Chapter I: Part 1

[Signature: Galen Clark]

INDIANS OF THE YOSEMITE VALLEY AND VICINITY

Their History, Customs and Traditions

BY GALEN CLARK

Author of "Big Trees of California," Discoverer of the Mariposa Grove of Big Trees, and for many years Guardian of the Yosemite Valley.

With an Appendix of Useful Information for Yosemite Visitors

ILLUSTRATED BY CHRIS. JORGENSEN AND FROM PHOTOGRAPHS

YOSEMITE VALLEY, CALIFORNIA

GALEN CLARK

1907

Copyright 1904, by Galen Clark

TO MY FRIEND CHARLES HOWARD BURNETT

Contents

INTRODUCTION AND SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR ix

CHAPTER I. EARLY HISTORY 1 II. EFFECTS OF THE WAR 14 III. CUSTOMS AND CHARACTERISTICS 21 IV. SOURCES OF FOOD SUPPLY 31 V. RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES AND BELIEFS 49 VI. NATIVE INDUSTRIES 67 VII. MYTHS AND LEGENDS 76

APPENDIX:
Hints to Yosemite Visitors 101
Official Table of Distances and Livery
Charges 105
Supplementary Table of Distances 107
Interpretation of Indian Names 107
Tables of Altitudes 110
Names of Indian Numerals 111
Indian Words in Common Use 111
Tribes Placed on Reservations in 1850-51 112

List of Illustrations

COVER DESIGN Mrs. Jorgensen FRONTISPIECE, GALEN CLARK Taber

PAGE

YOSEMITE FALLS, Fiske 3 AN INDIAN DANCER, Boysen 8 THREE BROTHERS, Foley 13 CAPTAIN PAUL, Foley 17 YOSEMITE MOTHER AND PAPOOSE, Boysen 20 INDIAN O´-CHUM, Jorgensen 25 YOSEMITE MAIDEN IN NATIVE DRESS, Jorgensen 27 A YOSEMITE HUNTER, Jorgensen 32 INDIAN SWEAT HOUSE, Jorgensen 34 CHUCK´-AH, Mrs. Jorgensen 39 HO´-YAS AND ME-TATS´, Fiske 42 A WOOD GATHERER, Fiske 47 A YOUNG YOSEMITE, Dove 53 LENA AND VIRGIL, Boysen 55 OLD KALAPINE, Boysen 62 YOSEMITE BASKETRY, Boysen 66 MRS. JORGENSEN'S BASKETS 68 INDIAN BEAD WORK, Fiske 70 A BASKET MAKER, Boysen 73 MARY, Boysen 79 HALF DOME, Foley 84 A BURDEN BEARER, Fiske 88 EL CAPITAN, Foley 91 NORTH DOME, Foley 93 BRIDAL VEIL, FALL, Fiske 97

Introduction and Sketch of the Author

Galen Clark, the author of this little volume, is one of the notable characters of California, and the one best fitted to record the customs and traditions of the Yosemite Indians, but it was only after much persuasion that his friends succeeded in inducing him to write the history of these interesting people, with whom he has been in close communication for half a century.

The Indians of the Yosemite are fast passing away. Only a handful now remain of the powerful tribes that once gathered in the Valley and considered it an absolute stronghold against their white enemies. Even in their diminished numbers and their comparatively civilized condition, they are still a source of great interest to all visitors, and it has been suggested many times that their history, customs and legends should be put in permanent and convenient form, before they are entirely lost.

Many tales and histories of the California Indians have been written by soldiers and pioneers, but Mr. Clark has told the story of these people from their own standpoint, and with a sympathetic understanding of their character. This fresh point of view gives double interest to his narrative.

Galen Clark comes of a notable family; his English ancestors came to the State of Massachusetts in the seventeenth century, but he is a native of the Town of Dublin, Cheshire County, New Hampshire, born on the 28th day of March, 1814, and is consequently nearly ninety years of age, but still alert and active in mind and body.

He attended school in his early youth during the winter months, and worked on a farm during the summer, leading nearly the same life which was followed by so many others who afterwards became famous in our country's history.

Later in life he learned chair-making and painting, an occupation which he followed for some years, when he removed to Philadelphia and subsequently to New York City.

Whilst residing in New York, in 1853, he resolved, after mature reflection, to visit the new Eldorado. His attention was first attracted to this State by visiting the celebrated Crystal Palace in New York, where was then on exhibition quantities of gold dust which had been sent or brought East by successful miners.

Mr. Clark left New York for California in October, 1853, coming via the Isthmus of Panama, and in due time reached his destination. In 1854 he went to Mariposa County, attracted thither by the wonderful accounts of the gold discoveries, and the marvelous stories he had heard of the grandeur and beauty of the Yosemite Valley and the surrounding mountains.

Upon his first arrival in Mariposa, he engaged in mining, and was also employed to assist in surveying Government land on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley, and canals for mining purposes, some of which passed through the celebrated "Mariposa Grant," the subject of prolonged and bitter litigation, both in this country and in Europe. He probably knows more about the actual facts concerning the Mariposa Grant than any one now living, and it is to be hoped that some day he may overcome his natural repugnance to notoriety, and give to the public the benefit of his knowledge.

In the year 1855 Mr. Clark made his first trip into the Yosemite Valley with a party made up in Mariposa and Bear Valley.

Returning to Mariposa, he resumed his old occupation of surveying and mining, and, whilst so engaged, by reason of exposure, had a serious attack of lung trouble, resulting in severe hemorrhages which threatened to end his life.

