Chapter XXVII: Appendix: Classroom Observation

In connection with the study of the foregoing chapters and collateral readings it is desirable that students visit classrooms and make systematic observations of the work there under way. In order that such observations may be productive it is necessary that the student have definite ends in view, otherwise observation will be scattered over many phases of that which is seen. The questions below are intended to furnish guidance.

It is recommended that each student in the course be required to spend at least three hundred minutes in observation and that he or she prepare a written report.

GENERAL DIRECTIONS

Before going to the classes for observation determine which of the topics outlined below you are going to make the subject of special study. It will be advantageous for you to learn the questions.

Go prepared to take notes. Confine your attention after the first general observations outlined below to the particular topic on which you are to report. Take down facts and definite individual observations. You are at liberty to talk with teachers if you can do so without imposing on them, but your report is not to be based on what they say but on what you see. Do not quote from books on the subject of your study.

Prepare a report of not less than two thousand words.

GENERAL QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED IN EACH REPORT

1. In what school or schools did you make your observations?

2. How many visits did you make, and how long was each? (Give dates and minutes.)

3. What was the grade of the class, and what was the subject of instruction?

4. Report on the physical conditions of each room. What was the condition of the temperature, of the lighting, of the ventilation? What kind of furniture was used? Did you see signs of fatigue on the part of teacher or pupils?

After noting these general external conditions, turn your attention to one of the problems outlined below and prepare your report with reference to that single topic.

I. GRADING

Attend a class several times until you come to know something of each individual member; then form a judgment as to the desirability of holding the group together. Suggest changes such as the putting forward or putting back of certain individuals.

1. Are the students alike in their physical development, or are some oversized?

2. Are the mental differences parallel with the physical?

3. Do you observe symptoms showing that some children frequently do not understand the class work and therefore are to be regarded as below the grade?

4. Do you see evidences that children are not fully occupied because the work is too easy for them?

5. Children differ in their willingness and ability to take part in class work. How far should this be considered in grouping children?

6. How far does the grouping of students in a class help or hinder the development of an individual? Give definite cases.

7. Should the class be changed in size to provide for the best teaching?

8. In certain schools the effort is now being made to organize more individual instruction. What do your observations lead you to conclude about the desirability of such a plan?

II. METHODS OF DISCIPLINE

For observations under this section visit a number of different classes and note the general restlessness or quiet of the groups. Note in detail how the “order” is maintained, and try to determine (1) what is the teacher’s notion of order in each case, and (2) what devices he employs in securing what he wants.

1. Are there formal rules? For example, must the pupils sit in a certain way? Must they ask questions in a certain way?

2. Does the teacher talk about order?

3. Does he have other devices that are evident, such as pausing and looking at some member of the class?

4. Does he inflict penalties?

5. Does he have devices that are less obvious, such as varying the character of the work or calling on a member of the class who is disorderly?

6. What is the relation of order to the subject of instruction?

7. Does the teacher neglect disorder which you would correct?

8. Of all the cases which you observed, which do you regard as the best kind of order?

III. PREPARATION ON THE PART OF THE TEACHER

Visit several different teachers and contrast their methods. It may be advantageous after a first visit to go back to observe again teachers who are radically different.

1. Distinguish between a teacher’s general preparation or broad knowledge of a subject and his special preparation for a particular class exercise. What evidence is there that the teacher prepared for this particular exercise?

2. Does the teacher seem to have in mind a fixed order in which the lesson is to proceed?

3. What is the relation of economy of the time and energy of the class to the teacher’s preparation?

4. Has the teacher anything to contribute outside of the textbook material?

5. Does the teacher know how to fit the work to the class period so as to make a complete exercise?

6. Is there evidence that the teacher has made specific preparation for the next exercise?

IV. PREPARATION ON THE PART OF PUPILS

One of the best ways to get material for this section is to go first to the high-school study room or to the general library and take note of the way in which people study. The kind of question which should be raised in these observations of study periods is illustrated in V (_B_) below. After making these preliminary observations go to some recitations and see if there are evidences in the individual recitations of the way in which the work of preparing the lesson has been done. The purpose of this particular section is to discuss the methods of judging preparation from the recitation.

