-495 symbols adopted after 412

DRESS, _See_ CLOTHING; COSTUMES

DRUMS, described 619

DUCK DANCE, described 562

DYESTUFFS, native 591

EAGLE FEATHERS— badge of distinction 449 value of 589

EARTH, beliefs concerning the 414

EARTH LODGES, construction of 579

ECLIPSE, beliefs concerning 415

EDUCATION, discussion of need of 466-470

ELK, hunting of 537

ELK HORNS, mound of 398

ELK TEETH, value of 589

ERMINE SKINS, value of 589

EXCHANGE, no medium of 420

EYESIGHT, acuteness of 527-528

FABLES, of the Assiniboin 609-617

FACIAL PAINTING
for burial 570
for the dance 557, 563
for war 554

FAMILY LIFE, of the Assiniboin 503-508

FASTING
in time of scarcity 509
object of 489-490

FATHER-IN-LAW TABOO 503-504

FEASTING, in time of plenty 509

FEATHERS, eagle
a mark of rank 553
value of 589

FETISHES—
belief in 495
_See also_ CHARMS

FEUDS, the result of murder 453
_See also_ RETALIATION; REVENGE

FIREARMS—
importance of 466
valued highly 555
_See also_ GUNS

FIRST-WHO-FLIES, account of 401-402

FISHING, among Upper Missouri Indians 544, 582

FLUTE, use of 512

FOOD—
animal, of the Upper Missouri Indian 581-582
of the Plains tribes 407-408
quantities of, consumed 509

FOOT RACES, popularity of 566

FORT BENTON, a trading point 407

FORT BERTHOLD, a trading point 407

FORT CLARKE, a trading point 407

FORT PIERRE, a trading point 407

FORT UNION—
a trading point 407
described by Denig 381

FOX DANCE, described 561
trapping of 538-539

FUR TRADE, _See_ TRADE; COMMERCE

FUTURE LIFE, belief in 418

GAMBLING—
among women 569-570
games used for 567-570
infatuation for 567
losses in 569
_See also_ BETTING

GAME—
abundance of 460
discussion of diminution of 460-530
division of, after hunt 456, 531, 533-534, 539
laws regarding 455-456
of the upper Missouri 410-411

GAMES, of the Indians 565-566

GENS DES CANOTS, an Assiniboin band 430

GENS DES FILLES, an Assiniboin band 430

GENS DES ROCHES, an Assiniboin band 430

GENS DU GAUCHE, an Assiniboin band 430

GENS DU LAC, an Assiniboin band 430

GENS DU NORD, an Assiniboin band 430

GHOSTS, beliefs concerning 493, 494

GIFTS—
compensation expected for 600
for treatment of the sick 424
return of 475

GIRLS, ASSINIBOIN, characteristics of 444

GOVERNMENT, Assiniboin 435, 445-446 _See also_ CHIEFS; CHIEFTAINSHIP; TRIBAL ORGANIZATION

GRAVES— not marked 572, 576

GRAZING, on the plains 408

GREETINGS, of the Indians 524

GROS VENTRES— ceremonial scarification of 490 self-torture of 522 women and children spared by 551

GROS VENTRES OF THE PRAIRIE— migration of 405 once Arapaho 405

GUNS, manner of using 555

HABITAT, of the Assiniboin 406-410

HAIR— symbolism of, when decorating clothing 560

HAIRDRESSING 554

HANDGAME, description of 569

HAYDEN, F. V.— Denig manuscript used by 380 Denig's vocabulary mentioned by 382

HEAD CHIEF, duties of 441

HORSE RACES, trickery in 566

HORSES— a cause of warfare 470 disposal of, at owner's death 479 introduction of 412 sacrifice of 491 stolen by war party 547 value of 471 wealth estimated by 474

HOSPITALITY, INDIAN— affairs settled through 514 discussion of 513-515 self-interest in 515

