Chapter XXIV: (continued) (1)

OTHER DISTINGUISHED SCHOLARS OF OUR GAEDHLIC SCHOOLS.

"I'd rather turn one simple verse
True to the Gaelic ear,
Than classic odes I might rehearse
With Senates list'ning near."
--_M'Gee._

I.--GAEDHLIC SCHOLARS OF THE SIXTH AND SEVENTH CENTURIES.

Besides Cennfaeladh and Cormac Mac Cullinan, there were from the sixth to the seventh century at least twelve or thirteen other Gaedhlic writers, whose names cannot be passed over without some notice in a work like this. Our account of these writers, however, must necessarily be very brief, for in many cases little or nothing is known of the history of their lives, and to a great extent their writings are still unpublished. O'Curry[453] and O'Reilly[454] are the two principal authorities in this part of our subject.

The first on O'Curry's list is Amergin Mac Awley (Amalgaidh), the author of the celebrated work known as the _Dinnsenchus_. This ancient and highly interesting topographical poem was, it is said, compiled at Tara, so early as the year A.D. 550, that is, during the reign of Diarmaid Mac Cearbhaill, but it has certainly received some additions from later hands.

Amergin himself is described as chief poet of that monarch; but according to O'Reilly, he must not be confounded with another Amergin Mac Awley, who flourished towards the end of the seventh century, and was the author of some law tracts, copies of which are still extant in the library of Trinity College. The _Dinnsenchus_ has been recently published in _fac simile_ by Professor Atkinson of Trinity College. The work is specially interesting and valuable on account of the incidental historical references, which it contains, and the topographical information which it supplies. The stories themselves, though in many instances far-fetched and improbable, are not without their value in illustrating the habits and thoughts of our Celtic ancestors. Copies of this ancient tract are found in the _Book of Leinster_, the _Book of Ballymote_, and there is also an imperfect copy in the _Book of Leacan_, which shows the value that was set upon it by our ancient scholars. The published _fac simile_ copy is taken from the _Book of Leinster_.

Of Dallan Forgaill, who flourished towards the end of the sixth century, we have already spoken in connection with the Columbian Schools. Besides the _Amhra Cholumchille_, which is still extant, Dallan also composed an _Amhra_, or Elegy, on the death of St. Senan, or Senanus, of Scattery Island, in the estuary of the Shannon. He was recognised during his life as chief poet of all Erin, and he appears to have been on terms of friendly intimacy with Columcille. His death is said to have taken place in A.D. 598, shortly after that of Columcille himself.

Senchan Torpeist, then a young poet of known talents, was called upon to pronounce the usual bardic elegy on the death of the Chief Poet of Erin, and acquitted himself so creditably that he was unanimously chosen to take the vacant chair of Dallan Forgaill.[455] He was not insensible to the responsibilities of his high office; and hence, according to the account in the _Book of Leinster_, shortly after his acceptance of the post of chief poet, he called a meeting of all the _Files_ of Erin in order that they might take measures to recover the lost work known as the _Cuilmenn_, and which, it appears, contained the only complete copy of the celebrated historical tale known as the _Tain bo Chuailgne_. How it was recovered is told in prose by O'Curry, and by Ferguson[456] in a poem of marvellous imaginative power, which might have been fitly pronounced, if written in Gaedhlic, by Senchan himself. Senchan flourished during the first half of the seventh century, and though his travelling school was a large one, he appears to have always found a welcome in the court of the King Guaire the Hospitable, who dwelt at Durlus, near Gort, in the county Galway. O'Reilly says that one of Senchan's poems, in which he celebrates the victories of Fergus Mac Roy, is still extant in the _Book of Leacan_.

II.--GAEDHLIC SCHOLARS OF THE NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES.

The ninth was more remarkable than the eighth century for Gaedhlic scholars of distinction. Of these one of the most celebrated was Maelmura of Fathan, called also Maelmura of Othan, for it is the same name when the letter _F_ is aspirated and omitted as silent in the pronunciation. Maelmura merely means servant of Mura, the patron saint of Fathan. The parish of Fahan, which takes its name from St. Mura's ancient monastery near the village, is situated on the eastern shore of Lough Swilly, under the shadow of Slieve Snaght, the loftiest mountain of Inishowen. The death of Maelmura is noticed by the Four Masters, A.D. 884, and he is described as "a truly intelligent poet, and erudite historian in the Scotic language." The Masters also quote a _rann_, which declares that--

"There trod not the charming earth, there never flourished at affluent
Tara,
The great and fertile Erin never produced a man like the mild fine
Maelmura;
There sipped not death without sorrow, there mixed not a nobler face
with the dead;
The habitable earth did not close over a historian more illustrious."

These testimonies are extracted from the _Leabhar Gabhala_ of the O'Clerys, and sufficiently show the estimation in which Maelmura was held by our ancient Celtic scholars.

There is a poem published in the Irish _Nennius_,[457] which is attributed to Maelmura, and which really appears to be a composition of very considerable merit. The language is very striking, and the Gaedhlic original has a stately rhythm, as well as much vigour both of thought and language. It contains 335 lines, and purports to give poetical account of the origin of the Gaedhil, "men of high renown in stiff battles, whom the mighty stream of Ocean wafted hither to Erin." These epithets are quite Homeric, and are not lavished with the prodigality too common to our Irish bards, but employed with discriminating intelligence to lend a poetic vigour to the historical narration. There is another poem of Maelmura quoted by O'Reilly in praise of Tuathal Techtmar, whom he describes with similar vigour as a flowing ocean, in strength a lion, a wily serpent, and a wounding warrior.

In another poem he gives a catalogue of all the monarchs, of Erin from this Tuathal to Flann Sionna, the reigning king in his own time. It is highly probable that Maelmura was educated at the monastic School of Fahan, which from its foundation by St. Mura seems to have been a very celebrated establishment. The founder's Book and Bell were long treasured as precious relics in Inishowen.