He then removed, in April, 1857, to the South Fork of the Merced River, and built a log cabin in one of the most beautiful of our mountain valleys, on the spot where Wawona now stands. He soon recovered his health entirely, and, though constantly exposed to the winter storms and snows, has never had a recurrence of his malady.

Wawona is twenty-six miles from Yosemite, and at that time became known as Clark's Station, being on the trail leading from Mariposa to the Valley, and a noted stopping place for travelers. This trail, as well as one from Coulterville, was completed to the Valley in 1857, and the trip to Yosemite then involved a stage ride of ninety-two miles, and a journey of sixty miles more on horseback. In 1874 and 1875 the three present stage roads were constructed through to the Valley.

All travelers by the Raymond route will remember Wawona and the surroundings; the peaceful valley, the swift-flowing Merced, and the surrounding peaks and mountains, almost equaling in grandeur the famous Yosemite itself.

In the early days this locality was annually visited by several bands of Indians from the Chowchilla and Fresno rivers. The Indian name for the place was Pal-lah´-chun. Whilst residing there Mr. Clark was in constant contact with these visiting tribes; he obtained their confidence, and retains it to this day.

Whilst on a hunting trip, in the summer of 1857, Mr. Clark discovered and made known to the public the famous Big Tree Grove, now known all over the world as the "Mariposa Grove of Big Trees," belonging to the State of California. On this expedition he did not follow the route now traveled, but came upon the grove at the upper end, near the place where the road to Wawona Point now branches off from the main drive. The spot where he caught his first view of the Big Trees has been appropriately marked, and can be seen from the stage road.

So impressed was Mr. Clark with the importance of his discovery, that he opened up a good horse trail from Wawona to the Trees, and shortly afterwards built a log cabin in the grove, for the comfort and convenience of visitors in bad or stormy weather. This cabin became known as "Galen's Hospice."

In the year 1864 the Congress of the United States passed an Act, which was approved in June of the same year, granting to the State of California the "Yosemite Valley" and the "Mariposa Grove of Big Trees." This grant was made upon certain conditions, which were complied with by the State, and a Commission was appointed by Governor Low to manage and govern the Valley and the Big Tree Grove. Galen Clark was, of course, selected as one of the commissioners. He was subsequently appointed Guardian of the Valley, and under his administration many needed improvements were made and others suggested. Bridges were built, roads constructed on the floor of the Valley, and trails laid out and finished to various points of interest overlooking the Valley itself. In a word, the Guardian did everything possible with the limited means at his disposal.

After serving twenty-four years, Mr. Clark voluntarily retired from the position of Guardian, carrying with him the respect and admiration of every member of the Commission, of all the residents of the Valley, and of every visitor who enjoyed the pleasure of his personal acquaintance.

As showing the opinion of those with whom Mr. Clark was intimately and officially associated for so long a time, the following resolutions passed by the Board of Commissioners upon his voluntary retirement from the office of Guardian, are herein given:

Whereas, Galen Clark has for a long number of years been
closely identified with Yosemite Valley, and has for a
considerable portion of that time been its Guardian; and

Whereas, he has now, by his own choice and will,
relinquished the trust confided in him and retired into
private life; and

Whereas, his faithful and eminent services as Guardian, his
constant efforts to preserve, protect and enhance the
beauties of Yosemite; his dignified, kindly and courteous
demeanor to all who have come to see and enjoy its wonders,
and his upright and noble life, deserve from us a fitting
recognition and memorial; Now, Therefore, be it

Resolved, That the cordial assurance of the appreciation by
this Commission of the efforts and labors of Galen Clark, as
Guardian of Yosemite, in its behalf, be tendered and
expressed to him.

That we recognize in him a faithful, efficient and worthy
citizen and officer of this Commission and of the State;
that he will be followed into his retirement by the
sincerest and best wishes of this Commission, individually
and as a body, for continued long life and constant
happiness.

The subject of this sketch is one of the most modest of men; but perfectly self-reliant, and always actively engaged in some useful work. He has resided in the Valley for more than twenty summers, and has also been a resident during many winters, and his descriptions of the Valley, when wrapped in snow and ice, are intensely interesting. Though always ready to give information, he is naturally reticent, and never forces his stories or reminiscences upon visitors; indeed it requires some persuasion to hear him talk about himself at all. For some years Mr. Clark was postmaster of Yosemite; and he has made many trips on foot, both in winter and summer, in and out of the Valley.

In September, 1903, this writer made a trip through the high Sierras from Yosemite, and, upon reaching the top of the Valley Mr. Clark was met coming down the trail, having in charge a party of his friends, amongst whom was a lady with her two small children. This was at a point 2700 feet above the floor of the Valley, which is itself 4000 feet above the level of the sea.

Needless to say, he is perfectly familiar with all the mountain trails, and, notwithstanding his great age, he easily makes long trips on foot and horseback which would fatigue a much younger man. Mr. Clark is thoroughly familiar with the flora, fauna and geology of the Valley and its surroundings. His knowledge of botany is particularly accurate, a knowledge gleaned partly from books, but mainly from close personal observation, the best possible teacher.

His long residence in Yosemite has made him familiar with every spot, his love for the Valley is deep and strong, and when he departs this life his remains will rest close to the Yosemite Falls, in the little grave yard where other pioneers are buried.

