Chapter VI: Introduction (4)

But examples of this kind are not wanting in any chapter or Letter. The threat, the command, the warning, is a peculiarity so prominent that no one would fail to observe it. And this peculiarity often passes into the style of prophecy. As above, Junius says: "The period is not very distant," and Mr. Paine repeats the expression in the same style: "The time is not very distant." This reveals, not a literary theft, but a mind whose mode of thinking and expression was ever the same.

* * * * *

The reader will furthermore notice the peculiarity in the use of "sir," and the expressions, "You, Sir William," "You, sir," so common to both. This arises from the proud and commanding character of Mr. Paine. He always talks as one having authority, when addressing those he wishes to satirize, but with an avowed modesty when addressing those he wishes to influence. This last is seen in Junius, with regard to Lords Rockingham and Chatham, when speaking of parliamentary reform, and in Common Sense, when speaking of a constitution and methods of taxation. Junius says, after giving his own views: "Other measures may, undoubtedly, be supported in argument, as better adapted to the disorder, or more likely to be obtained." And Common Sense says: "In a former page I threw out a few thoughts on the propriety of a continental charter, for I only presume to offer hints, not plans." These things point to the same mental source, and this characteristic influences the style to a marked degree.

* * * * *

I call attention now to what is termed _alliteration:_ the bringing words together commencing with the same letter, as follows:

_Paine._

Conduct and character.
Mark the movements and meaning.
For law as for land.
Fears and falsities.
Prejudice and prepossession.
Patron and punisher.
Wise and worthy.
Stay and starve.
Reconciliation and ruin are nearly related.

_Junius._

Best and brightest.
Character and conduct.
Concurrence of calamitous circumstances.
Catchpenny contrivance.
Dignity of the design.
Enormous excesses.
Faith and folly.
Fashionable formality.
Pernicious principles, etc.
Good faith and folly have long been received as
synonymous terms.

The above are only a few examples. Almost every page exhibits this feature of the writer. It is a mania with Mr. Paine, and it is almost the first observable feature of Junius. No other author that I have read so abounds in alliteration. But herein Junius and Mr. Paine, not content with two words, frequently unite three, as in some of the examples above. They also bring two words thus together, and ascending from the sound to the sense, give them relationship in meaning; as in the last examples above.

As alliteration exhibits a law of the mind, it can easily be determined, by the rule of averages, whether Mr. Paine and Junius agree. I have estimated the ratio by counting twenty thousand words in each, and have found them to average the same. Were all the words in Junius counted and compared with the same number in Mr. Paine's political writings, it would give the true law of averages, but twenty thousand words will give an approximation not far from the truth.

{107}There is another peculiarity in the style of Mr. Paine and Junius, arising out of this law of the mind, or this mania for alliteration, which is to continue the alliteration throughout the paragraph. For example, if a prominent word begins with an f, t, or p, or any other letter, he continues to select words beginning with the same letter, or in which the sound is prominent, while expressing the same thought or idea. In the following he plays upon like letters in a wonderful manner. I will put the words in italics:

_Paine._

"_Perhaps_ the sentiments contained in the
_following pages_, are not yet _sufficiently
fashionable_ to _procure_ them general _favor_; a
long habit of not _thinking_ a _thing wrong_ gives
it a _superficial appearance_ of being _right_,
and _raises_, at _first_, a _formidable_ out_cry_
in _defense_ of _custom_. But the _tumult soon
subsides_. _Time makes more converts_ than
reason."--C. S., Introd.

_Junius._

"_Prejudices_ and _passions_ have, sometimes,
_carried_ it to a _criminal_ length, and whatever
_foreigners may imagine_, we know that Englishmen
have erred as _much_ in a _mistaken_ zeal _for
particular persons_ and _families_ as they ever
_did_ in _defense_ of what _they thought_ most
_dear_ and _interesting_ to _themselves_."--Let.
1.

I have not gone out of my way for the above examples. Thousands of just such examples may be taken from both. This, together with the even length of the members of the period, is what produces the rythm and harmony of Mr. Paine's style, and which I have never seen paralleled, except in Junius. I have compared it with a hundred authors, and never have I found any thing like it. But Junius is in no respect unlike Mr. Paine. Had a perfect portrait been painted of Mr. Paine, at the time he wrote his Common Sense, and another at the time Junius wrote his Letters, the two portraits could not have more resembled each other than does the style of Junius resemble that of Mr. Paine. And this is what can not be imitated, for it arises out of the constitution of the mind, just like poetry or music; and the poet and musician are born, not made.

Mr. Paine and Junius never use poetry, unless it be a line at the head of a piece. And they both ridicule the use of it in prose composition.

_Paine._

"I can consider Mr. Burke's book in scarcely any
other light than a dramatic performance, and he
must, I think, have considered it in the same
light himself by the _poetical_ liberties he has
taken of omitting some facts, distorting others,
and making the machinery bend to produce a stage
effect.... I have now to follow Mr. Burke through
a pathless wilderness of rhapsodies."--Rights of
Man, part i.