Flann Mac Lonan was another celebrated historical poet, who flourished during the latter half of the ninth century. He appears to have been a native of South Connaught, and held the high office of Chief Poet of Erin during the earlier years of the reign of Flann Sionna. He is described as Flann O'Guaire in the _Annals of Ulster_; and the Genealogies of the Hy-Fiachrach represent him as ninth in descent from Guaire Aidhne, the celebrated king of the Southern Hy-Fiachrach, who flourished during the first half of the seventh century. It was from the same stock that the O'Clerys derived their descent, so that a love of poetry and history seems to have been hereditary in that tribe. It is evident also from the writings of Flann that he was patronised by Lorcan, king of Thomond, the grandfather of Brian Boru, and also by his son, Cinnedigh, the father of the hero of Clontarf. This King-poet, as he is called, met with an untimely end. He was assassinated by the Ui Fothaith at Loch-Dachaech in Desmond. Loch-Dachaech, the Lake of the two Blind Men, appears to be a part of the estuary of Waterford Harbour;[458] but what motive can have instigated the sons of Corrbuidhe to murder the harmless poet does not appear. He is described by the Four Masters as the Virgil of the race of Scota--the Milesian Irish--Chief Poet of the Gaedhil, and the best poet that was in Ireland in his time. The _Annals of Ulster_ give the true date of his death at A.D. 895, where they record how "Flann, son of Lonan O'Guaire, was slain by the Desi of Munster."

Copies of three poems written by Flann still remain in manuscript. The first is a poem of eighty-eight verses, celebrating a great victory, which Lorcan of Kincora gained over Flann Sionna, the King of Erin. The second also, containing forty-eight verses, celebrates the warlike exploits of the same hero, and the third describes his royal residence of Kincora so rich in wealth, and harvest stores, and so beautifully situated on the Shannon just where Lough Derg contracts its waters to force a passage through the hills of Ara to the sea.

The two most distinguished poet-historians of the tenth century were Cinaeth O'Hartigan and Eochaidh O'Flinn. Cinaeth is described by Tighernach as the chief of the learned men of Leath Cuinn. He was also Chief Poet of Erin, and was the son of Cernach the Haughty,[459] who was grandson of Aedh Slaine, High King of Tara. Sprung from the royal race of the Southern Hy-Niall, it was only natural that Cinaeth should devote his talents to celebrate the ancient glories of the then deserted Tara, and of the heroes and heroines who once thronged its waste and silent halls. These poems are preserved in the _Dinnsenchus_, and are especially valuable for the information they contain with reference to Tara and the reign of Cormac Mac Art. He also gives an account of the origin of Aicill, and of the Book which takes its name from the hill, and has been published in the third volume of the Brehon Law series.[460]

Eochaid O'Flinn was a still more celebrated poet-historian, and it is quite evident from the care that was taken to preserve his numerous compositions that his works were very highly valued by all our ancient Celtic scholars. We find copies of his poems in the collections at all the great schools, and preserved by our greatest scholars. They are to be found in the _Dinnsenchus_, the _Book of Invasions_, the _Book of Leacan_, the _Book of Ballymote_, the _Book of Glendaloch_, as well as in several other compilations and manuscripts. One of the most important of these is a chronological poem contained both in the _Book of Leinster_ and the _Book of Leacan_, in which the writer gives a list of the Ulster Kings from Cimbaoth to Fergus Fogha. Tighernach recognises the historical authority of this poem, which he follows in his own great work, and which, so far as it goes, seems to have been his chief source of information both for his facts and his dates, at least as regards the kings of Emania.[461] In another poem he gives an interesting account of the invasion of Ireland by Partholanus, which has been copied into the _Book of Invasions_ by the O'Clerys.

Keating, too, borrows largely from the poems of O'Flinn, of which a very full list may be seen in O'Reilly's _Writers_,[462] but which it is unnecessary for us to reproduce here. We must not suppose that O'Flinn and his contemporaries drew largely on their imagination for the contents of those poems. They did nothing of the kind. They simply put in form the bardic traditions that were handed down in writing with the greatest care from time immemorial. If they had dared to invent anything new to their learned contemporaries, they would at once have been dismissed from the office of Chroniclers of Erin, and would besides have been severely punished. It is evident, too, that they had earlier documents which they made use of in the composition of their own poems, but which were all unfortunately lost during the Danish invasions. There was, however, always a regular succession of these poets whose duty it was to get by rote the historical traditions of their predecessors, which were thus preserved for posterity.

III.--GAEDHLIC SCHOLARS OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY.

Mac Liag, Secretary of Brian Boru, held that office during the reign of Brian in the kingdom of Thomond, and his extant work--_The Wars of the Gaedhill with the Gaill_--shows how thoroughly and conscientiously he discharged his official duties. It was one of the very earliest compositions of this character written in prose; but when he wishes to be particularly eloquent and impressive, and rise to the dignity of some great theme, he has recourse to poetry. To record the events of his own time in Thomond was not, however, his only duty and his only task, although it was undoubtedly his primary work, for the vigorous and warlike Brian kept his hands as a contemporary chronicler pretty full of work. His 'Lament' for Brian after the battle of Clontarf is one of the most beautiful and pathetic poems to be found in any language. Even Clarence Mangan could not reproduce all the touching pathos of the original.

"Oh, where, Kincora! is Brian the Great?
And where is the beauty that once was thine?
Oh, where are the princes and nobles that sate
At the feast in thy halls and drank the red wine?

"They are gone, those heroes of royal birth,
Who plundered no churches, and broke no trust,
'Tis weary for me to be living on earth,
When they, oh, Kincora, lie low in the dust.

"I am Mac Liag, and my home is on the Lake;
Thither often to that palace whose beauty is fled,
Came Brian to ask me, and I went for his sake,
Oh, my grief that I should live and Brian be dead."

Neither Colgan, Keating, nor the Four Masters expressly name Mac Liag as the author of the _Wars of the Gaedhill with the Gaill_.[463] Dr. Todd, the editor of that work in the Rolls Series, declares that Dr. O'Connor had no sufficient authority to justify him in attributing the work to Mac Liag, and declines to do so himself, although he admits that the work was originally compiled by one, who was either an eye-witness of the battle of Clontarf, or who had certainly derived his information from those who were eye-witnesses. Our own opinion is that although there is no direct evidence to prove that the book was written by Mac Liag, the circumstantial evidence, to which we cannot now refer at length, is entirely in favour of that supposition.