HUDSON BAY COMPANY custom of 594 ruse practiced 595

HUNTER— dress of 586 precarious life of 504

HUNTING— instruction in 542 laws connected with 455 season for 539

HUNTING CUSTOMS 444-445, 504, 530-543

HYDROPHOBIA, remedy for 426

IDOLS, use of 497

IMMORTALITY, belief In 418, 498-499

IMPLEMENTS, of the upper Missouri tribes 398, 414

INDIAN AGENTS, discussion of office of 473-474

INDIAN DANCES, _See_ DANCES

INDIAN SCHOOLS, urgent need of 466-470

INDIAN SONGS, _See_ SONGS

INFANTICIDE, a common custom 521

INFIDELITY, punishment for 504-505

INHERITANCE, among the Assiniboin 478-479

INTERMARRIAGE, with whites 625

IRON ARROW POINT, CHIEF, mention of 573

JUGGLERY, fear inspired by 528

KINSHIP, terms of 503

KURZ, FREDERICK, Denig discussed by 384-386

LABOR
attitude toward 553
division of 463, 505

LAND, rights to 476-478

LANGUAGE, of the Assiniboin 402, 625

LANGUAGES
preservation of 405

LARAMIE TREATY
effect of 467
reference to 431

LE BAS ROUGE, a branch of the Canoe Indians 431

LE CHEF DU TONNEBBE, speech of 600-602

LE GROS FRANÇOIS, Assiniboin chief 395

LEGEND, Assiniboin 500-503

LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION,
mention of 395

LIQUOR, bad effects of 530

LODGES
burial in 573
construction of 577-578
manner of using 578
orderly life in 507-508
soldiers' 436
_See also_ EARTH LODGES; COUNCIL
LODGE; SACRED LODGE

LONG HAIR, Crow chief, mention of 479

LONGEVITY, of the Indians 513

LYING, a common custom 482

MANDAN
ceremonial scarification of 490
epidemic among 400
self-torture of 522

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS 504, 506, 507, 510-512, 522 _See also_ INTERMARRIAGE

MASTER OF THE PARK, duties of 443

MEAT— curing of 581 division of, after hunt 531

MEDICINE— practice of 422-426 use of the word 486

MEDICINE MEN, _See_ DOCTORS; PRIESTS

MEDICINE SACK, described 498

MEDICINES, of the whites, Indian use of 581

MICE COMRADES' DANCE, described 564

MIDWIFE, office of 516

MIGRATION— of the Assiniboin 395-396 of tribes 405-406

MINERAL SPRINGS, occurrence of 409

MISSIONARIES, discussion of teachings of 468

MONGOLOID— beliefs concerning 417, 484-485 time reckoned by 416

MORTALITY, among children 513

MORTUARY CUSTOMS, _See_ BURIALS; GRAVES; MOURNING CUSTOMS; WIDOWERS; WIDOWS.

MOTHER-IN-LAW TABOO 503-504

MOUND, of elk horns 398

MOUNDS— absence of 576

MOURNING CUSTOMS 556, 571, 572, 575

MURDER— Indian beliefs concerning 480 punishment for 452-454

MUSIC— described 617-618 on the flute 512

MUTILATION, as a sign of mourning 572

MYTHOLOGY, of the Upper Missouri Indians 500-503

MYTHS, relating of 607-608

NAMES— change of 516-517 of camp soldiers, list of 518 of chiefs, list of 518-519 of warriors, list of 518 of women, list of 619

NAMING OF CHILDREN 516-517

NUDITY, attitude toward 560

OATHS, use of 524

OLD PEOPLE, treatment of 422, 443-444, 576-577

OMENS, belief in 497

ORATORY, of the Indians 526, 596-602 _See also_ SPEECHES

ORIENTATION, in burial 572, 573

ORNAMENTS, use of 590-591

PAINTING, on clothing 421, 586 _See also_ BODY PAINTING; FACIAL PAINTING.