With his own hands he has dug his grave, and quarried his own tombstone from one of the massive blocks of granite found in the immediate neighborhood. His monument now rests in his grave, and when it is removed to receive his remains, will be used to mark his last resting place. His grave is surrounded by a neat fence, and trees, shrubs and vines, which he has himself planted, grow around in great profusion. In each corner of the lot is a young _Sequoia_.

May it be many years before he is called to occupy his last earthly tenement.

W.W. FOOTE.

_San Francisco, February, 1904_.

INDIANS OF THE YOSEMITE

INDIANS OF THE YOSEMITE

Chapter One.

EARLY HISTORY.

During the past few years a rapidly growing interest in the native Indians has been manifested by a large majority of visitors to the Yosemite Valley. They have evinced a great desire to see them in their rudely constructed summer camps, and to purchase some articles of their artistic basket and bead work, to take away as highly prized souvenirs.

They are also anxious to learn something of their former modes of life, habits and domestic industries, before their original tribal relations were ruthlessly broken up by the sudden advent of the white population of gold miners and others in 1850, and the subsequent war, in which the Indians were defeated, and, as a result, nearly exterminated.

ORIGIN OF THE YOSEMITE INDIANS.

According to statements made by Teneiya _(Ten-eye´-ya)_ [see footnote] chief of the Yosemites, to Dr. L.H. Bunnell, and published by him in his book on the "Discovery of the Yosemite", the original Indian name of the Valley was Ah-wah´-nee, which has been translated as "deep grassy valley", and the Indians living there were called Ah-wah-nee´-chees, which signified "dwellers in Ah-wah´-nee."

[Footnote: The Indian names are usually pronounced exactly as spelled, with each syllable distinctly sounded, and the principal accent on the penult, as in Ah-wah´-nee, or the antepenult, as in Yo-sem´-i-te. Where doubt might exist, the accent will be indicated, or the pronunciation given in parenthesis.]

[Transcriber's note: The remaining footnotes in the original text are moved, in the present version, into the line of text and are marked by square brackets, thus: Ah-wah´-nee [Yosemite Valley].]

Many years ago, the old chief said, the Ah-wah-nee´-chees had been a large and powerful tribe, but by reason of wars and a fatal black sickness, nearly all had been destroyed, and the survivors of the band fled from the Valley and joined other tribes.

For years afterwards this locality was uninhabited, but finally Teneiya, who claimed to be descended from an Ah-wah-nee´-chee chief, left the Mo´nos, where he had born and brought up, and, gathering of his father's old tribe around him, visited the Valley and claimed it as the birthright of his people. He then became the founder of a new tribe or band, which received the name "Yo-sem´-i-te." This word signifies a full-grown grizzly bear, and Teneiya said that the name had been given to his band because they occupied the mountains and valley which were the favorite resort of the grizzly bears, and his people were expert in killing them; that his tribe had adopted the name because those who had bestowed it were afraid of the grizzlies, and also feared his band.

The Yosemites were perhaps the most warlike of any of the tribes in this part of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, who were, as a rule, a peaceful people, dividing the territory among them, and indulging in few controversies. In fact, these Indians in general were less belligerent and warlike than any others on the Pacific Coast. When difficulties arose, they were usually settled peacefully by arbitration, in a grand council of the chiefs and head men of the tribes involved, without resorting to open hostilities.

OTHER TRIBES.

Other bands of Indians in the vicinity of the Yosemite Valley were the Po-ho-nee´-chees who lived near the headwaters of the Po-ho´-no or Bridal Veil Creek in summer, and on the South Fork of the Merced´ River in winter, about twelve miles below Wawo´na; the Po-to-en´-cies, who lived on the Merced River; Wil-tuc-um´-nees, Tuol´-unme River; Noot´-choos and Chow-chil´-las, Chowchilla Valley; Ho-na´-ches and Me´-woos, Fresno River and vicinity; and Chook-chan´-ces, San Joaquin River and vicinity.

These tribes, including the Yosemites, were all somewhat affiliated by common ancestry or by intermarriage, and were similar in their general characteristics and customs. They were all called by the early California settlers, "Digger Indians," as a term of derision, on account of their not being good fighters, and from their practice of digging the tuberous roots of certain plants, for food.

INDIAN WAR OF 1851.

Dr. Bunnell, in his book already referred to, has given the soldiers' and white men's account of the cause of the Indian war of 1851, but a statement of the grievances on the part of the Indians, which caused the uniting of all the different tribes in the mining region adjacent to Yosemite, in an attempt to drive the white invaders from their country, has never been published, and a brief account of these grievances may be interesting.

AGGRESSIONS BY THE WHITE SETTLERS.

The first parties of prospecting miners were welcomed by the Indians with their usual friendliness and hospitality toward strangers--a universal characteristic of these tribes,--and the mining for gold was watched with great interest. They soon learned the value of the gold dust, and some of them engaged in mining, and exchanged their gold at the trading stations for blankets and fancy trinkets, at an enormous profit to the traders, and peace and good feeling prevailed for a short time.

The report of the rich gold "diggin's" on the waters of the Tuolumne, Merced, Mariposa, Chowchilla, and Fresno Rivers, soon spread, and miners by thousands came and took possession of the whole country, paying no regard to the natural rights or wishes of the Indians.

Some of the Indian chiefs made the proposition that if the miners would give them some of the gold which they found in their part of the country, they might stay and work. This offer was not listened to by the miners, and a large majority of the white invaders treated the natives as though they had no rights whatever to be respected. In some instances, where Indians had found and were working good mining claims, they were forcibly driven away by white miners, who took possession of their claims and worked them.