This work is exceedingly valuable as the trustworthy record of a contemporary writer during one of the most important epochs of Irish history, and its careful perusal will be found to throw much light on the history of that period. The author is much too fond of indulging in high-flown descriptions, and of unduly multiplying bombastic compounds. But, on the other hand, notwithstanding this wordiness, he frequently writes in a spirit of genuine eloquence, as for instance when he describes the Danish oppression in Ireland, and "the excess of their thirst and hunger for the brave, fruitful, nobly-inhabited, cataractful rivers and bays, and for the pure, smooth-plained, sweet-grassy land of Erinn." He tells how, if there were but one milk-giving cow in the house, she durst not be milked for an infant of one night, nor for a sick person, but must be kept for the steward, or bailiff, or soldier of the foreigners. And however long he might be absent from the house, his share or his supply durst not be lessened; "although there was in the house but one cow, it must be killed for the meal of one night, if the means of a supply could not otherwise be procured."[464]

But the good sword of King Brian soon changed all that. "He conquered, exterminated, enslaved, and bondaged them, so that there was not a winnowing sheet from Benn Edair to Tech Duinn in Western Erin, that had not a foreigner in bondage on it, nor was there a quern without a foreign woman. So that no son of a soldier, or of an officer of the Gaedhil, deigned to put his hand to a flail, or any other labour on earth; nor did a woman deign to put her hands to the grinding of a quern, or to knead a cake, or to wash her clothes, but had a foreign man or a foreign woman to work for them."[465]

This is no doubt a highly-coloured description, but it is graphic in its details, and gives us valuable information as to the state of social life at that period.

Equally graphic and interesting is the sketch which Mac Liag gives of the great achievements of Brian Boru. He tells how after Brian's royal visitation throughout Erin, all his enemies were brought into subjection, and the country enjoyed a period of profound peace and much-needed repose. He enforced the law with a strong hand, and repressed trespass, robbery, and murder. 'He hanged, killed and destroyed' all thieves, robbers, and plunderers throughout Erin. He banished or enslaved the foreigners throughout the length and breadth of the land--their stewards and collectors, their swordsmen and their mercenaries, their tall and comely youths, and their fair and graceful maidens became the bond-servants of the victors. It was then that Erin enjoyed such peace and security that a lone woman journeyed from Tory Island in the north to Cliodhna's loud-voiced wave in the south of Erin, carrying a golden ring on the top of the wand; yet no man ventured to rob, or to insult her. This blessed period of justice and peace, so rare in Erin, has been celebrated both by ancient and by modern bards.[466]

Nor was Brian less enlightened and munificent in cultivating the arts of peace. He erected many noble churches and church towers in Erin, as at Killaloe, Iniscaltra, and Tuam Greine, where the remains of the buildings erected by Brian are still to be seen. He constructed several bridges, causeways, and high roads. He strengthened all the royal fortresses of Munster both in the islands and on the mainland. He sent professors and masters to teach wisdom and knowledge, also to buy books in foreign countries, and bring them home from beyond the great sea. This was all the more necessary as the writings and the books in every church and sanctuary of Erin where they were, were all burned or thrown into the lakes and rivers by the plundering Danes. It was Brian himself, who from his own resources gave the means of purchasing this new supply of books beyond the seas.

Such was Brian Boru, a hero in peace and in war, the sword and shield of his country, during whose glorious reign Ireland reached the zenith of her power and prosperity. Mac Liag died shortly after his royal master in A.D. 1016.

Cuan O'Lochain was another very celebrated scholar who flourished during the first quarter of the eleventh century. His writings, his talents as a statesman, and his tragic end have all contributed to his celebrity. The family which derived its descent from Cormac Gaileng, son of Tadhg, grandson of Ollioll Olum, was at first settled in the territory of Ely; but afterwards removed to Gailenga Mor, on the borders of Meath and Longford. This territory took its name from Cormac Gaileng, and retains it to the present day in the name of the barony of Morgallion, which is merely another form of Gailenga Mor. It appears that the O'Lochains were chiefs of this district, and that the poet's family was held in high esteem in Meath.

After the death of King Malachy II. (Maelseachlainn), in the year A.D. 1022, an interregnum of twenty years intervened, during which there was no recognised High King of Erin. A joint government was established during the interregnum; and it is said the regency was administered by Cuan O'Lochain, the Chief Poet of Erinn, and Corcran the Cleric; or, as it is quaintly put in Macgeoghegan's _Annals of Clonmacnoise_--"A.D. 1022--After the death of King Moylesleaghlyn, this kingdom was without a king for twenty years, during which time the realm was governed by two learned men, the one called Cwan O'Lochan, a well-learned temporall man, and chiefe poet of Ireland; the other, Corcran Cleireagh, a devout and holy man, that was chief anchorite of all Ireland, whose most abiding was at Lismore. The land was governed like a free state, and not like a monarchie by them." It is curious that we find no reference to this interregnum in any of our Annals, and hence the truth of Macgeoghegan's statement has been questioned by certain writers. But O'Curry shows[467] that the same statement is made in the _Book of Leinster_, an almost contemporaneous record, although it is there stated, probably by a mistake of the scribe, that this joint government continued for forty or fifty instead of for twenty years.

It was the form of government, however, not the two governors themselves, which continued for twenty years, for the poet-regent was soon slain by the men of Teffia on the borders of his native territory in the County Longford. The sword of justice, which the great Brian had wielded so well, was broken at Clontarf and buried in the hero's grave. Once more outrage and lawlessness with the evil spirit of discord spread throughout the land. We know not the motive or circumstances of this great crime perpetrated by the men of Teffia, but Providence itself avenged the poet's death. According to one authority[468] God manifestly wrought a poet's power upon the parties who killed him, for they were put to a cruel death, and their bodies putrified until the wolves and vultures devoured them--a fitting end for the wretches who violated the sacred person of the poet. Macgeoghegan says that he was killed by one of the land of Teffia, and he most probably had heard the living local tradition; "after committing which evil fact, there grew an evil scent and odour of the party that killed him, so that he was easily known amongst the rest of the land. His associate Corcran lived yett, and survived him for a long time after"--that is until A.D. 1040.[469]