1. What proportion of the class has thought about the lesson as well as learned what is in the book?

2. When a student fails try to determine whether his failure is due to lack of study or to bad methods of study. For example, if a student has learned his lesson by heart, and forgets, he is very different from the student who has not tried either to understand or to learn by heart.

3. How far is the recitation an examination, and how far does it teach students to think? What is the effect of the teacher’s method on the future study of the pupil?

4. How far do students show initiative in carrying forward the work?

5. How many questions do they ask?

6. Girls generally get better marks than boys for their class work. Why is this? Do boys contribute anything that girls do not?

7. Is there any difference in intellectual maturity exhibited by different members of the class?

V (_A_). ATTENTION DURING RECITATION

This section will be of special interest to those who wish to observe in the lower grades. Productive observations can be made, however, in every grade. The chief business of the school is to train in concentration. Observe individual pupils closely.

1. How long does a child keep his attention fixed on one thing?

2. What distractions does a schoolroom present?

3. What concession does the teacher make when pupils do not keep up concentration? For example, does he repeat questions?

4. What positive devices are adopted to keep up attention?

5. What are the physical symptoms of attention and its absence?

6. What individual differences are to be noted?

7. Do you note differences in attention at different times in the day or at different periods of the recitation?

V (_B_). ATTENTION DURING PERIODS OF STUDY

For this section go to the study room or to some class that is engaged in individual work, as, for example, the laboratory.

1. Note the way in which a student goes about his work. Is he ready to begin at once, or does he have to get matters together deliberately after he sits down?

2. Note whether he reads continuously from the book which he is studying.

3. Pay attention to the sort of thing that the student does when he looks away from the book. Does he turn his attention to other objects, or is he trying to think about the book itself? In general, what are the distractions that seem to take his attention from the work? When he comes back to his book, where does he take up the work?

4. Is his rate of work evidently slow or rapid? This can be judged by watching him long enough to see how much time he spends in reading a given page.

5. Note, if you can, the different ways in which students study different subjects. For example, is their work in history different from their work in mathematics? If so, which one seems to you to secure the highest degree of attention? Is the writing of notes apparently of value in keeping them at work?

VI. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

A comparison of different teachers and of different subjects of instruction will bring out most clearly the distinctions here aimed at.

1. What part of the recitation is consumed in asking questions?

2. Are the questions such as to require answers of more than a single sentence?

3. Are the questions based directly on the text?

4. What is the mode of assigning the question to members of the class for answer?

5. Give examples of good questions with reasons for your selection.

6. Contrast different subjects of instruction with reference to the questions which they permit.

7. Give examples of questions which seem to you too general or otherwise vague.

VII. MOTOR PROCESSES

The gymnasium, the sewing class, the cooking class, and the manual-training shop furnish the best opportunities for observations on this topic. Penmanship classes and almost any lower-grade exercise will, however, serve.

1. What are the characteristics of a clumsy movement?

2. Point out certain instinctive elements of behavior; that is, forms of movement which do not have to be learned, but are natural. Are these always helpful in the learning process?

3. Note the prevalence of rhythm in many forms of behavior. Is the rhythm more striking where the behavior is natural and instinctive or where it is being acquired as a special habit of skill?

4. Comment on the _educational_ value of repeating acts which seem to have reached a high degree of perfection, such as taking stitches or swinging Indian clubs.

5. Are individual differences in rate and grace of movement capable of elimination through class training?

6. How far is skill dependent on knowledge?

VIII. RELATION BETWEEN SUBJECTS TAUGHT

For purposes of this section follow a class for a whole forenoon. If the class observed is one of the lower grades, the organization which places this class largely in the hands of one teacher favors a close interrelation of subjects. In the upper grades and high school, on the other hand, organization makes interrelating difficult.

1. What cases did you observe in which the teacher consciously tried to illuminate one subject by reference to another?

2. Did the pupils ask any questions or make remarks which showed that they were thinking about other school topics?

3. Within a given subject there is sometimes opportunity to relate topics which are remote from each other in the textbook. Did the classes visited show any examples of such relating of topics?

4. What opportunities for interrelating subjects did you observe in addition to those taken advantage of by the class?

5. Sometimes the contrast produced by change from one topic to another or from one classroom to another is important in arousing or depressing a class. What contrasts did you observe?

