Chapter II: Part 2

In the light of recent events and the use of all sorts of chemical bodies for warfare and destruction it will not be uninteresting to introduce here a few paragraphs from this remarkable contribution. He says:

"The Greek fire was invented by Callinicus of Heliopolis, a
town in Syria, who used it with so much skill and effect
during a naval engagement that he destroyed a whole fleet of
the enemy, in which were embarked 30,000 men.

"It appears that in the reign of Louis XV, a chemist of
Grenoble, Dupre de Mayen, discovered a composition similar in
effect to the Greek fire of Callinicus, which was exhibited
at Brest, and proved successful, but the preparation was kept
secret. The original Greek fire was used in 1291, and also in
1679.... Writers have defined it to be a sort of artificial
fire, which burns with increased violence when it mixes with
water.... That it was a liquid composition, we may infer from
the modes of using it, which were several. It was employed
chiefly on board of ships, and thrown on the vessels of the
enemy by large engines. It was sometimes kindled in
particular vessels, which might be called fire ships, and
which were introduced among a hostile fleet. Sometimes it
was put into jars and other vessels, and thrown at the enemy
by means of projectile machines, and sometimes it was
_squirted_ by soldiers from hand engines, or blown through
pipes. This fire was also discharged from the _foreparts of
ships_ by a machine constructed of copper and iron, the
extremity of which is said to have resembled the _open mouth_
and _jaws_ of a lion or other animal. They were painted, and
even gilded, and were capable of projecting the liquid fire
to a great distance.

"... John Cameniata, speaking of his native city,
Thessalonica, which was taken by the Saracens in the year
904, says that the enemy threw fire into the wooden works of
the besieged, which was blown into them by means of tubes,
and thrown from other vessels.... This proves that the
Greeks, in the beginning of the Tenth Century, were no
longer the only people acquainted with the art of preparing
this fire, the _precursor of our gunpowder_. The Emperor Leo,
who about the same period wrote his _Art of War_, recommends
such engines, with a metal covering, to be constructed in the
foreparts of ships, and he twice afterwards mentions engines
for throwing out Greek fire.... For many centuries the method
of making this dreadful article of destruction was lost; but
it has just been discovered by the librarian of the elector
of Bavaria, who has found a very old Latin manuscript which
contains directions for preparing it.

"... On the subject of incendiary and other military
fireworks, the French have certainly laid the foundation for
the very preparations now used by the British, for the
formulæ for such preparations may be traced to the French
service....

"The Moors were in possession of the secret for preparing the
Greek fire in 1432, according to the testimony of Brocquire.
Bertrandon de la Brocquire was in Palestine in 1432 as
counsellor to the Duke of Burgundy. He was present at Barrat
during one of the Moorish celebrations. 'It began,' he
remarks, 'in the evening at sunset. Numerous companies
scattered here and there were singing, and uttering loud
cries. While this was passing, the cannon of the castle was
fired, and the people of the town launched into the air
"_bein haut et bein loin, une maniere de fue plus gros fellot
que je veisse oncques allume_." They told me they made use of
such at sea, to set fire to the sails of an enemy's vessel.
It seems to me that it is a thing easy to be made, and at a
little expense it may be equally well employed to burn a
camp or a thatched village, or in an engagement with cavalry
to frighten their horses. Curious to know its composition, I
sent the servant of my host to the person who made this fire,
and requested him to teach me his method. He returned for
answer, that he dare not, for that he should run great danger
were it known; but there is nothing a man will not do for
money. I offered him a ducat, which quieted his fears, and he
taught me all he knew, and even gave me the moulds in wood,
with the other ingredients, which I have brought to France.'
... When Constantinople was attacked, the Emperor Leo burnt
the vessels or boats, to the number of one thousand eight
hundred, by means of the Greek fire.... Its composition was
kept secret at Constantinople, pretending that the knowledge
of it came from an angel to the first and greatest of the
Constantines, with a sacred injunction not to divulge it
under any pretext, etc. It ... was kept secret above 400
years ... was stolen by the Mahometans, who employed it
against the Crusaders. A knight, it appears, who despised the
swords and lances of the Saracens, relates, with heartfelt
sincerity, his own fears at the sight and sound of the
mischievous engine that discharged a torrent of fire. 'It
came flying through the air, like a winged, long-tailed
dragon, about the thickness of a hogshead, with a report of
thunder, and the velocity of lightning; and the darkness of
the night was dispelled by this deadly illumination. The use
of the Greek, or as it might now be called the Saracen fire,
was continued to the middle of the Fourteenth Century, when
the scientific or casual compound of nitre, sulphur and
charcoal effected a new revolution in the art of war, and the
history of mankind.' ... We do not know of any imitation of
the original Greek fire having been used in modern warfare,
but have no hesitation in believing that naphtha prepared as
already stated would in many cases prove advantageous. It
seems to be well calculated for close naval combat, if the
object be to destroy the sails and rigging of an enemy's
ship. The rapidity and extent of its combustion, added to the
circumstances of its peculiar properties, that of resisting
the action of water in particular, contribute altogether to
this opinion."

