Chapter X: Appendix: I

"LINGUO INTERNACIONA DI LA DELEGITARO."

(IDO).

The Délégation pour l'Adoption d'une Langue Auxiliaire Internationale, founded in Paris in 1901, has received the support of 310 societies of many countries and the approval of 1,250 professors and academicians. It elected in 1907 an international committee, composed of eminent linguists and men of science, which, after having studied all the projects for international language, adopted Esperanto with certain modifications. These modifications, whilst preserving the principles and essential qualities of Dr. Zamenhof's language, aim at a more logical and strict application of these principles and the elimination of certain unnecessary complications. The following are the principal modifications:--

(1) Suppression of the accented letters, _thus permitting the language to be printed everywhere_, and at the same time preserving the phonetic and frequently re-establishing the international spelling;

(2) Suppression of certain useless grammatical rules which are very troublesome to many nations, and _especially to persons possessing only an elementary education_ (accusative, concord of the adjective);

(3) Regularisation of the method of derivation, this being the only means of preventing the intrusion of idioms and of furnishing a solid foundation for the working out of the _scientific and technical vocabulary_ so indispensable for the propagation of the language in the scientific world;

(4) Enrichment of the vocabulary by the adoption of new stems carefully chosen according to the _principle of maximum internationality_.

All the words have, in fact, been formed from international stems, that is to say those which are common to the majority of European languages, with the result that they are immediately recognised by everyone of medium education. It is not necessary therefore to learn a new language; _the international language is the quintessence of the European ones_. It is, however, incomparably more easy than any of them on account of its simplicity and absolute regularity; there are _no useless rules_, and _no exceptions_. It can be learnt by reading it; as soon as one can read it one can write it; as soon as one can write it one can speak it. And experience has proved that the differences of pronunciation amongst people of the most diverse countries are insignificant and cause no trouble at all. To sum up, the _linguo internaciona_ is a simplified and improved Esperanto, very analogous to primitive Esperanto, but possessing the advantage over the latter of being immediately intelligible, so that it is destined to become _the_ international language. Besides, it has already received the warm approval and support of many of the earliest and best Esperantists. It alone, thanks to the support of the scientific and literary men of the Delegation and Committee, has a chance of being adopted some day by Governments and of being introduced into the schools of all countries.

The following pages provide a key which enables one to read a text in this language.

GRAMMAR.

@Pronunciation.@--All letters are pronounced, and have always the same sound: _a_ (as in _father_), _c_ (like _ts_), _e_ (like _e_ in _set_, or _a_ in _fate_), _g_ (always hard, as in _go_), _i_ (like _ee_ in _sweet_), _j_ (either as in English, or like the French _j_ in _journal_), _o_ (like _o_ in _not_ or like _o_ in _go_), _q_ (_qu_ as in English, or like _kv_), _s_ (unvoiced), _u_ (like _oo_ in _too_), _x_ (like _ks_ or _gz_), _y_ (as in English), _z_ (as in English), _ch_ (as in _church_), _sh_ (as in English), _au_ (like _ow_ in _how_), _eu_ (= _e-u_). It will be seen that a _certain amount_ of latitude is permitted, in order to suit the convenience of different nations. _Stress_ (tonic accent) on the penultimate syllable, except in the infinitive, when it falls on the last syllable (@-ar@, @-ir@, @-or@). Since _y_ is a consonant, it does not count as a separate syllable (@fluvyo@).

@Definite Article.@--@La@, for all genders and numbers.

@Substantive.@--Ends in _-o_ in the singular, in _-i_ in the plural.

@Adjective.@--Is invariable, and ends in _-a_.

@Personal Pronouns.@--@Me@ = _I_, @tu@ = _thou_, @vu@ = _you_ (singular), @il@ = _he_ or _it_ (masculine), @el@ = _she_ or _it_ (feminine), @ol@ = _it_ (thing); @ni@ = _we_, @vi@ = _you_ (plural), @li@ = _they_ (all genders). If distinction is necessary, @ili@ = _they_ (masculine), @eli@ = _they_ (feminine), @oli@ = _they_ (neuter).