INDEX

Academic courses in high schools, 7

Academy, American, 27

Accounting, school, 61

Administration, studies of, 208
training for, 319

Administrative problems, study of, 303

Adolescence, 268
early, 190
later, 194

Adults, continuation classes for, 147
and the curriculum, 200

After-school classes, 145

Age limits of compulsory education, 42

Agricultural high schools, 134

Alderman, L. R., 144

Algebra, history of, 115

Allen, I. M., 110, 238

Allison, Elizabeth W., 285

American Academy of Political and Social Science, 155

American schools, 14, 26
of 1850, 33

Ames, E. S., 196

Appendix, 321

Arabic numerals, 116

Arithmetic, 117
nonpromotions in, 103
studies of, 210

Associations of parents and teachers, 152

Athletics, 146

Attendance, 35, 41

Attention, observation of, 324

Auditoriums, school, 90

Austin, Texas, 38

Authority in school system, 66

Ayres, L. P., 5, 45, 82, 106, 202, 215, 216, 288, 307

Ayres, May, 82

Bagley, W. C., 204, 211, 251, 253

Bailey, W. A., 264

Batavia system, 110

Binet-Simon tests, 172

Board of education, 66, 67

Bobbitt, J. F., iv, 56, 101, 126

Boise, Idaho, 104

Books, free, 60

Boston, Massachusetts, 95

Boston Latin School, 27

Boys, special commercial training for, 177

Breslich, E. R., 235

Bright pupils, 174

British Royal Commission on the Feeble-minded, Report of, 170

Brooks, Charles, 22

Brown, E. E., 31

Bryant, Louise S., 282

Buildings, school, 74, 78

Bunker, F. F., 22, 24, 31

Bureau of Census, 51

Bureau of Education, 62

Burritt, B. B., 200

Business administration of schools, 68

California State Board of Education, 317

Cameron, E. H., iv

Caste and schools, 17

Centralization, of school control, 64
of school organization, 291

Charters, W. W., 206, 241

Chicago, Illinois, 46, 50, 64

Child labor, 40

Childhood, 185

City Club of Chicago, 133

Civics, 139

Clark, E., 62

Class, organization of, 96

Class instruction, 110

Class period, 256

Classes, sizes of and costs, 58

Classical curriculum, 114

Classical program, 129

Classroom management, 242

Classroom observation, 321

Clerks, training of, 177

Cleveland, 102, 181, 217

Clubs, corn, 149

Coffman, L. D., 208, 320

College courses, as preparatory, 207
once professional, 114
for teachers, 315

Colonial education, 122

Colorado, 6

Comenius, 300

Commercial Club of Chicago, 132

Commercial courses, 177
in high schools, 132, 133
in private schools, 132, 133

Commissioner of Education, 25
reports of, 37, 38, 41, 48, 307

Committee of Ten, 126

Community, conservatism of, 2
and control of schools, 63
lessons in, 139
studies of, 292

Community centers, 150

Comparative method, 14

Comparison, method of, 221, 304

Compulsory education, 30

Compulsory legislation, 37

Concentration, 158

Connecticut school law, 16

Conservatism in community, 2

Consolidation of schools, 92

Contagion in schools, 283

Continuation classes, 147

Continuation training of teachers, 318

Coöperative recitation, 240

Corporation schools, 135

Correlation, observation of, 326

Correspondence schools, 153

Costs, and class instruction, 97
and efficiency, 52
school, 46
of school construction, 89

Course of study, changes in, 2

Courses of study, and costs, 56
for girls, 180

Courtis, S. A., 228, 295

Cousin, 23

Credits, for courses, 261
for home activities, 142

Cubberley, E. P., 34, 37, 52, 62, 77

Current references and the curriculum, 203

Curricula of schools, 18

Curriculum (_see also_ Course of study), 113, 197
conservatism regarding, 2
and costs, 49, 56
for girls, 180
grading of subjects in, 99
and individual differences, 17
and industry, 125
principles of, 156
readjustments in, 105
revision of, 132
and school buildings, 90
and school equipment, 88