O'Curry gives a very full account of six historical poems of which Cuan O'Lochain was the author. One of them to which we have already referred[470] gives an exceedingly interesting account of Cormac Mac Art, and of his great palace at Tara, which the poet describes with great fidelity and minuteness. It has been printed in Petrie's _Antiquities of Tara Hill_. Another highly interesting poem of O'Lochain gives an account of the 'prohibitions' and 'prerogatives' of the High King of Tara, and the provincial sub-kings. This poem may be seen in the _Book of Rights_, edited by O'Donovan. Some of the prohibitions certainly savour of a pagan and superstitious origin, as, for instance, when the High King is forbidden to alight on the plain of Bregia on a Wednesday, or to traverse Cuillenn after sunset, or to launch a ship on the Monday after May-day. But his privileges are innocent enough--to have the salmon of the Boyne, which was a royal river; to eat the fruit of Man, and the deer of Luibnech; to get the bilberries of Bri-Leith, and the cresses of the river Brosnach; to drink of the spring water of Tlachtga, and hunt the hares of Naas. Cuan's legendary poems on the Shannon are also highly interesting, but we cannot refer to them further at present.

Errard Mac Coisé was chief poet to King Malachy II., who died in A.D. 1022, and hence he was a contemporary both of Mac Liag and Cuan O'Lochain. Both Mac Liag and Mac Coisé were natives of Hy-Many, in the County Galway, and appear to have been rivals in genius, but intimate friends and associates in social intercourse. One of Mac Coisé's most interesting works is a poetic dialogue between the two poets, which reveals their friendship, their talents, and their common love for the history and antiquities of Erin. He appears to have died the year after his royal master in A.D. 1023.

Flann of the Monastery, is, perhaps, the most justly celebrated of all those poet-historians of ancient Erin. O'Reilly calls him "Abbot of the Monastery of Bute," and gives a list of fourteen considerable historical poems still extant in manuscript, of which he is the reputed author. It does not appear, however, that Flann was either an abbot or a monk in holy orders, although he certainly sojourned and taught at Monasterboice, in the County Louth, just as his contemporary, Conn-na-m-Bocht, did at Clonmacnoise. The death of Flann is marked in the _Chronicon Scotorum_ at A.D. 1054; and he is described as Ferlegind, or professor of the monastery, and "the last sage of the Gaedhil both in reading and history." In the _Annals of Ulster_ he is called Chief-lector of Monasterboice and historical sage--_sai senchusa_--of Erin, under date of A.D. 1056, which is the true date. The Four Masters also describe him as a lector of the monastery of Buite, and the 'paragon'--_sai egna_--of the Gaedhil in literature, in history, in poetry and in science. There is no doubt that here we have a complete list of the subjects taught in what may be called the schools of general literature in ancient Erin. In the _Book of Aicill_,[471] as we have already seen, it is expressly stated that Cennfaeladh attended three schools in Tuaim Drecain, a School of Literature (_leigind_), a School of Law (_feinechais_), and a School of Poetry (_filidechta_); these schools were held in different houses, and taught by three different professors. Cennfaeladh was a soldier, and, therefore, a layman, and hence there is no reference here to a School of Divinity, of the Canons, or of the Scriptures. In the subjects taught by Flann at Monasterboice we find no reference to the _feinechas_ or Brehon Laws, because there does not appear to have been a School of Law in the Monastery of Buite. But there was clearly a School of General Literature, and a School of Poetry, and although Flann is described as chief professor in the former school, he is also said to have been--and his writings prove that he was--an accomplished poet. As Ferlegind, it is clear that his duty was to teach classics, including in that term the vernacular Gaedhlic tongue; for it is described as one of the four principal languages of the world. These are Gaedhlic, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. We have already furnished abundant proofs of the cultivation both of Latin and Greek in our Irish schools; and they tried their hand at Hebrew also, but we cannot say much for their success in studying that difficult language, which was then almost entirely unknown in the Western Empire.

It is quite evident, too, that great attention was paid in these schools to the careful and systematic cultivation of the Gaedhlic tongue. This would be essential not only for the successful study of the classical languages, but also for success in the Schools of Poetry and of Law, on both of which so much attention was bestowed.

We have abundant evidence on this point. Besides those scholars already referred to as Ferlegind, in A.D. 937 is recorded by the Four Masters the death of "Finnachta, son of Ceallach, Comarb of Doire, bishop and doctor in the Bearla Feine." This is the second bishop of Derry referred to in our Annals, and it will be observed that he is not described as bishop of Derry, but as comarb of Derry, _i.e._, of Columcille, who happened, on account of his merit, to be raised to the episcopal rank, although his official title is abbot of Doire-Columcille. It is evident that he must have been a man of great learning, especially in native literature, as he is described as a _saoi_, or doctor, in the _bearla-feine_. O'Donovan thinks that by this is understood the ancient technical dialect of the Brehon Code, and Thady O'Roddy translates the expression as "the law or lawyers' dialect." Zeuss[472] with more probability regards it as the ancient written tongue of the Men of Erin, which, in process of time, became corrupted, and varied into different dialects. The ancient tongue of the Men of Erin was, as the evidence of the glosses in existing MSS. proves, a language which, in the words of Zeuss,[473] was a language regulated by fixed rules and determinate inflections. It was the language of the bards and scholars up to the ninth century, but the ravages of the Danes, and the breaking up of the ancient monarchy caused various dialects to spring up, and destroyed the fixity and purity of the ancient tongue of the Feine. There were, however, still many scholars who gloried in cultivating the pure and ancient language of Erin--the language of its Bards, its Brehons, and its Sages--and these men came to be regarded in course of time as recognised authorities on the ancient tongue, and hence were called saoi, or sages, in language. Such was Finnachta, abbot of Derry, and successor of Columcille; and such also was Flann, of whom we have just been speaking.

It is clear, however, that Flann cultivated the study both of our native and general history with marked success, so that he came to be recognised as one of our highest authorities both by his contemporaries and by his successors. O'Curry[474] gives a very full and interesting account of Flann's most important work--the historical _Synchronisms_. We need not discuss the subject here beyond observing that this treatise by itself furnishes a clear proof of the wide range of historical studies cultivated in the schools of ancient Erin. The work is, in fact, as O'Curry observes, an abridgment of universal history, and certainly goes to show that the author was not only an accomplished Gaedhlic scholar, but also that he must have been familiar with the principal Greek and Latin historians, both pagan and Christian.