@Possessive Pronouns.@--@Mea@ = _my_, _mine_, @tua@ = _thy_, _thine_, @vua@ = _your_, _yours_ (singular), @sa@ = _his_, _her_, _hers_, or _its_; @nia@ = _our_, _ours_, @via@ = _your_, _yours_ (plural), @lia@ = _their_, _theirs_. In the plural the ending _-i_ is substituted for _-a_ when the above words are used as true possessive _pronouns_.

@Reflexive Forms.@--@Su@ is used as an objective (reflexive) personal pronoun (for singular and plural) in the third person. The corresponding possessive forms are @sua@ and @sui@ (plural _pronoun_). It may be remarked that the possessive pronominal adjectives @sa@ (singular) and @lia@ (plural) may be made to indicate sex in the following way:--

_Singular._ _Plural._
Masculine @ilsa@ @ilia@
Feminine @elsa@ @elia@
Neuter @olsa@ @olia@

@Demonstrative Pronouns.@--@Ica@ = _this_, _these_; @ita@ = _that_, _those_. The plural forms @ici@ = _these_, and @iti@ = _those_, are only used as true demonstrative _pronouns_. The indeterminate (neuter) forms are @ico@ = _this_, @ito@ = _that_. In all the above words the initial _i_ is usually _omitted_, except where euphony requires it.

If it is required to indicate sex, or something which is not alive, this may be done as follows:--

_This._ _That._
Masculine @ilca@ @ilta@
Feminine @elca@ @elta@
Neuter @olca@ @olta@
Plural } @ilci@ @ilti@
Pronoun } etc. etc.

@Relative and Interrogative Pronouns@: @qua@ = _who_, _which_, _what_; plural, @qui@. @Quo@ = _what_ (indeterminate, general).

@Accusative@ (objective case).--When the direct object of the verb precedes the subject, the former is indicated by the inflexion _-n_: @la homo quan vu vidis@ = _the person whom you have seen_.

@Verb.@--Invariable in person and number. Endings of the principal tenses:--

_Active_ _Passive_
_Infinitive._ _Indicative._ _participle._ _participle._
Present @-ar@ @-as@ @-anta@ @-ata@
Past @-ir@ @-is@ @-inta@ @-ita@
Future @-or@ @-os@ @-onta@ @-ota@
Conditional, @-us@. Imperative, @-ez@.

The auxiliary verb @esar@, _to be_, is used for the passive, and for the compound tenses of the active.

_Passive._

_Present_ @esas amata@, or @amesas@ = _I am (being) loved_.
_Past_ @esis amata@, or @amesis@ = _I was (being) loved_.
_Future_ @esos amata@, or @amesos@ = _I will be loved_.
_Conditional_ @esus amata@, or @amesus@ = _I would be loved_.
_Imperative_ @esez amata@, or @amesez@ = _be loved_.
_Infinite_ @esar amata@, or @amesar@ = _to be loved_.

_Compound Tenses of the Active._

_Perfect_ @(me) esas aminta@ = _(I) have loved_.
_Pluperfect_ @(me) esis aminta@ = _(I) had loved_.
_Future perfect_ @(me) esos aminta@ = _(I) shall have loved_.
_Past conditional_ @(me) esus aminta@ = _(I) should have loved_.

The past tenses of the passive (indicating _completed_ states) are formed by means of the passive participle in @-ita@:--

@(me) esis amita@ = _(I) had been loved_.
@(me) esos amita@ = _(I) shall have been loved_.
@(me) esus amita@ = _(I) would have been loved_.

Derived adverbs are formed by substituting the ending _-e_ for the _-a_ of the adjective or the _-o_ of the noun: @bone@ = _well_; @nokte@ = _at night_.

FORMATION OF WORDS.

All words are composed of three elements, possessing an invariable form and meaning: _stems_, _affixes_ (prefixes and suffixes), and _grammatical terminations_.