PAINTS AND DYES, use of 591

PARENTS, attitude toward 485

PARK, buffalo caught in 532-533

PEACE TREATIES, between tribes 404

PICTOGRAPHS, reading of 412-413 _See also_ PICTURE WRITING

PICTURE WRITING— explanation of 603, 606-607 use of 421, 603-605

PIPES, use of 413

POPULATION— affected by smallpox 465 causes of reduction in 625 effect on, of intoxicating drinks 465 increase of 405 of the Assiniboin 396-397

PORCUPINE QUILLS, use of 590, 591

POTTERY— of the Arikara 413

PRAIRIE FIRES, effect of 408-409

PRAYERS— object of 412 of a warrior 483-484 to ghosts 484

PRESENTS, _See_ GIFTS

PRIESTS— character of 492 name for 486 office of 492-493 power of, in council 450-451 _See also_ DOCTORS; DIVINING MAN

PRIMOGENITURE, among Assiniboin 478-479

PRISONERS, _See_ CAPTIVES

PROFANITY, lack of, among Indians 482

PROPERTY— loss of, as result of crime 480 of the deceased, disposal of 571 placed with the dead 571

PROPERTY RIGHTS, discussion of 474-476

PROVISION STEALERS' DANCE, described 564

PUBLIC CRIER, duties of 442

PUNISHMENT— for violations of law 445 of crime 479-483 _See also_ RETALIATION.

QUILLS, PORCUPINE, use of 590, 591

RACES, betting on 566

RANK, insignia of 592-593

RAPE, punishment for 482

RATTLE, made of hoofs 619

RATTLESNAKE, cure for bite of 425-426

RED ROOT INDIANS, a branch of the Canoe Indians 430-431

RELATIONS, GOVERNMENTAL, with Indians, discussion of 470-474

RELIGION— discussion of attempted change in 468-469 of the Upper Missouri Indians 481-483, 486-493, 594 _See also_ CRIME

RETALIATION, among the Assiniboin 452-455

RETREAT, in warfare, attitude toward 560

REVENGE, justification of 481 _See also_ CRIME; RETALIATION

RICE, WILD, use of 584

ROBBERY, among the Indians 476 _See also_ THEFT.

RUNNING, speed in 529

SACRED LODGE— ceremony of 488-489 construction of 488

SACRIFICE— amputation of fingers as 427-428 made by hunters 535 to the river 536 to Wakoñda 489

SCAFFOLD BURIALS description of 572 disintegration of 574 reasons for, 571

SCALP DANCE, description of 557-558

SCALP SONG, singing of 555, 556, 557-558

SCALPING, practice of 524

SCALPING KNIFE, described, 555

SCALPS, rejoicing over, 555-556

SCARIFICATION, practice of 490, 564

SCHOOLCRAFT, HENRY R., circular by, 378

SCHOOLS Indian, need of 466-470

SCOUTS, of war party, duties of 549

SEASONS, recognition of 415

SELF-TORTURE, to propitiate Wakoñda, 490

SHELLS highly valued, 590-591

SHIELD rawhide, described, 553

SICKNESS treatment of 423-424

_See also_ SMALL POX

SIGHT, acuteness in sense of 527-528

SILVER, use of 591

SIOUX BANDS, list of 435

Sioux INDIANS, dress of 587

SKIN DRESSING, described 540-541

SKINS— judging of 539 used for clothing 584

SKY, beliefs concerning 415

SMALLPOX— difficulty of curing 428 epidemics of 396, 399, 400

SMOKING, custom of 524

SNOW, hunting in 535

SOLDIERS— duties of 442, 448 organization of 436

SOLDIERS' DANCE, described 562

SONGS— accompanying ceremonies 496 list of 618-619 lullabies 620 use of 617

SON-IN-LAW, status of 511

SORCERY, fear inspired by 528

SPEAKING, in public 526

SPEARHEADS— _See also_ POINTS.