Of Flann's personal history little is known. He was of Munster extraction, but seems to have been a native of Eastern Bregia, where his great ancestor Tadhg, son of Cian, son of Ollioll Olum, had established himself as early as the third century of the Christian era. We need not enter into any details regarding his historical poems.[475] Although highly interesting these subjects will never become popular, until the study of our ancient Gaedhlic tongue shall be more generally cultivated both in our schools and in our homes. Most of these poems are preserved in the _Book of Leinster_, and several of them are to be found in the other great Gaedhlic repositories of our ancient literature. It would be difficult, says O'Curry, to over-estimate the historical value of some of those poems. "They are precisely the documents that supply life and the reality of details to the blank dryness of our skeleton pedigrees. Many a name lying dead in our genealogical tracts, and which has found its way into our condensed chronicles and annals, will be found in these poems, connected with the death, or associated with the brilliant deeds, of some hero whose story we should not willingly lose; while, on the other hand, many an obscure historical allusion will be illustrated, and many an historical spot, as yet unknown to the topographer, will be identified, when a proper investigation of these and other great historical poems preserved in the _Book of Leinster_ shall be undertaken as a part of the serious study of the history and antiquities of our country."[476]

Flann's monastery and school were founded about the beginning of the sixth century by St. Buite or Boetius, who, like Flann himself was sprung from the race of Ollioll Olum, and is said to have died on the same day (December 7, A.D. 521) on which St. Columba was born. He travelled much in Italy, Germany, and Britain and then returned to found a monastery which was to be the place of his resurrection, in his native district. Though founded so early in the fertile plains of Louth, we do not find that St. Buite's monastery produced any distinguished scholars down to the period of Flann himself, whose learning has made it so celebrated. That it was, however, always a place of considerable wealth and influence is sufficiently proved by the highly interesting remains which still exist at Monasterboice. These include a portion of the walls of two very ancient oratories, a round tower, and two sculptured High Crosses, one of which, locally known as St. Boyne's Cross, is considered to be one of the very finest of its class in Ireland.

Of Gilla Coemhain, whose latest poem was written in A.D. 1072, it is unnecessary to speak at length. Like Flann and Mac Liag, he was a historical poet and a cultured Gaedhlic scholar. A Chronological Poem composed by Gilla Coemhain, in A.D. 1072, has recently been published with a translation by Dr. Whitley Stokes.[477] The reader will readily perceive that the author of this poem was a writer of considerable culture and of very general information.

IV.--DISCIPLINE OF THE LAY COLLEGES.

The discipline in our ancient schools was neither so elaborate nor so minute as in modern seminaries; still in many respects it was perhaps more satisfactory. In the monastic schools the great principle of obedience was the fundamental rule, the observance of which from a sense of religious duty rendered the observance of all other rules easy and even pleasant.

But in the lay professional schools, of which we have already spoken, the law took formal cognisance of the relations between the professor and his pupils. It established the general principles which were to guide these relations, and severely punished any grievous infraction of these principles.

In the _Senchus Mor_[478] we find the following important passage:--"The social connection that is considered between the foster-pupil, and the literary foster-father is, that the latter is to instruct him without reserve, and to prepare him for his degree, and to chastise him without severity; to feed and to clothe him whilst he is learning his lawful profession, unless he obtains it (food and clothing) from another person--and such has been the custom from the school of Fenius Forsaidh onwards. On the other hand, the foster-pupil is to assist his tutor in poverty, and to support him in his old age and (to give him) the honour price of the degree for which he is being prepared, and all the gains of his art whilst he is learning it, and the first earning of his art after leaving the house of his tutor; and moreover, the literary foster-father has power of judgment, and proof, and witness, upon his foster-pupil, as the father has upon his son, and the Church upon the tenant of the Church lands."

The principles enumerated in this passage are eminently just in themselves; they were well suited to the circumstances of the times, and admirably calculated to put down a mercenary spirit, and foster the growth of tender affection between the pupils and their master. As we have already shown, the professional schools were to a great extent peripatetic; and when actually on their rounds the pupils were to be fed, and lodged, and taught by the master. He was bound to communicate all his knowledge and all his art, both theoretical and practical, to his pupils without reserve; and thus prepare them for their professional degree or formal admission to the ranks of the Bards, Brehons, Chroniclers, or Readers, as the case might happen to be. He might chastise the pupil for misconduct, but in so doing the teacher was not to be unduly severe, so as to cause injury to the mind or body of his scholar. He was also to supply him with food, clothing, and lodging, except provision were otherwise made for these purposes. The law even prescribes the quality of the food to which the pupil is entitled as a matter of right. No professor in ancient Erin could keep a Do-the-Boys Hall with impunity. The teacher was a literary foster-father, and as such, he was bound by the laws of fosterage to supply wholesome food in abundance to his pupils according to the rank of their parents. "What are their victuals? Stirabout (_lithe_) is given to them all, but the flavouring was to be different." It was salt butter for the sons of inferior grades; fresh butter for the sons of chieftains; honey for the sons of kings. The stirabout of oat-meal might be made on water, or on butter-milk, or on new milk, and given to the different classes in like manner.

On the other hand the teacher, or professor, was amply provided for. That provision of the law which compelled the foster pupils to assist their tutors in poverty, and maintain them in old age, was an admirable institution, calculated to preserve the most kindly feelings between both all through their lives. Then the honour price of the degree, and the first fees earned after obtaining it, were no doubt considerable, in order to enable the professor to maintain his pupils at home, whenever they were not at free quarters during their learned excursions and other official visits.