Moreover, the Indians saw that their main sources of food supply were being rapidly destroyed. The oak trees, which produced the acorns--one of their staple articles of food,--were being cut down and burned by miners and others in clearing up land for cultivation, and the deer and other food game were being rapidly killed off or driven from the locality.

In the "early days," before California was admitted as a free State into the Union, it was reported, and was probably true, that some of the immigrants from the slave-holding States took Indians and made slaves of them in working their mining claims. It was no uncommon event for the sanctity of their homes and families to be invaded by some of the "baser sort," and young women taken, willing or not, for servants and wives.

RETALIATION.

In retaliation, and as some compensation for these many grievous outrages upon their natural inalienable rights of domain and property, and their native customs, the Indians stole horses and mules from the white settlers, and killed them for food for their families, who, in many instances, were in a condition of starvation.

Finally the chiefs and leading men of all the tribes involved met in a grand council, and resolved to combine their warrior forces in one great effort to drive all their white enemies from the country, before they became more numerous and formidable.

BEGINNING OF HOSTILITIES.

To prepare for this struggle for existence, they made raids upon some of the principal trading posts in the mining sections, killed those in charge, took all the blankets, clothing and provisions they could carry away, and fled to the mountains, where they were soon pursued by the soldiers and volunteer citizens, and a spirited battle was fought without any decisive advantage to either side.

The breaking out of actual hostilities created great excitement among the whites, and an urgent call was made upon the Governor of the State for a military force to meet the emergency, and protect the settlers--a force strong enough to thoroughly subdue the Indians, and remove all of them to reservations to be selected by the United States Indian Commissioners for that purpose.

Meantime the Governor and the Commissioners, who had then arrived, were receiving numerous communications, many of them from persons in high official positions, earnestly urging a more humane and just policy, averring that the Indians had real cause for complaint, that they had been "more sinned against than sinning" since the settling of California by the whites, and that they were justly entitled to protection by the Government and compensation for the spoliations and grievances they had suffered.

These protests doubtless had some influence in delaying hostile measures, and in the inauguration of efforts to induce the Indians to come in and treat with the Commissioners, envoys being sent out to assure them of fair treatment and personal safety. Many of the Indians accepted these offers, and, as the different tribes surrendered, they were taken to the two reservations which the Commissioners had established for them on the Fresno River, the principal one being a few miles above the place where the town of Madera is now located.

As before stated, these Indians were not a warlike people. Their only weapons were their bows and arrows, and these they soon found nearly useless in defending themselves at long range against soldiers armed with rifles. Moreover, their stock of provisions was so limited that they either had to surrender or starve.

DISCOVERY OF YOSEMITE VALLEY.

The Yosemites and one or two other bands of Indians had refused to surrender, and had retreated to their mountain strongholds, where they proposed to make a last determined resistance. Active preparations were accordingly made by the State authorities to follow them, and either capture or exterminate all the tribes involved. For this purpose a body of State volunteers, known as the Mariposa Battalion, was organized, under the command of Major James D. Savage, to pursue these tribes into the mountains; and, after many long marches and some fighting, the Indians were all defeated, captured, and, with their women and children, put upon the reservations under strong military guard.

It was during this campaign that Major Savage and his men discovered the Yosemite Valley, about the 21st of March, 1851, while in pursuit of the Yosemites, under old Chief Teneiya, for whom Lake Teneiya and Teneiya Canyon have appropriately been named.

Chapter Two.

EFFECTS OF THE WAR.

The Yosemites and all of the other tribes named in the previous chapter were put upon the Fresno reservation. Major Savage, who had been the leading figure in the war against the Indians, was perhaps their best friend while in captivity, and finally lost his life in a personal quarrel, while resenting a wrong which had been committed against them.

The tribes from south of the San Joaquin River, who were also conquered in 1851, were put upon the Kings River and Tejon (_Tay-hone´_) reservations.

LIFE ON THE RESERVATIONS.

Ample food supplies, blankets, clothing and cheap fancy articles were furnished by the Government for the subsistence, comfort and pleasure of the Indians on the reservations, and for a short time they seemed to be contented, and to enjoy the novelty of their new mode of life. The young, able-bodied men were put to work assisting in clearing, fencing and cultivating fields for hay and vegetables, and thus they were partially self-supporting. A large portion of them, however, soon began to tire of the restraints imposed, and longed for their former condition of freedom, and many of them sickened and died.

Old Teneiya, chief of the "Grizzlies," was particularly affected by the change in his surroundings, and by the humiliation of defeat. He suffered keenly from the hot weather of the plains, after his free life in the mountains, and begged to be allowed to return to his old home, promising not to disturb the white settlers in any way, a pledge which he did not break.

DEATH OF TENEIYA.

Teneiya was finally allowed to depart, with his family, after having been on the reservation only a few months, and some of his old followers afterwards stole away and joined him. With this remnant of his band he returned to the Yosemite, but not long afterwards they were set upon by the Monos, a tribe from the eastern side of the Sierras, with whom they had quarreled, and the old chief and many of his warriors were killed. It was perhaps fitting that he should meet his death in the valley which he loved, and which he had so long defended against his enemies.

RESTORED TO LIBERTY.