@Prefixes@:--

@ge-@, the two sexes united: @ge-patri@ = _parents_.
@bo-@, relation by marriage: @bo-patro@ = _father-in-law_.
@ex-@, former, ex-: @ex-oficero@ = _ex-officer_.
@mal-@, opposite, contrary: @mal-bela@ = _ugly_.
@mis-@, error, mistake: @mis-komprenar@ = _misunderstand_.
@mi-@, half: @mi-horo@ = _half an hour_.
@re-@, repetition: @re-dicar@ = _repeat_, _say again_.
@retro-@, backwards: @retro-sendar@ = _return (send back)_.
@ne-@, negation: @ne-utila@ = _useless_ (but @mal-utila@ = _harmful_).
@sen-@, want of: @sen-arma@ = _unarmed_.

@Suffixes@:--

@-in@, female sex: @frat-ino@ = _sister_.
@-id@, descendant: @Sem-ido@ = _Semite_.
@-estr@, chief, director: @urb-estro@ = _mayor_.
@-an@, member of: @senat-ano@ = _senator_.
@-ism@, system, doctrine: @socialismo@ = _socialism_.
@-ist@, profession, occupation: @dent-isto@ = _dentist_.
@-er@, amateur: @fotograf-ero@ = _amateur photographer_.
@-ul@, person who is characterised by ...: @kuras-ulo@ = _cuirassier_.
@-aj@, concrete thing, consisting of, or made of: @lan-ajo@ = _woollen
goods_.
@-ur@, product, result: @pikt-uro@ = _a picture_.
@-ar@, collection of a number of similar things: @hom-aro@ = _mankind_.
@-il@, instrument, tool: @bros-ilo@ = _brush_.
@-ey@, place for ...: @kaval-eyo@ = _stable_; @dorm-eyo@ = _dormitory_.
@-uy@, container, recipient: @ink-uyo@ = _inkpot_.
@-yer@, that which bears or carries: @pom-yero@ = _apple tree_.
@-al@, relating to: @nacion-ala@ = _national_.
@-oz@, full of, provided with: @por-oza@ = _porous_.
@-atr@, similar, like: @spong-atra@ = _sponge-like_, _spongy_.
@-iv@, that which can, active possibility: @instrukt-iva@ =
_instructive_.
@-em@, addicted to: @babil-ema@ = _talkative_, _garrulous_.
@-ebl@, passive possibility, that which can be ...: @vid-ebla@ =
_visible_.
@-end@, that which is to be, or must be ...: @solv-enda@ = _to be
solved_, _requiring solution_.
@-ind@, worthy of being: @respekt-inda@ = _worthy of respect_.
@-es@, state of being: @san-esar@ = _to be well_, whence the
substantives expressing state or quality, _e.g._, @san-eso@ =
_health_.
@-esk@, to commence to do or to be: @dorm-eskar@ = _to fall asleep_.
@-ig@, to make or cause to do or to be: @bel-igar@ = _beautify_;
@dorm-igar@ = _to send to sleep_.
@-ij@, to become: @rich-ijar@ = _to get rich_.
@-iz@, to furnish or provide with: @arm-izar@ = _to arm_.
@-if@, to produce, bring forth: @frukt-ifar@ = _to fructify_.
@-ad@, repetition, continuation: @dans-ado@ = _dancing_.
@-eg@, augmentative: @bel-ega@ = _very beautiful_.
@-et@, diminutive: @mont-eto@ = _hill_, _hillock_.
@-ach@, derogative: @popul-acho@ = _populace_, _the mob_.
@-um@, indeterminate relationship (see the dictionary),
@-esm@, ordinal number: @un-esma@ = _first_.
@-opl@, multiplicative number: @du-opla@ = _double_.
@-on@, fractional number: @tri-ono@ = _a third_.
@-op@, distributive number: @quar-ope@ = _in fours_.

LEXIKO DI LA GRAMMATIKALA VORTI.