The entire article from which these excerpts have been made is worthy of study, even at this late date. It is suggestive and carries with it many historical references of value. The enthusiasm of Cutbush for pyrotechnic bodies is manifest in every line of this publication.

About a year later (1823) Cutbush discussed the formation of cyanogen in processes not previously noticed. He spoke of the appearance of this gas in the putrefaction of animal and vegetable matter, making the following remarkable and in some respects startling statement:

"I believe it would be found that the compound (carburet of
azote) is the basis of the miasmata which produces malignant,
bilious diseases.... Marsh miasmata are generally the cause
of intermittent fevers. Now under particular circumstances of
action may we not admit the generation of carburet of azote
or cyanogen, and if so, as it readily unites with hydrogen,
may it not be the miasma which produces malignant bilious
fevers, since it is known that hydrocyanic acid is
destructive to animal life and a most virulent poison?...
Miasmata of some kind are the cause of yellow fever. For our
part we believe it to be carburet of azote, or of some of its
combinations, and of these that with hydrogen, from its
deleterious character, seems to be the one."

Another observation made in this connection was that cyanogen is produced when charcoal is heated with nitric acid. Cutbush stated that he placed charcoal and nitric acid together in a retort and subjected them to distillation, collecting the product in Woulfe's bottles, after which the resulting solutions were impregnated with potash, and

"common sulphate and persulphate of iron introduced. The
colour instantly changed and became more or less blue,
proving the existence of the perferrocyanite of iron and,
consequently, of cyanogen."

Having never met this method of preparing cyanogen, experiments were made in the writer's laboratory to verify the statement. A blue, or what had the semblance of a blue color, could be obtained at the point given by Cutbush, but just as soon as the solution was acidulated, as is always done, the precipitate disappeared and there was not the slightest indication that Prussian blue had been formed. Even after hours of rest there was not a sign of it.

Association on the part of Cutbush with the men of science in Philadelphia during the first decade of the Nineteenth Century led to an extension of his interest in science circles, so that during leisure moments at West Point (1824) he wrote of the following minerals observed by him in and near that place:

"Molybdenite, kaolin, tremolite, schorl, adularia, garnet,
actinolite, precious serpentine (remarkably elegant), epidote
and diallage."

Recently, attention has been called to a volume by Cutbush entitled "Lectures on the Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons.... With a Means of Discovering Them and Rules for Determining the Purity of Substances." It was published at Newburgh, N. Y., in 1823. The writer has never seen this volume. His search for it has been unsuccessful.

Another publication was "A Synopsis of Chemistry, Arranged Alphabetically, Comprehending the Names, Synonyms, and Definitions in that Science." New York: E. Lewis, 1821. This book is also exceedingly rare.