Deffenbaugh, W. S., 255

Democracy, and individual differences, 182
and school management, 291

Demonstrations as means of education, 150

Denver survey, 85, 107

Department of Superintendence, 70, 182

Departmentalization of grades, 91

Desks, 87, 88

Detroit, Michigan, 72

Device, 229

Dewey, John, 13, 88

Differentiated curricula, 182

Discipline, 157
classroom, 242, 249
impersonal, 252
observation of, 322

District control of schools, 64, 71

Dressler, F. B., 80

Drill, 240

Dual school system, 131

Earhart, L. B., 241

Economy, demand for, 52

Education, of common people, 32
according to nature, 158
and industry, 40

Educational psychology, 301

Efficiency and costs, 52

Efficiency experts, 295

Elementary-education expenditures, 47, 48, 55, 58

Elimination from school, 121

English secondary schools, 29

Entertainment, 150

Errors in oral reading, 225

Euclid, 116

European schools, 14, 17

Examinations, 240
English, 29

Exceptional pupils, 174

Excursions, field, 239

Exercises and readings, 12, 30, 45, 62, 76, 95, 111, 125, 139, 154,
168, 182, 195, 210, 228, 241, 252, 265, 278, 287, 297, 306, 320

Experimental method, 8, 302

Experiments in education, 302

Extension of education, 141

Eye movements in reading, 9

Failures, and classification of pupils, 102
in high school, 107

Fairy tales, 188

Farrington, F. E., 31, 140

Fatigue, 256
and lighting, 85
and play, 269

Feeble-mindedness, 170

Figures, 6, 8, 9, 18, 50, 59, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 103, 133, 181, 218,
223, 263

Financial support of schools, 36

Fiscal problem, 44

Fiske, John, 184, 306

Fleming, G. L., 57

Flexner, Abraham, 129, 153

Fond du Lac, Wisconsin, 100

Food and education, 281

Foreign languages, teaching of, 166

Formal training, 162

Free education, 28

Freedom, doctrine of, 158

Freeman, F. N., iv, 216, 302, 306

Galton, Francis, 183

Gardening, school, 146, 239

Gary plan, 90, 100

General courses, 138

General education, 114, 127

General Education Board, 149

General training, 162

Geometry, history of, 115

German schools, 22, 29

German system of training teachers, 312

Giles, F. M., 236

Girls, education of, 28, 175
new courses for, 180
special training of, for vocations, 177
trade training for, 136

Grade system, 96

Grading pupils, 261, 322

Grading systems, 100

Grammar, 204

Grammar school, 27

Grand Rapids, 223

Grand Rapids survey, 55

Gray, W. S., iv, 226

Greek and formal discipline, 164

Greeley, Colorado, 141

Greeley, Horace, 280

Groos, K., 278

Gulick, L. H., 288

_Gymnasium_, 19, 25

Hadley, A. T., 164

Hall, G. S., 196, 306

Handwriting, 215

Harvard, 114, 199, 207, 262

Health, 279

Health department, 283

Heating, 86

Heck, W. H., 169

Herbart, 301

Hibbing, Minnesota, 59

High schools (_see also_ Secondary schools), 27
agricultural, 134
classification of pupils in, 105
commercial courses in, 132
costs of, 55
curricula of, 5
failures in subjects in, 107
laboratory methods in, 233

High-school building, 82

Higher education, 44

Higher schools and the curriculum, 113

Historical method, 14

History of education, iii, 300

Holmes, W. H., 112

Home, education in the, 186

Home activities and school credit, 142

Home credits, 143

Home feeding, 280

Hopkins Grammar School, 27

Household arts, 179

Hygiene, 85
teaching of, 285

Idiots, 170

Illinois, 6

Illinois State Teachers Association, 222

Imbeciles, 170

Imitation and primary grades, 187

Immigrants, training of, 147

Impersonal discipline, 252

Impersonal standards, 219

Indiana, 6

Individual differences, 160, 170
and instruction, 104
from training, 180

Individual instruction, 110

Individualism, 194
period of, 189

Industrial continuation classes, 147

Industrial demands and education, 11

Industrial education, 123, 131
demand for, 119

Industry and education, 40

Infancy, 184

Instincts and play, 268

Instruction, in classes, 110
and classification, 105
and costs, 49, 56
and grouping, 98
in health, 285
in play, 273
state supervision of, 43