@a@, @ad@ _to_, _towards_
@ad maxime@ _at most_
@ad minime@ _at least_
@altra@, @-i@ _other_ (_s_)
@altru@ _another_
@altro@ _another thing_, _something else_
@anke@ _also_
@ankore@ _still_, _yet_
@ante@ _before_ (time)
@aparte@ _apart_
@apene@ _scarcely_, _with difficulty_
@apud@ _near_, _close by_, _at_
@avan@ _before_ (place)
@balde@ _soon_
@cent@ _hundred_
@ceter-i@, @-o@ _the others_, _the rest_
@che@ _at the house of_
@cirke@ _around_, _about_
@cis@ _on this side of_
@da@ _by_
@de@ _from_, _since_, _of_
@dek@ _ten_
@di@ _of_
@do@ _therefore_, _hence_
@dop@ _after_ (position); _behind_
@du@ _two_
@dum@ _during_
@e@, @ed@ _and_
@ek@ _out, out of_
@en@ _in_
@exter@ _outside of_, _besides_
@for@ _far from_
@forsan@ _perhaps_
@frue@ _early_
@hiere@ _yesterday_
@hike@ _here_
@ibe@ _there_
@inter@ _between_, _among_
@ips-a@, @-e@ _self_, _even any_ (_whatsoever_)
@irg-a@, @-u@ _anyone_ (_whatever_)
@irgo@ _anything_ (_whatever_)
@itere@ _again_, _anew_
@ja@ _already_
@jus@ _just at the moment_
@kad@ _whether_ (general interrogative)
@kam@ _as_, _than_ (in comparisons)
@kande@ _when_
@ke@ _that_ (conjunction)
@kelk-a@, @-i@ _some_
@kin@ _five_
@kontre@ _against_, _opposite_
@kun@ _with_
@lor@ _then_, _at that time_
@malgre@ _in spite of_
@max@ (@-ime@) _most_
@mem@ _even_, _indeed_
@mil@ _thousand_
@min@ _less_
@minime@ _least_
@morge@ _to-morrow_
@mult-a@ (@-i@) _much_, _many_
@nam@ _for_, _because_
@ne@ _not_
@nek@ _neither_, _nor_
@no@ _no_
@nov@ _nine_
@nu@ _well!_ _now!_
@nul-a@ (@-u@) _no_, _no one_
@nulo@ _nothing_
@nun@ _now_
@nur@ _only_
@o@, @od@ _or_
@ok@ _eight_
@olim@ _formerly_
@omn-a@ (@-i@) _each_, _all_
@omno@ _all_, _everything_
@or@ _now_ (conjunction)
@per@ _through_, _by means of_
@plu@ _more_
@plur-a@ (@-i@) _several_
@po@ _for_ (the price of)
@poke@ _a little_
@por@ _for_, _to_ (_in order to_)
@pos@ _after_ (time)
@precipue@ _especially_
@preske@ _almost_, _nearly_
@preter@ _past_, _beyond_
@pri@ _concerning_, _on_
@pro@ _for_, _on account of_
@proxim@ _next_
@qual-a@ _what_ (_sort of_)
@quale@ _how_, _as_
@quankam@ _although_
@quant-a@ (@-e@) _how much_, _how many_
@quar@ _four_
@quaze@ _as if_, _so to speak_
@quik@ _at once_, _immediately_
@sama@ _the same_
@same@ _similarly_
@sat@ (@-e@) _enough_, _sufficiently_
@se@ _if_
@sed@ _but_
@segun@ _according to_
@sempre@ _always_
@sen@ _without_
@sep@ _seven_
@singl-a@ (@-e@ _single_, _singly_
@sis@ _six_
@sive@ _either_, _or_
@sub@ _under_, _below_
@super@ _above_, _over_
@sur@ _on_, _upon_
@tal-a@ _such a_, _such_
@tal-e@ _thus_, _so_, _in such a way_
@tam@ _as_ (in comparisons)
@tamen@ _nevertheless_, _yet_
@tant-a@ (@-e@) _so much_, _as much_, _so_
@tarde@ _late_
@til@ _until_
@tra@ _through_, _across_
@trans@ _beyond_, _on the other side of_
@tre@ _very_
@tri@ _three_
@tro@ _too_
@ube@ _where_, _whither_
@ula-@ (@-u@) _some_, _any_, _someone_, _anyone_
@ulo@ _something_, _anything_
@ultre@ _beyond_, _besides_
@un@ (@-u@, @-a@ _one_
@ve@ _alas!_
@vice@ _in place of_, _vice_
@ya@ _certainly_, _undoubtedly_
@ye@ preposition of indeterminate meaning
@yen@ _here is_, _there is_, _behold_
@yes@ _yes_