The real magnum opus of Cutbush resulted in "A System of Pyrotechny" (1825), which voluminous publication did not appear until after his decease, and then largely through the efforts of his wife and former students in the Cadet Corps, for, in _Silliman's Journal_, this note appeared:

"Mrs. Cutbush, widow of the late Dr. Cutbush, of West Point,
proposes to publish by subscription a Treatise on Pyrotechny
by her husband, Dr. James Cutbush.... By the reputation which
Dr. Cutbush sustained, as well as by the ability which his
elaborate treatises on these subjects already published in
this journal display, there can be no doubt that this
posthumous work will be worthy of the public patronage, which
we hope will be liberally bestowed."

Even to-day this publication stands out preëminently and for years has been referred to by artisans and by scientists. Chapters dealing with military fireworks have been seriously studied. In the light of the violent fires, grenades, etc., used in the late war the writings of Cutbush become very fascinating. They show that he truly blazed the way in this field. In the introduction to this splendid volume he wrote:

"On this head, that of the application of chemistry to
pyrotechny, we claim so much originality, as, so far as we
know, to have been the first, who applied the principles of
chemistry.... As this subject, however interesting to the
theoretical pyrotechnist, cannot be understood without a
knowledge of chemistry, it is obvious that that science is a
powerful aid to pyrotechny.... Viewing pyrotechny either as a
science or an art, there is undoubtedly required in its
prosecution much skill and practice. The mere artificer or
fireworker by constant habit may understand, it is true, how
to mix minerals, prepare composition, charge cases, etc., ...
but without a knowledge of chemistry he cannot understand the
theory.... Indeed, chemistry is indispensable to pyrotechny."

Much time and thought were given by Cutbush in the experimental development of this particular subject in his own laboratory. In reading upon the subject he had collected a vast material which was then put to crucial experimental tests. These, outside of his teaching hours, occupied his whole attention.

An outline of how the work in the chemical department of the United States Military Academy was conducted will not be devoid of interest.

_First Year_

Theory and Experimental Chemistry.

_Second Year_

Application of Chemistry to the Arts, Manufactures and
Domestic Economy, constituting along with Mineralogy the
second course.

Pyrotechny naturally was developed quite extensively. Teachers of chemistry will note with pleasure the questions which Cutbush arranged for his student corps, particularly those questions which had to do with pyrotechny:

"What is saltpetre? What is nitric acid? What are the sources
of saltpetre, and how it is obtained? How is it formed in
nitre beds, extracted, and refined? What circumstances are
necessary to produce nitre, and how does animal matter act in
its production? What is the difference between the old and
new process for refining saltpetre? What reagents are used to
discover the presence of foreign substances in nitre? What
are nitre caves? Where do they exist? What are the nitre
caves of the western country, and how is nitre extracted from
the earth? What proportion of nitre does the saltpetre of the
nitrate caves afford? What is the theory of the process for
extracting saltpetre from nitrous earth, or nitrate of lime?
What is sulphur? How is it obtained, and how is it purified
for the manufacture of gunpowder? Of what use is sulphur in
the composition of gunpowder? Does it add to the effective
force of gunpowder? What is charcoal? What is the best mode
of carbonizing wood for the purpose of gunpowder? What woods
are preferred for this purpose? In the charring of wood, what
part is converted into coal, and what gas and acid are
disengaged? What is the use of charcoal in gunpowder? What is
gunpowder? What are considered the best proportions for
forming it, and what constitutes the difference between
powder for war, for gunning, and for mining? How does the
combustion of gunpowder take place? Can you explain why
combustion takes place without the presence of a gaseous
supporter of combustion, as gunpowder will inflame in vacuo?
What are the products of the combustion of gunpowder? What
gases are generated? To what is the force of fired gunpowder
owing? What are the experiments of Mr. Robins on the force of
gunpowder? How would you separate the component parts of
gunpowder so as to determine their proportions? What are
gunpowder proofs? What is understood by the comparative force
of gunpowder? What are eprouvettes, etc.? In noticing in the
same manner the preparations used for fireworks, and for war,
as the rocket, for instance, the following questions were
propounded; viz., What is a rocket? How is it formed? Is the
case always made of paper? What is the war rocket? What is
the composition for rockets, and how does it act? What
particular care is required in charging a rocket? What is the
cause of the ascension of rockets? What is the use of the
conical cavity, made in a rocket at the time it is charged,
or bored out after it is charged? How do cases charged with
composition impart motion to wheels, and other pieces of
fireworks? What is understood by the rocket principle? What
is the rocket stick and its use? Is the centre of gravity
fixed, or is it shifting in the flight of rockets? How are
rockets discharged? What is the head of a rocket? What is
usually put in the head? Are all rockets furnished with a
head? What is understood by the furniture of a rocket? How
are the serpents, stars, fire-rain, etc., forming the
furniture of a rocket, discharged into the air, when the
rocket has terminated its flight, or arrived at its maximum
of ascension? What forms the difference between a balloon, in
fireworks, and a rocket? As the balloon contains also
furniture, and is projected vertically from a mortar, how is
fire communicated to it, so as to burst it in the air? Is
the fuse used, in this case, the same as that for bombs,
howitzers, and grenades? What is the Asiatic rocket? The
fougette of the French? In what siege were they employed with
success by the native troops of India? What was the nature of
their war-rocket? What is the murdering rocket of the French?
Is the conical head hollow, solid, blunt, or pointed? Why is
it called the murdering rocket? What is the Congreve rocket?
Is Congreve the inventor or improver of this rocket? What are
Congreve rockets loaded or armed with? In what part is the
load placed? Is the case made up of paper or sheet-iron? What
are the sizes of Congreve rockets?"