In 1855, after four years of confinement on the reservations, an agreement was made with the Indian Commissioners, by the head men of the tribes, that if their people were again allowed their freedom, they would forever remain in peace with the white settlers, and try and support themselves free of expense to the Government. They were soon permitted to leave, and have ever since faithfully kept their promise.

Most of them went back to the vicinity of their old homes, and made temporary settlements on unoccupied Government land, as many of their old village sites were now in possession of white settlers. As there was a very large crop of acorns that season, they gathered an abundant supply for winter use, and, with what was given to them in the way of food and clothing by some of the white settlers, they managed to get through the winter fairly well.

HARDSHIP AND SUFFERING.

Their four years' residence on the reservations, however, had been more of a school in the vices of the whites than one of a higher education. They became demoralized socially, addicted to many bad habits, and left the reservations in worse condition than when they were taken there. Their old tribal relations and customs were nearly broken up, though they still had their head men to whom they looked for counsel in all important matters.

As the country became more settled, much of their main food supply, the acorns, was consumed by the domestic animals of the ranchers, and their mode of living became more precarious and transitory, and many of them were, at times, in a condition near to starvation. In these straitened and desperate circumstances, many of their young women were used as commercial property, and peddled out to the mining camps and gambling saloons for money to buy food, clothing or whisky, this latter article being obtained through the aid of some white person, in violation of law.

Their miserable, squalid condition of living opened the way for diseases of a malignant character, which their medicine men could not cure, and their numbers were rapidly reduced by death.

At the present time there are not in existence a half-dozen of the old Yosemites who were living, even as children, when the Valley was first discovered in 1851; and many of the other tribes have been correspondingly reduced.

Chapter Three.

CUSTOMS AND CHARACTERISTICS.

As stated in a previous chapter, all of the Indian tribes occupying the region in the vicinity of the Yosemite Valley were more or less affiliated by blood and intermarriage and resembled each other in their customs, characteristics and religious beliefs. What is said, therefore, on these subjects in the following pages, will be understood to apply generally to all of the tribes which have been mentioned as inhabiting this region, although, of course, minor differences did exist, principally due to environment. As in the case of all primitive peoples, their mode of life, food supply, etc., were largely determined by natural conditions, and the tribes living in the warm foot-hills differed somewhat in these respects from those dwelling higher in the mountains.

DIVISION OF TERRITORY.

In their original tribal settlements, at the time the first pioneer whites came among them, the Indians had well defined or understood boundary lines, between the territories claimed by each tribe for their exclusive use in hunting game and gathering means of support; and any trespassing on the domain of others was likely to cause trouble. This arrangement, however, did not apply to the higher ranges of the Sierras, which were considered common hunting ground.

COMMERCE AMONG THE TRIBES.

As there was a difference in the natural products and resources of different sections of the country, there was a system of reciprocal trade in the exchange of the different desirable commodities. Sometimes commerce between tribes extended for a long distance, as, for instance, the Indians on the western side of the Sierra Nevada Mountains were entirely dependent upon the Pai-utes _(Pye-yutes´)_ on the eastern side for the obsidian, a kind of volcanic glass, from which they made the points for their most deadly arrows, used in hunting large game or when in mortal combat with their enemies. They were also dependent upon the Pai-utes for their supply of salt for domestic use, which came in solid blocks as quarried from salt mines, said to be two days' travel on foot from Mono Lake.

From the Indians at or near the Catholic Missions to the South, on the Pacific Coast, they got their hunting knives of iron or steel, and sea shells of various kinds, for personal or dress ornaments, and also to be used as money. From the same source they obtained beads of various forms, sizes and colors, cheap jewelry and other fancy articles, a few blankets, and pieces of red bunting, strips of which the chiefs and head men wore around their heads as badges, indicating their official positions.

COMMUNICATION.

They had a very efficient system of quickly spreading important news by relays of special couriers, who took the news to the first stations or tribes in different directions, where others took the verbal dispatches and ran to the next station, and so on, so that all tribes within an area of a hundred miles would get the good or bad tidings within a few hours. In this manner important communication was kept up between the different tribes. They also had well organized signal systems, by fires in the night and smoke by day, on high points of observation--variations in the lights (either steady, bright or flashing) indicating somewhat the character of the tidings thus given.

DWELLINGS.

Their winter huts, or _o´-chums_, as they termed them, were invariably of a conical form, made with small poles, and covered with the bark of the incense cedar (_Libocedrus decurrens_). A few poles ten or twelve feet long were set in the ground around an area of about twelve feet in diameter, with their tops inclined together. The outside was then closely covered with long strips of the cedar bark, making it perfectly water-tight. An opening was left on the south side for an entrance, which could be readily closed with a portable door. An opening was also left at the top for the escape of the smoke, a fire being kindled in the center inside.

One of these huts would hold a family of a half-dozen persons, with all their household property, dogs included; and there is no other form of a single-room dwelling that can be kept warm and comfortable in cold weather with so little fire, as this Indian _o´-chum._

Their under-bedding usually consisted of the skins of bears, deer, antelope or elk, and the top covering was a blanket or robe made of the skins of small fur-bearing animals, such as rabbits, hares, wildcats and foxes. The skins were cut in narrow strips, which were loosely twisted so as to bring the fur entirely around on the outside, and then woven into a warp of strong twine made of the fine, tough, fibrous bark of a variety of milkweed (_Asclepias speciosa_). These fur robes were very warm, and were also used as wraps when traveling in cold weather.

During the warm summer season they generally lived outside in brush arbors, and used their _o´-chums_ as storage places.