Intelligence, low grades of, 170
tests of, 172

Interest, 158

Intermediate grades, 189

Intermediate school, 193

Iowa, 6

Irnerius, 113

James, William, 306

Jessup, W. A., 208

Johnson, G. E., 273, 277

Johnston, C. H., 316

Jordan, David Starr, 232

Junior high school, 121, 193

Kansas, 6, 7

Kansas City, Kansas, 264

Kansas City, Missouri, 204

Kilpatrick, W. H., 160

Kindergarten, 185

Kirkpatrick, E. A., 119, 196

Knight, H. R., 271

Koos, L. V., 126

Laboratory method, 232

Laboratory methods and science of education, 302

Laboratory-class period, 260

Laggards. _See_ Retardation

Lancastrian system, 35

Land grants, 35

Language, 186

Latin school, 27

Leavitt, F. M., 137

Lecture method, 239

Legal requirements for secondary-school teachers, 317

Liggett School, 295

Lighting in school buildings, 78, 85

Locke, John, 300

Lowell, A. L., 207

Luncheons, school, 280

MacAndrew, W., 77

McFarland, E. G., 143

McMurry, C. A., 169, 241

McMurry, F. M., 163

Madison, Wisconsin, 274

Maine, 99

Malnutrition, 281

Management of school system, 67

Manhattan Trade School, 136

Mann, Horace, 22, 36

Marks, 245
systems of, 261

Massachusetts, 22, 37

Mathematics in high school, 115

Maturity of pupils, 166

Maury, Sarah W., 280

Measurement of school results, 73, 212, 294

Mechanical aspects of school work, 227

Meek, C. S., 2

Method, 229
experiments in, 239

Methods, courses in, iii, 300
of study, 235

Meyer, M. F., 263

Michigan, 6, 22

Miller, Edith, 206

Minneapolis, 74, 119

Minneapolis survey, 11

Minnesota, 6, 7

Missouri, 6

Mistakes of pupils, study of, 204

Monahan, A. C., 95

Money, training in use of, 118

Monroe, Paul, 265

Monroe, W. S., 31

Montana, 6

Montessori, 159

Morehouse, F. M., 253

Morons, 171

Motor processes, observation of, 325

National Association of Directors of Educational Research, 77

National life, lessons in, 139

National Playground Association, 278

National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, 11, 293

National Society for the Study of Education, 126, 140, 211

Natural behavior, 267

Natural education, 158
and play, 268

Nebraska, 6

Neef, Joseph, 231

New England, 27

New York City, 50, 53

Normal schools, 308

Norsworthy, N., 241

North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, 5, 126, 316

North Dakota, 6

Object teaching, 231

Observation, classroom, 321

Ohio, 6, 7

Oklahoma, 6

One-room school, 97

Open-air rooms, 279

Opinion versus measurement, 213

Oral instruction in European schools, 15

Oral reading, 9, 222

Parents’ associations, 152

Parker, S. C, iv, 31, 166, 241, 311

Part-time courses, 134

Pathological cases, treatment of, in schools, 279

Pathological conditions, 258

Period of class, 256

Periodicity, in mental development, 184
and play, 267

Perry, Arthur Cecil, 253

Perry, Clarence Arthur, 150, 155

Personal standards, 219

Pestalozzi, 231, 300

Peterson, E. A., 283

Physical conditions of classrooms, 322

Physical education, 270

Pierce, J. D., 22

Plato, 300

Play, 266

Population and educational costs, 48

Portland survey, 52

Practical applications of academic courses, 138

Preparation, of pupils, 323
of teachers, 323

Primary grades, 187

Principal, school, 289

Professional courses, preparation for, 207

Professional education, 113, 122

Professional training, 199
of teachers, 308

Program, daily, 254

Promotion, 102, 104, 109

Propaganda, educational, 148

Prussian schools, 22

Psychological methods, 302

Psychology, iii, 301

Public Education Association of Chicago, 67

Public expenditures and school costs, 51

Public opinion and reading, 16

Punishments, 247

Pupil’s point of view, 1

Pupils, grading of, 97
unruly, 251

Puritans and play, 266

Quality of handwriting, 217

Question and answer method, 234

Questions, observation of, 325

Quintilian, 300

Rapeer, L. W., 282

Rate, of handwriting, 217
of oral reading, 225

Reading, 8, 188
in American schools, 15
individual differences in, 180
nonpromotions and, 103
oral, 222
rate of, 180