In the introduction to "Pyrotechnics" Cutbush remarked that he had consulted many authorities without much advantage, finding the French the most helpful. Of the English he said:

"As respects the turtle torpedo and catamarin submarine
machines, it appears that Bushnel claims the originality of
the discovery from the date of his invention, although
similar contrivances had long ago been suggested. Fulton's
improvements, in the torpedo, are deserving of particular
attention, but it is plain that the Catamarin of the English
is the same in principle and application as Fulton's torpedo
and that Fulton deserves the merit of it."

The "System of Pyrotechny" bears the ear-marks of much careful experimental study. It is a most worthy contribution, and is strong proof of the dominating force in the mind of Cutbush, namely, to make his science as widely useful as possible. Chemists may justly take pride in this early contribution in the application of chemical principles.

The life story of Cutbush has now been told. It is really the story of his life activities, for regrettable as it is, there does lack a picture of the man's personality. The parents of James Cutbush were Edward Cutbush and Anne Marriat. The father was a stone-cutter or carver. To these good people were given four children: Edward, born in 1772; Ann, in 1782 (who died in 1798); William, born in 1785, and James in 1788. Edward became prominent as a naval surgeon, while William graduated from West Point in 1812, and attained eminence as an engineer.

Indeed, at an early age, William was a midshipman in the United States Navy, and was taken prisoner by the Algerines at the time the frigate Philadelphia ran aground in the harbor of Tripoli, from which he was released after two years' confinement in prison, and returned to the United States, when he became a cadet in the Military Academy.

James Cutbush must have been a man of mark among his neighbors--as indicated by sundry positions of trust which he held. Further, he must have been a favorite with the Cadet Corps at West Point, where he was buried. His tomb there bears this inscription:

"Sacred to the memory of Dr. James Cutbush, Member of the
American Philosophical Society, Late Surgeon, U. S. Army and
Professor of Chemistry at the U. S. Military Academy, West
Point, N. Y., who departed this life December 15, 1823, aged
35 years. An honourable tribute of respect from his grateful
pupils."

The work of Cutbush was of the genuine pioneer character, and enriched the annals of American chemistry. While it would be delightful to know more of the man, cruel fate compels us to be content with the estimate, brief though it is, given in Poulsen's _American Daily Advertiser_, December 23, 1823:

"A man not only known for his extensive knowledge of
chemistry, but distinguished for his philosophy and
patriotism."

* * * * *

Transcriber's Notes

The following typos have been corrected:

Page 28: Socity changed to Society.

Page 44: Braeutigram changed to Braeutigam.

Page 51: responsibile changed to responsible.

Page 67: beginnig changed to beginning.