CLOTHING.

Their clothing was very simple and scant, before being initiated into the use of a more ample and complete style of covering while living at the reservations. The ordinary full complement of dress for a man (_Nung´-ah_) was simply a breech-clout, or short hip-skirt made of skins; that for a woman (_O´-hoh_) was a skirt reaching from the waist to the knees, made of dressed deerskin finished at the bottom with a slit fringe, and sometimes decorated with various fancy ornaments. Both men and women frequently wore moccasins made of dressed deer or elk skin. Young children generally went entirely nude.

CHARACTERISTICS.

The Indians of the various tribes in this part of the Sierras vary somewhat in physical characteristics, but in general are of medium height, strong, lean and agile, and the men are usually fine specimens of manhood. They are rather light in color, but frequently rub their bodies with some kind of oil, which gives the flesh a much redder and more glossy appearance. The hair is black and straight, and the eyes are black and deep set. The beard is sparse, and in former times was not allowed to grow at all, each hair being pulled out with a rude kind of tweezers. They are naturally of a gentle and friendly disposition, but their experience with the white race has made them distant and uncommunicative to strangers.

Most of the older Indians still cling to their old customs and manner of living, and are very slow to learn or talk our language, but the younger ones are striving to live like the white people, and seem proud to adopt our style of dress and manner of cooking. They all speak our language plainly, and some few of them attend the public schools when living near by, and acquire very readily the common rudiments of an education.

Their style of architecture is in a state of transition, like themselves. Their old _o´-chum_ form of dwelling is now very seldom seen--a rude building of more roomy and modern design having taken its place.

All the able-bodied men are ready and willing to work at any kind of common labor, when they have an opportunity, and have learned to want nearly the same amount of pay as a white man for the same work.

As a rule, they are trustworthy, and when confidence is placed in their honesty it is very rarely betrayed. During nearly the past fifty years, a great many thousands of people have visited the Yosemite Valley with their own camping outfits, and, during the day, and often all night, are absent on distant trips of observation, with no one left in charge of camp, yet there has never to my knowledge been an instance of anything being stolen or molested by Indians. There are, however, some dishonest Indians, who will steal from their own people, and some times, when a long distance from their own camp, they may steal from the whites. A few, if they can get whisky, through the aid of some white person, will become drunk and fight among themselves, and occasionally one of them may be killed; but, as a rule, they are peaceful and orderly, and hold sacred the promise made to the Indian Commissioners by the old tribal chiefs, when released from confinement on the reservations, that they would forever keep the peace, and never again make war against the white people.

Chapter Four.

SOURCES OF FOOD SUPPLY.

The food supply of the Sierra Indians was extensive and abundant, consisting of the flesh of deer, antelope, elk and mustang horses, together with fish, water-fowls, birds, acorns, berries, pine nuts, esculent herbage and the tuberous roots of certain plants, all of which were easily obtained, even with their simple and limited means of securing them. Mushrooms, fungi, grasshoppers, worms and the larvae of ants and other insects, were also eaten, and some of these articles were considered great delicacies.

HUNTING.

Their main effective weapons for hunting large game were their bows and obsidian-pointed arrows. Their manner of hunting was either by the stealthy still hunt, or a general turn-out, surrounding a large area of favorable country and driving to a common center, where at close range the hunters could sometimes make an extensive slaughter.

When on the still hunt for deer in the brushy, sparsely timbered foothills of the Sierra Range of mountains, or higher up in the extensive forests, some of the hunters wore for a headgear a false deer's head, by which deceptive device they were enabled to get to a closer and more effective range with their bows and arrows. This head-dress was made of the whole skin of a doe's head, with a part of the neck, the head part stuffed with light material, the eyeholes filled in with the green feathered scalp of a duck's head, and the top furnished with light wooden horns, the branching stems of the manzanita (_Arctostaphylos_) being generally used for this purpose. The neck part was made to fit on the hunter's head and fasten with strings tied under the chin. This unique style of headgear was used by some Indian hunters for many years after they had guns to hunt with.

The high ranges of the mountains, as already stated, were considered common hunting ground by the different tribes. The deer, many of them, were in some degree migratory in their habits, being driven from the higher ranges to the foothills by the deep winter snows, and in the spring following close to the melting, receding snow, back again to their favorite summer haunts.

Late in the summer, or early in the fall, just before holding some of their grand social or sacred festivals, the Indian hunters would make preparation for a big hunt in the mountains, to get a good supply of venison for the feast. One of the first absolute prerequisites was to go through a thorough course of sweating and personal cleansing. This was done by resorting to their sweat houses, which were similar in construction to the _o´-chums_, except that the top was rounded and the whole structure was covered thickly with mud and earth to exclude the air. These houses were heated with hot stones and coals of fire, and the hunters would then crawl into them and remain until in a profuse perspiration, when they would come out and plunge into cold water for a wash-off. This was repeated until they thought themselves sufficiently free from all bodily odor so that the deer could not detect their approach by scent, and flee for safety.

After this purification they kept themselves strictly as celibates until the hunt was over, though their women went along to help carry the outfit, keep camp, cook, search for berries and pine nuts, and assist in bringing to camp and taking care of the deer as killed, and in "packing" the meat out to the place of rendezvous appointed for the grand ceremonies and feast.