Reading school, colonial, 16, 123

Readings, exercises and, 12, 30, 45, 62, 76, 95, 111, 125,
139, 154, 168, 182, 195, 210, 228, 241, 252, 265, 278,
287, 297, 306, 320

Recitation, 14
attention during, 324
coöperative, 240

Records, and scientific studies, 304
and standardization, 222

Recreation, 269

Religious teaching, 29

Report on classroom observations, 321

Report lesson, 239

Retardation, 4, 302

Reviews in seventh and eighth grades, 193

Rewards, 247

Rice, J. M., 215

Roman, F. W., 140

Roman numerals and multiplication, 116

Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 13, 158, 300

Routine, organization of, 245

Rudimentary curriculum, 25

Rugg, H. O., iv, 55, 62, 211, 307

Rural school buildings, 80

Salaries, teachers’, 60

Sanitation and school buildings, 78

Scales, 215, 294

Schmidt, W. A., 10

School credits for home activities, 142

School day, length of, 254

School discipline, 249

School finance, 89

School program and play, 276

School Report of 1801, 20

School-city, 250

Science of education, 299
definition of, 305
subdivisions of, 304
and teachers, 320

Scientific methods, 14
applied to marks, 262
demand for, 3
for revising the curriculum, 200
and standardization, 228
of studying the curriculum, 197
and supervision, 44, 72, 296

Scientific supervision, 289

Secondary schools (_see also_ High schools), 17, 192
teachers in, 311

Secular schools, 29

Sense experiences and primary education, 187

Seventh grade, reorganization of, 182

Shearman, F. W., 24

Sheldon, 231

Shopwork, 240

Shorey, Paul, 130

Silent reading, 8

“Six-three-and-three” plan, 121

Smith, W. H., 95

Social arts, period of learning, 188

Social consciousness, 190

Social control, types of, 244

Social standards, 220

South Carolina, 41

South Dakota, 6, 7

Space study, 117

Spaulding, F. E., 105

Special classes, 105, 175

Special courses for defectives, 172

Specialization, 194

Specialized education, 113, 127

Speed of handwriting, 217

Spelling tests, 201

Spencer, Herbert, 13, 253, 306

Springfield, Illinois, survey, 202

Standardization of results, 294

Standardizing associations, 316

Standards, based on opinion, 213
objective, 214

State control, 33

State and school finance, 54

State supervision of education, 42

Statistical studies, 301

Stevens, Bertha M., 177

St. Louis, 106, 223

St. Louis survey, 55

Strayer, G. D., 95, 241

Study, attention during, 325

Study lesson, 239

Subject-matter versus method, 230

Summaries, 125, 167

Superintendent of schools, 66, 69

Supernormal child, 174

Supervised study, 111, 235, 237

Supervision, 42, 63
of courses, 210
of health, 278
scientific, 289

Supplies, costs of, 60

Survey, industrial, 11
of recreations, 270

System, the school, 30

Tables, 48, 51, 55, 57, 58, 107

Tachau, Lena L., 280

Taunton, Massachusetts, school report, 20

Taxation, general, for schools, 36

Teachers, continuation courses for, 318
preparation of, 323
relation of, to community, 63
and the science of education, 320
secondary-school, 311
selection and management of, 293
training of, 308

Technical courses in high schools, 7

Terman, L. M., 95, 172

Tests, 294
of adults, 201
of general intelligence, 172
of methods, 240
of school products, 72, 212

Texas, compulsory education in, 37, 38

Textbooks in American schools, 14

Thorndike, E. L., 183, 216, 301, 307

Trade education, 11

Trade schools, 135

Trade training for girls, 136

Training of teachers, 308

Transfer of training, 165

Ungraded class, 101

Units, high-school, 7

University of Alexandria, 116

University of Cincinnati, 134

University of Missouri, 263

Unruly pupils, 251

Vacation classes, 145

Ventilation, 86

Vernacular, 18, 25

Vocational education, 122, 131

_Volksschule_, 17, 18, 19, 25

_Vorschule_, 19

Ward, D. A., 233

Washington, Booker, 169

Wealth and educational expenditures, 53

Wheaton, H. H., 147

Wider use of school plant, 141

Wirt, W. A., 90

Wisconsin, 6

Wood, T. D., 288

Woolman, Mary S., 136

Wyoming, 6

Young, Ella Flagg, 2

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