Corporal punishment was certainly not unknown in the monastic schools, as well as in establishments of later date; it was sometimes found necessary to have recourse to corporal punishment even when dealing with young 'saints.' We are told in the _Life of St. Colman Ela_ of Lynally in the King's County, that he once punished St. Baithen, the nephew of St. Columcille and his successor in the abbacy of Hy, for neglecting his studies. The boy thereupon fled from the church, in which the school it seems, was taught, to the woods, no doubt, to hide, and avoid both his lessons and the chastisement of his master. There he saw a man building one of the circular wicker-work houses then very common, and observed that although he only worked one rod at a time, the wicker-wall rose up steadily to the roof. "Ah," he said, "if I only learned a little each day, I too should grow learned." Then he took shelter from a shower under the spreading branches of an oak tree. While standing beneath the boughs he observed a drop of water dripping from a leaf and falling on the ground. He made a hole with his heel on the spot where the drop was falling, and soon noticed that the hole was filled. Here he made a similar mental reflection, and, vowing that never again would he neglect his daily task, he returned to his master and grew up to be a very learned and a very holy man.[479]

We have not in the foregoing pages by any means exhausted the list of our ancient Schools and Scholars. But we have sought to notice all the more frequented schools, and the most celebrated scholars of ancient Erin, who flourished in their native land. It would require a separate volume to do justice to the history of the Irish monks, who bore the name and fame of Scotia to so many foreign countries, in which the memory of their virtues and their learning is still fondly cherished. In these pages, however, we have said enough to vindicate the right of ancient Erin to that glorious title, by which since the twelfth century she has been known to the scholars of all Europe--INSULA SANCTORUM ET DOCTORUM[480]--The Island of Saints and Scholars.

GENERAL INDEX.

Abban, St., comes to School of Beg-Erin, 157;
visits Rome with his uncle, St. Ibar, 157.

Abban, priest, baptizes St. Finnian, 195.

Abbot, jurisdiction of, in an Irish monastery, 98, 99.

Achadh Duirbchon, church of, founded by St. Finbarr, 477.

Achaia, life of Sedulius (poet) at, 32-33.

Adamnan, ninth abbot of Iona, little known of his early youth, 336;
descent of, 337;
curious story told of, 337, 338;
goes to Iona, 338;
made abbot of Iona, 339;
pays a visit to Ireland, 339, 340;
a second visit, 341, 342;
returns to Iona, and writes _Life of Columbkille_, 342;
pays a third visit to Ireland and promulgates the "Lex Innocentiae,"
342, 537;
the works of, 343;
death of, 345;
his relics brought to Ireland, 345.

Aedh Guaire, murders high steward of King Diarmaid Mac Cerbhaill, 218;
the king seeks revenge and is cursed, 218.

Aedh Finn, and his daughter Gelges, 227.

Aedh, son of Brendan, prince, grants a site for School of Durrow, 301.

Aedhan, bishop of Mayo, 539.

Ængus, king of Munster, grants Aran Islands to St. Enda, 169.

Ængus, the Culdee, descent and early life of, 405;
lives a solitary and penitential life at Dysert-Enos, 406;
goes to monastery of Tallagh, 407;
his identity discovered, 408;
writings of, 408-412;
Dr. Stokes on his writings, 412;
death of, 413.

Agha (Achad-Finglass), monastery of, St. Fintan of Clonenagh at, 403.

Aghold (Achadh Abhail), Saint Finnian builds a church at, 199.

Agilbert, bishop of Paris, a student in Ireland, 595.

Agilulph, king of Lombardy, St. Columbanus at the Court of, 377.

Aidan, Saint, bishop of Ferns, 427.

---- sent to preach in Northumbria, 527;
appointed bishop of Lindisfarne, 527.

Ailbe of Emly, St., ordained by St. Patrick, 150;
Life of, as given in the Salamanca MS., 151;
preaches the Gospel in Connaught, 152;
the _Life of St. Declan_ regarding, 153;
evidence against the authenticity of Lives of St. Ailbe and St.
Declan, 155.

Ailbhe, daughter of Cormac Mac Art, poem attributed to, 28.

Aileran (the Wise), St., writings attributed to, 206, 207.

Ailill, abbot of Mungret, death of, 510.

Ainmire, king, grants site for School of Derry, to St. Columba, 299.

Alcuin, distinguished scholar, a student at Clonmacnoise, 272, 273.

Aldfrid, king of Northumbria, releases the Irish captives at
intercession of Adamnan, 340;
spends his youth in Ireland, 468, 469.

Alexander III., Pope, convokes a general Council to Rome, 442;
safeguards the independence of the Church in Ireland, 443;
conceives a strong regard for St. Laurence O'Toole, 443.

Alexandria, Christian school at, 188.

Alithir, abbot of Clonmacnoise, 270.

Alphabet Ogham, history of, 13;
invention of, 14;
letters of, 15;
inscribed on rods or tablets of wood, 15.

Alphabets, or catechisms of Christian doctrine, St. Patrick writes,
63, 64.

Amergin, poet judge, 6.

Annaghdown, monastery of, founded by St. Brendan, 219.

_Annals of Four Masters_, quoted, 18, 26, 58, _et seq._

---- _Ulster_, quoted, 148.

---- _Clonmacnoise_, quoted, 218.

---- _Innisfallen_, copies of, 503, 504.

Annegray, monastery of, St. Columbanus established at, 373.

Apostles, Twelve, of Erin, visit St. Finnian at Clonard, 201.

Aran, Isles of, geographical description of, 169-172;
inhabitants of, 172;
Pagan remains in, 172-177;
the stronghold of a warrior race, 176, 177;
St. Enda founds a monastery on, 177;
visited by numbers of saints, 177, 178;
ancient churches in, 181-187.

Art, Celtic, at Clonmacnoise, 550-565.

Art the Solitary, slain at battle of Magh Mucruimhe, 17.

Artificers of St. Patrick, 66.

Asicus, St., an artificer in metal work, 66, 161;
placed over church of Elphin, 161;
goes into Donegal, 161;
death of, 162.

Asterius, Turcius Ruffus, Consul, 34.

Athens, School of, under a pagan professor, Saints at, 189.

Auxilius, bishop, accompanies St. Patrick to Ireland, 59, 80;
founds a church, 60;
present at first Irish Synod, 60.

Baithen, abbot of Iona, remarkable for his spirit of prayer, 331;
sent to govern the monastery of Heth, 332;
death of, 332;
character of, 333.

Ballaghmoon, battle of, 611.

Bangor, description of, 367, 368.