Their usual manner of cooking fresh meat was by broiling on hot coals, or roasting before the fire or in the embers. Sometimes, however, they made a cavity in the ground, in which they built a fire, which was afterwards cleared away and the cavity lined with very hot stones, on which they placed the meat wrapped in green herbage, and covered it with other hot rocks and earth, to remain until suitably cooked.

When they had a surplus of fresh meat they cut it in strips and hung it in the sun-shine to dry. The dried meat was generally cooked by roasting in hot embers, and then beaten to soften it before being eaten.

A young hunter never ate any of the first deer he killed, as he believed that if he did so he would never succeed in killing another.

FISHING.

They had various methods of catching fish--with hook and line, with a spear, by weir-traps in the stream, and by saturating the water with the juice of the soap-root plant (_Chlorogalum pomeridianum_). Before they could obtain fishhooks of modern make, they made them of bone. Their lines were made of the tough, fibrous, silken bark of the variety of milkweed or silkweed, already mentioned. Their spears were small poles pointed with a single tine of bone, which was so arranged that it became detached by the struggles of the fish, and was then held by a string fastened near its center, which turned it crosswise of the wound and made it act as an effective barb.

Their weir-traps were put in the rapids, and constructed by building wing dams diagonally down to the middle of the stream until the two ends came near together, and in this narrow outlet was placed a sort of wicker basket trap, made of long willow sprouts loosely woven together and closed at the pointed lower end, which was elevated above the surface of the water below the dam. The fish, in going down stream, ran into this trap, and soon found themselves at the lower end and out of the water.

The soap-root was used at a low stage of water, late in summer. They dug several bushels of the bulbous roots and went to a suitable place on the bank, where the roots were pounded into a pulp, and mixed with soil and water. This mixture, by the handful, was then rubbed on rocks out in the stream, which roiled the water and also made it somewhat foamy. The fish were soon affected by it, became stupid with a sort of strangulation, and rose to the surface, where they were easily captured by the Indians with their scoop baskets. In a stream the size of the South Fork of the Merced River at Wawona, by this one operation every fish in it for a distance of three miles would be taken in a few hours.

The fish were generally cooked by roasting on hot coals from burned oak wood or bark.

ACORNS AS FOOD.

Acorns were their main staple article of breadstuff, and they are still used by the present generation whenever they can be obtained.

They are gathered in the fall when ripe and are preserved for future use in the old style Indian _cache_ or storehouse. This consists of a structure which they call a _chuck´-ah_, which is a large basket-shaped receptacle made of long willow sprouts closely woven together. It is usually about six feet high and three feet in diameter. It is set upon stout posts about three feet high and supported in position by four longer posts on the outside, reaching to the top, and there bound firmly to keep them from spreading. The outside of the basket is thatched with small pine branches, points downward, to shed the rain and snow, and to protect the contents from the depredations of squirrels and woodpeckers. When filled, the top also is securely covered with bark, as a protection from the winter storms. When the acorns are wanted for use, a small hole is made at the bottom of the _chuck´-ah_, and they are taken out from time to time as required.

The acorns from the black or Kellogg's oak (_Quercus Californica_) are considered much the best and most nutritious by the Indians. This is the oak which is so beautiful and abundant in the Yosemite Valley.

These acorns are quite bitter, and are not eaten in their natural condition, as most fruit and nuts are eaten, but have to be quite elaborately prepared and cooked to make them palatable. First, the hull is cracked and removed, and the kernel pounded or ground into a fine meal. In the Yosemite Valley and at other Indian camps in the mountains, this is done by grinding with their stone pestles or _metats (may-tat´s)_ in the _ho´yas_ or mortars, worn by long usage in large flat-top granite rocks, one of which is near every Indian camp. Lower down in the foothills, where there are no suitable large rocks for these permanent mortars, the Indians used single portable stone mortars for this purpose.

After the acorns are ground to a fine meal, the next process is to take out the bitter tannin principle. This is done in the following manner: They make large shallow basins in clean washed sand, in the center of which are laid a few flat, fan-like ends of fir branches. A fire is then made near by, and small stones of four or five pounds in weight are heated, with which they warm water in some of their large cooking baskets, and mix the acorn meal with it to the consistency of thin gruel. This mixture is poured into the sand basins, and as the water leaches out into the sand it takes with it the bitter quality--the warm water being renewed until all the bitter taste is washed out from the meal sediment, or dough.

This is then taken, and, after being cleansed from the adhering sand, is put into cooking baskets, thinned down with hot water to the desired condition, and cooked by means of hot stones which are held in it with two sticks for tongs. The mush, while cooking, is stirred with a peculiar stirring stick, made of a tough oak sprout, doubled so as to form a round, open loop at one end, which is used in lifting out any loose stones. When the dough is well cooked, it is either left _en masse_ in the basket or scooped out in rolls and put into cold water to cool and warden before being eaten. Sometimes the thick paste is made into cakes and baked on hot rocks. One of these cakes, when rolled in paper, will in a short time saturate it with oil. This acorn food is probably more nutritious than any of the cereals.

INDIAN DOGS.

The Indian dogs, of which every family had several, are as fond of the acorn food as their owners. These dogs are made useful in treeing wild-cats, California lions and gray squirrels, and are very expert in catching ground squirrels by intercepting them when away from their burrows, and when the Indians drown them out in the early spring by turning water from the flooded streams into their holes.

As far as can be learned, dogs were about the only domestic animals which the Yosemites, and other adjacent tribes of Indians, kept for use before the country was settled by the white people.

NUTS AND BERRIES.