SPEECHES— at scalp dance 558 made by Assiniboin chief 438-439 of Crazy Bear 597-599 of Le Chef du Tonnerre 600-602 _See also_ ORATORY; SPEAKING.

STARS, knowledge concerning 417

STEALING, _See_ THEFT.

STOICISM OF THE INDIAN 525

STONE INDIANS, an Assiniboin band 430

STORY-TELLING, _See_ MYTHS.

STRENGTH, Indians— Assiniboin 529

SUGAR, method of obtaining 584

SUICIDE, among Indians 522

SUN— beliefs concerning 415 worship of 496

SWEAT HOUSE, use of 425 _See also_ VAPOR BATHS

SYMBOLS, ANIMAL, use of 412

TABOOS, concerning women 524

TACITURNITY OF THE INDIAN 526

TATTOOING— a mark of dignity 449 custom of 522, 592

TERRITORY, rights to 476-478

THE GAUCHE, Assiniboin chief, account of 400

THEFT— among the Indians 476, 481-482 punishment for 482

TIME, reckoning of 415-416

TOBACCO, ceremonial use of 447, 496

TOMAHAWK, manner of using 555

TORTURE OF ENEMIES 491-492, 551 _See also_ SELF-TORTURE.

TRADE— of the upper Missouri 457-466 profits of 460 with the Assiniboin 397-398

TRADERS— demands upon 460 general character of 457, 621 risks taken by 459

TRADING, method of 458, 459

TRADING POINTS, on the Missouri 407

TRADITIONS— Assiniboin 402-403 relating of 521

TRAVEL— guidance in 526-527 traces left by 527

TREATIES, with the Assiniboin 398

TREBITSCH, R. 573

TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, Assiniboin 430-431

TRIBES— divisions of 404 list of, described by Denig 378 migrations of 405-406 separation of 405

TWINS, occurrence of 513

VACCINATION, among the Assiniboin 428

VAPOR BATHS, effect of 429 _See also_ SWEAT HOUSE

VEGETAL FOOD, of Upper Missouri Indians, 583

VERMIN, method of disposing of 584

VESSELS, CLAY, for cooking, 581

VIRGINITY precautions to insure, 590 violation of, of captives, 553

VOCABULARIES, recorded by Denig, 382-383

WAH-HE' MUZZA, Assiniboin chief, 395

WAKOÑDA the Creator, 414 the supernatural power, 486, 487-488

WAR a means of advancement, 525 made to steal horses, 544 made to take scalps, 544, 548-551 object of 544

WAR CHIEFS, power of 449-450

WAR CLUB, stone, use of 555

WAR EXPLOITS, recounting of 559-560

WAR LEADER, responsibility of 443

WAR PARTY attack by, described, 549-550 organization of 544-545 return of 547-548 tactics of 545-547

WAR WHOOP, use of 551

WARFARE attitude toward retreat in 560 causes of, 470 causes of failure in 548 customs of 544-554 means of preventing, 470-471 precautions taken in 549

WARRIOR, burial of 570-571

WARRIORS Assiniboin, list of 401-402 dress of 553-554, 586, 589 insignia of, 593 tattooing of 592

WEAPONS, described, 555

WHIP DANCE, briefly described, 564

WHISTLES, use of, in hunting, 537

WHITE CRANE DANCE, described, 563

WIDOWERS, remarriage of 511

WIDOWS remarriage of 511 suicide among, 522

WILD RICE, use of 584

WITCHCRAFT, belief in 493-494

WOLVES, trapping of 538-539

"WOMAN CHIEF," account of 433-434

WOMEN burial of 573 clothing of 587 customs regarding, 524 list of names of 519 marriageable age of 611 status of 433, 451, 455 treatment of, as captives, 551, 552, 553 work of 444, 505

WOMEN'S DANCE, briefly described, 564

WOMEN'S GAME, description of 569-570

WOOLEN GOODS, introduction of 464-465

WOUNDS, recovery from, 429-430

[Transcriber's Note:

Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.]