Bards, application of the term, 6;
functions of, 7;
fined for extortion, 7;
qualifications required to become chief-poet, 7, 8;
chief duty of Historic Poet, 8, 601;
course of studies required by law, to become Chief Poet, 8;
some distinguished Poets, 8-10;
St. Patrick's alliance with, 56, 57;
St. Columba protects the, 320-323.

Barinthus, monk, tale told to St. Brendan by, 215.

Barry, Gerald, cited, 197.

Bede, _Chronicles of Picts and Scots_, quoted, 166, 167, 296, _et seq._

Beg-Erin, island, St. Ibar builds an oratory on, 156;
no longer an island, 158, 159;
the Danes plunder, 158.

Belisarius, scholastic or general? poem attributed to, 38.

Benignus, Saint, Member of Commission of Nine, 54;
meeting with St. Patrick, 54;
writings attributed to, 55, 116, 117;
elected as choirmaster by St. Patrick, 58;
death of, 59, 96, 116;
brief story of his life, 114, 115;
descent of, 159;
monastery of Kilbannon established by, 159, 542.

Beoit, father of St. Ciaran, 259.

Berach, Saint, favourite disciple of St. Kevin, 421.

Bernard, Saint, _Vita Malachiae_, quoted, 393, 394, 395;
at Clairvaux, St. Malachy meets, 396.

Bishops, pre-Patrician, in Ireland; the existence of discussed, 150-155.

Bishops and Abbots, lay, 395, 396.

Bite, bishop, placed over Church of Elphin, 161.

Blaithmac, Saint, dies a martyr, 347.

Bobbio, monks of, copy poems of Sedulius, 35;
St. Columbanus founds monastery of, 378.

Bodkin, Christopher, archbishop of Tuam, 540.

Books, pre-Patrician, now lost, 29.

---- Caroline, published 386;
refuted by Pope, 387.

_Book of Armagh_, quoted, 58, 59, 60, _et seq._;
history and contents of, 122-124;
now in Trinity College, 121.

---- _Aicill_, introduction to, quoted, 24;
motive for which it was written, 25.

---- _Ballymote_, quoted, 22, 23.

---- _Durrow_, contents of, 304;
now in Trinity College, Dublin, 305.

---- _Kells_, history of, 309, 310;
now in Trinity College, Dublin, 310.

---- _Leinster_, quoted, 3, 21, 27, _et seq._;
described, 140.

---- _Lismore_, history and description of, 473, 474.

---- _Rights_ (Leabhar Nag-Ceart), authorship of, attributed to St.
Benignus, 97;
quoted, 54, 259;
history and contents of, 116, 117.

---- _Hymns_, reference to Saint Brigid in, 135.

Borumha, or cow tribute, remitted, 341, 428.

Bothchonais, church of, situation of, 353.

Brandon Hill, St. Brendan builds an oratory on, 214;
description of, 214.

Brecan, Saint, tomb of, discovered in Aran, 183;
descent of, 183;
and St. Enda, 184;
church of, 184.

Bregentz, St. Columbanus and his monks at, 376, 377.

Brehons, the, during pre-Christian period, 11;
in the reign of Conor MacNessa, 11;
Senchus Mor, compiled from legal maxims of, 12.

Brehon Laws, reformed by St. Patrick, 52-66;
sources to which they owed their existence, 52;
motives that prompted the revision of, 53.

Brendan, of Clonfert, Saint, birth and descent of, 210;
baptized, 210;
fosterage of, 211;
progress in learning, 211;
visits school of St. Jarlath, near Tuam, 212, 543, 544;
an angel appears to, 213;
performs a miracle, 213;
receives the order of priesthood, 213;
builds an oratory on Brandon Hill, 214;
his wanderings through the Atlantic, 215;
returns home, 216;
founds a monastery on Inis-da-druim (Coney Island), 215;
visits Wales and Iona, 217;
other places visited then, 217, 218;
and St. Ruadhan curse Tara, 218;
founds a church in Leinster, 218;
founds monasteries of Annaghdown and Inchiquin, 219;
founds a monastery on Inishgloria, 219, 220;
founds monastery of Clonfert, 220, 221;
death of, 221;
poems attributed to, 222;
baptizes St. Fursey, 227;
at school of Ross, 491.

Brendan, of Birr, Saint, founds his monastery at Riverstown (Biorra),
522.

Brian Boru, place of his burial, 113;
and Maelsuthain O'Cearbhaill, 501;
repairs church of Iniscaltra, 621;
achievements of, 622.

Bricin, Saint, _Life of_, 602, 603.

Brigid, Saint, "the mother of all the Saints of Erin," 125;
parentage of, 127-129;
memorials of, at Faughart, 128, 129;
birth of, 129;
receives the religious veil, 129, 130;
founds school of Kildare, 130, 131;
character of, 131;
tradition regarding, 132;
death of, 132;
first of six Lives of, 133-135;
second Life of, 135-137;
remaining four Lives of, 137.

Brogan Claen, Saint, _Life of St. Brigid_, attributed to, 137.

Bronach, mother of St. Mochae, 123.

Buildings, connected with an Irish monastery, 94-97.

Buite, monastery of, Flann of, 625, 627;
founded, 628.

Buite, Saint, founds a monastery, 628.

Burke, MacWilliam, plunders monastery of Mayo, 540.

Caelestius, monk, not of Irish origin, 39;
no evidence to show he was either a Briton or Scot, 41;
his early life, 41.

Caemhin, of Annatrim, Saint, under care of St. Columba of Terryglass,
400.

Cæsar: _De Bello Gallico_, quoted, 2-4.

Caimin, Saint, descent of, 517;
writings attributed to, 517, 518;
his influence over public events, 518;
characteristic story told of, 518.

Cairell, bishop, placed over convent of Tawnagh, 126.

Cairnech, Saint, member of Commission of Nine, 54;
and monastery of Rosnat, 167.

Caius Julius Solinus, Polyhister, 253.

Calphurnius, father of St. Patrick, 44;
descent of, 70.

Cannech, Saint, at Glasnevin, 297.

Canons, most celebrated of, attributed to Synod of Patrick, Auxilius
and Iserninus, 60, 61.

Caplait, Druid, converted to the faith of Christ, 51.

_Carmen Paschale_, work, description of, 36.