Pine nuts were another important article of food, and were much prized by the Indians. They are very palatable and nutritious, and are also greatly relished by white people whenever they can be obtained. The seeds of the Digger or nut pine (_Pinus Sabiniana_) were the ones most used on the western side of the Sierras, although the seeds of the sugar pine (_P. Lambertiana_) were also sometimes eaten. On account of their soft shell, nuts from the pinon pine (_P. monophylla_), which grows principally on the eastern side of the mountains, were considered superior to either of the other kinds, and were an important article of barter with the tribes of that region. All of these trees are very prolific, and their crop of nuts in fruitful years has been estimated to be even greater than the enormous wheat crop of California, although of course but a very small portion of it is ever gathered. Many other kinds of nuts and seeds were also eaten.

The principal berries used by the Indians of Yosemite and tribes lower down in the foothills were those of the manzanita (_Arctostaphylos glauca_). They are about the size of huckleberries, of a light brown color, and when ripe have the flavor of dried apples. They are used for eating, and also to make a kind of cider for drinking, and for mixing with some food preparations. Manzanita is the Spanish for "little apple," and this shrub, with its rich red bark and pale green foliage, is perhaps the most beautiful and most widely distributed in California. Strawberries, black raspberries, elderberries, wild cherries and the fruit of the Sierra plum (_Prunus subcordata_) are also used by the Indians, but wild edible berries are not as plentiful in California as they are in the Atlantic States.

GRASSHOPPERS AND WORMS.

In addition to the staple articles of food already mentioned, many other things were eaten when they could be obtained. These included grasshoppers, certain kinds of large tree worms, the white fungi which grows upon the oak, mushrooms, and the larvae and pupae of ants and other insects. The pupae of a certain kind of fly which breeds extensively on the shores of Mono Lake, about forty miles from Yosemite, was an important article of commerce across the mountains, and was made into a kind of paste called _ka-cha´-vee_, which is still much relished by the Indians, and is a prominent dish at their feasts.

The manner of catching grasshoppers was to dig a large hole, somewhat in the shape of a fly trap, with the bottom larger than the opening at the top, so that the insects could not readily get out of it. This hole was dug in the center of a meadow, which was then surrounded by Indians armed with small boughs, who beat the grasshoppers towards a common center and drove them into the trap. A fire was then kindled on top of them, and after they had been well roasted they were gathered up and stored for future use.

Other articles of food were various kinds of roots, grasses and herbage, some of which were cooked, while others were eaten in their natural condition. The lupine (_Lupinus bicolor_ and other species), whose brilliant flowers are such a beautiful feature of all the mountain meadows in the spring and summer, was a favorite plant for making what white people would call "greens," and when eaten was frequently moistened with some of the manzanita cider already referred to. Among the roots used for food were those of the wild caraway (_Carum_), wild hyacinth (_Brodioea_), sorrel (_Oxalis_), and camass (_Camassia esculenta_).

Chapter Five

RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES AND BELIEFS.

The Indians of this region, in common with most, if not all, of the North American aborigines, were of a highly religious temperament, most devout in their beliefs and observances, and easily wrought upon by the priests or medicine men of their tribes. Elaborate ceremonies were carried out, in which all of the details were highly symbolical, and some of their curious and picturesque superstitions were responsible for acts of cruelty and vengeance, which in many cases were foreign to their natural disposition.

DANCES.

Dancing was an important part of all religious observances, and was practiced purely as a ceremonial, and never for pleasure or recreation. Both men and women took part, the men executing a peculiar shuffling step which involved a great deal of stamping upon the ground with their bare feet, and the women performing a curious sideways, swaying motion. Some of the dancers carried wands or arrows, and indulged in wild gesticulations. They usually circled slowly around a fire, and danced to the point of exhaustion, when others would immediately take their places. The ceremony was accompanied by the beating of rude drums, and by a monotonous chant, which was joined in by all the dancers.

The great occasions for dancing were before going to war, and when cremating the bodies of their dead. The war dance was probably the most elaborate in costume and other details, and of recent years the Indians have sometimes given public exhibitions of what purported to be war dances, but these performances, like everything else which they do from purely mercenary motives, are very poor imitations of the originals, and it is doubtful if they have ever allowed a genuine war dance to be witnessed by white men.

FESTIVALS.

The various tribes in the vicinity of Yosemite Valley are accustomed to hold a great meeting or festival once a year, each tribe taking its turn as hosts, and the others sometimes coming from considerable distances. At these meetings there are dances and other ceremonials, and also a grand feast, for which extensive preparations are made. Another feature of the occasion is the presentation of gifts to the visiting tribes, consisting of money, blankets, clothing, baskets, bead-work, or other valuable articles. These presents, or their equivalent, no matter how small they may be, are always returned to the givers at the next annual festival, together with additional gifts, which, in turn, must be given back the following year, and so on.

At these gatherings an Indian is appointed to secure and keep on hand a good supply of wood for the camp fires, and every day he spreads a blanket on the ground and sits on it, and the other Indians throw money, clothing, or other contributions, into the blanket, to pay him and his assistants for their services. At other times this man acts as a messenger or news carrier--first spreading his blanket to collect his fees, and then starting off on his mission.

MARRIAGE.

Many of the Indians in Mariposa and adjoining counties were polygamists, having two or three, and sometimes more, wives. Some of the chiefs and head men would have wives from several of the adjacent tribes, which had a tendency to establish permanent friendly relations among them.