Carthach the Elder, Saint, trains St. Carthach the Younger at his
monastery of Slieve Mis, 448.

Carthach the Younger, Saint, birth and descent of, 447;
receives his early training at monastery of Slieve Mis, 448;
founds a monastery at Kiltulach, 448;
visits monasteries of Bangor, Landelo (now Lynally), and
Clonfert-Molua (now Kyle), 448;
founds a monastery at Rahan, 449;
expelled from Rahan, 450;
his journey to the south, 451, 452;
founds monastery of Lismore, 453;
retires from community life before death, 454;
one of his striking miracles, 454, 455;
rule of, 455-457.

Cassian, John, monk, founds school of St. Victor, 190;
sketch of his life and writings, 181;
the most celebrated disciple of, 191.

Cassiodorus, senator, statesman, and monk, eulogises Sedulius (poet),
35.

Cathaldus of Tarentum, Saint, the _Life of_, 457;
place of his birth, 458, 459;
descent of, 459;
difference of opinion about date of his birth, 459, 460;
in school of Lismore, 460;
made bishop, 461;
his Irish See not determined, 462;
goes on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, 462;
reforms the licentious people of Taranto, and becomes their bishop,
463, 464;
death of, 464;
relics of, 464;
writings and prophecy attributed to, 465.

Cathedral of Armagh, 113.

Cathedral of Tuam, old, described, 557, 558.

Cathmael, Saint, early life of, 197.

Ceallachan, king of Cashel, plunders monastery of Clonfert, 243.

Ceddi, bishop of Iona, death of, 345.

Ceile De, or Culdee, the appellation, 405.

Celestine, Pope, commissions St. Patrick to undertake his mission to
Ireland, 48.

Cellach, son of Cormac Mac Art, abducts the daughter of Sorar, 24.

Celsus, Saint, driven by usurpers from the See of Armagh, 395;
death and burial at Lismore, 471.

_Celtic Scotland_, quoted, 163.

Cennfaeladh, at the battle of Magh Rath, 603;
at school of Tuaim Drecain, 603;
treatises composed by, 603, 604.

Chad, Saint, educated in Ireland, 593;
appointed to the See of Lichfield, 594;
death of, 594.

Chalice of Ardagh, description and history of, 562-564.

Charlemagne, king, Dungal's letter to on the two solar eclipses said to
have taken place in A.D. 810, 382-384;
convenes Synod of Frankfort, 336.

Charles the Bald, patronises John Scotus Erigena, 578, 579;
the Pope's letter to regarding Scotus, 584.

Christianity, knowledge of, in Ireland, in third century, 26.

Chronicler (Historic poet), duty of, 8.

_Chronicon Scotorum_, work, history of, 278-280.

Church, Irish, St. Patrick's provisions for training a native ministry
in, 58.

Church, Nuns', at Clonmacnoise, description of, 552, 553;
founded by Dervorgilla, wife of Tiernan O'Rorke, 553.

Churches, ancient, in Aran, 181-187;
ruined, at Clonmacnoise, 266-269.

Cian, son of Oilioll Olum, branches of family of, 160.

Ciaran of Clonmacnoise, Saint, descent of, 259;
is baptized and receives his early training at hands of deacon Justus
at Fuerty, 259;
at Clonard, 259;
at Aran, 179;
founds two churches, 261;
founds school of Clonmacnoise, 262;
death of, 263;
his festival day still celebrated, 264;
leads an extremely ascetic life, 265.

Cill Cluana, church of, founded by St. Finbarr, 477.

_Cin Droma Snechta_, book, 29.

Cir, poet, 9.

Claudius, bishop of Turin, an extreme Iconoclast, 389;
his reply to the letter of the pious Abbot Theodemir, 390;
Dungal's treatise against the doctrine of, 390, 391.

Clonard, relics at, 205.

Clonmacnoise, ruined churches at, 266-270;
Celtic Art at, 550-565.

Cluaninis, monastery of, St. Columbanus at, 372.

Cluain Imaine (Clonamery), St. Brendan founds a church at, 218.

Cobthac, professor of Kildare, death of, 138.

Coelan (Chilien), monk, a Life of St. Brigid attributed to, 137.

Coemell, mother of St. Kevin, descent of, 414;
family of, 415.

Coemhain, Gilla, poet, 628.

Coemlug, father of St. Kevin, descent of 414;
family of, 415.

Cogitosus, monk and writer, cited, 127;
his Life of St. Brigid, 135-137.

Coirpri Lifechair, assumes sovereignty of Erin, 24.

Colga, king of Munster, causes St. Cathaldus to be made Bishop, 461.

Colgan, professor of Clonmacnoise, 272;
story which proves he was a diligent student of St. Paul's Epistles,
272;
his position in Clonmacnoise, 273;
writings of, 273, 274.

Colleges, discipline of lay, 628-631.

Colman of Cell Riada, Chamberlain of St. Patrick, 65.

Colman of Dromore, Saint, placed under training of St. Mochae, 143;
goes to St. Ailbe of Emly, 143;
again visits Noendrum, 144;
the first teacher of St. Finnian of Moville, 246.

Colman, abbot of Moville, Saint, regarded as the author of a Latin
hymn, 255;
English translation of this hymn, by Denis Florence M'Carthy, 255,
256.

Colman, king of North Leinster, and St. Fintan of Clonenagh, 402, 403.

Colman of Mayo, Saint, receives his education in Iona, 526;
appointed Bishop of Lindisfarne, 527;
on the Easter Controversy, at Conference of Whitby, 527-529;
defeated at Whitby, by Wilfrid, 529;
leaves Northumbria and retires to island of Innisboffin, 529;
founds monasteries of Innisboffin and Mayo, 530;
interesting memorials of, in Innisboffin, 531, 532;
death of, 533.

Columba of Terryglass, Saint, Fintan of Clonenagh placed under care of,
400;
founds a temporary establishment at Clonenagh, 401;
descent and early youth of, 513, 514;
at Clonard, 514;
visits to Home and England, 514;
founds three churches, 514;
established at Iniscaltra, 514, 515;
again visits Clonard, 515;
death of, 515;
his body buried first at Iniscaltra afterwards transferred to
Terryglass, 516.