_Junius._

"These letters, my lord, are read in other
countries and in other languages, and I think I
may affirm without vanity, that the gracious
character of the best of princes is by this time
not only perfectly known to his subjects, but
tolerably well understood by the rest of Europe.
In this respect alone I have the advantage of Mr.
Whitehead. His plan, I think, is too narrow. He
seems to manufacture his verses for the sole use
of the hero who is supposed to be the subject of
them, and, that his meaning may not be exported in
foreign bottoms, sets all translation at
defiance."--Let. 49.

They sometimes wander from the point, and then bring the reader back by mentioning the fact:

_Paine._

"But to return to the case in question."--Crisis,
vii and xiii. "Passing on from this _digression_,
I shall now endeavor to bring into one view the
several parts."--Crisis, viii. "But to return to
my account."--Rights of Man, part i.

_Junius._

"But, sir, I am sensible I have followed your
example too long, and wandered from the
point."--Let. 18.

Another peculiarity is the method of bringing the subject "into one view:"

_Paine._

See last quotation above. "Having now finished
this subject, I shall bring the several parts into
one view."--Rights of Man, part ii.

_Junius._

"This, sir, is the detail. In one view, behold,"
etc.--Let. 1.

See also Letter 13.

I have before called attention to the manner in which Mr. Paine signed his Introduction to Common Sense, and Junius his Dedication; but there is a similarity in the manner in which they frequently close their pieces. The expressions, "To conclude," "I shall conclude," "I shall therefore conclude," are used by both.

* * * * *

There is a marked peculiarity in taking illustrations from the Bible, and I now speak of and compare the political writings of Mr. Paine with Junius. Junius is filled with such references, and they are no less plentiful in Common Sense. This leads me on to speak of figures of speech.

* * * * *

In the use of the trope I find the one a reproduction of the other. The metaphor comes before us in every conceivable beauty, and herein they paint with an artist's skill, and the many delicate touches, as well as bold strokes, show the same hand at the brush. There is never, for example, a long and labored metaphor; never a company of them together; never one that does not apply with admirable effect.

At the close of an article, a figure of speech is often used with a master's skill, and leaves an impression on the mind of the reader not easily effaced. In this they are alike. Junius, for example, closes thirty-six of his Letters in this manner; and in Mr. Paine's three works--Common Sense, The Crisis, and Rights of Man--he closes twenty-three parts in this manner, which gives us about the same ratio. They both abound in metaphor and comparison. Seldom do they use allegory or hyperbole, but personification and exclamation are frequent. I will now give a few parallels which I have selected from the many examples, and I will begin the list with exclamations so common to both:

_Paine._

Alas!
I thank God!
For God's sake!
In the name of Heaven!
Good God!
Good Heavens!
I pray God!

_Junius._

But, alas!
I thank God!
Would to God!
In God's name!
May God protect me!
I appeal to God for my sincerity!
I pray God!

The expression, "I thank God!" is the most frequent with both. As this is not common with writers, the parallel is a strong one. But to continue:

_Paine._

"Every political physician will advise a different
medicine."--Common Sense.

_Junius._

"It is not the disorder, but the physician--it is
the pernicious hand of government."--Let. 1.

"Why is the nation sickly?"

"Infuse a portion of new health into the
constitution."--Let. 68.

"Like a prodigal lingering in habitual
consumption, you feel the relics of life, and
mistake them for recovery."--Address to English
people.

"No man regards an eruption on the surface when
the noble parts are invaded and he feels a
mortification approaching the heart."--Let. 39.

"These are the times that try men's
souls."--Crisis, i.

"These are not the times to admit of any
relaxation in the little discipline we have left."

The constituents "making a rod for themselves."

"Under the rod of the constituent."

Speaking of Abbe Raynal's work, he calls it a
"_performance_."--Letter to.

Speaking of M. de Lolme's Essay on Government, he
calls it a "_performance_."--Preface.

"At stake." This expression is very frequent.

"At stake." This expression is very frequent.

"In one view." Quite frequent.

"In one view." Quite frequent.

"The time is not very distant."

"The period is not very distant."

"The simple voice of nature and reason will say it
is right."

"The voice of truth and reason must be silent."

"Where nature hath given the one she hath withheld
the other."

"Nature has been sparing of her gifts to this
noble lord."

"For as the greater weight will always carry up
the less, and all the wheels of a machine are put
in motion by one, it only remains to know which
power in the constitution has most weight."

"We incline the balance as effectually by
lessening the weight in the one scale as by
increasing it in the other."

"You would fain be thought to take no share in
government, while in reality you are the
mainspring of the machine."

"One of the strongest natural proofs of the folly
of hereditary right in kings is that _nature
disapproves it_, otherwise she would not so
frequently turn it into ridicule by giving mankind
an ass for a lion."

"It is you, Sir William, who make your friend
appear awkward and ridiculous, by giving him a
laced suit of tawdry qualifications which _nature
never intended_ him to wear."

In the last metaphor nature personified is brought forward as the actor, by turning to ridicule the vanity of man in assuming more than he is. Junius, without expressing it in words, has put forward the fable of the ass in a lion's skin, when speaking of Lord Granby's courage. But Mr. Paine has applied the same fable to the king. The figures are differently expressed but exactly the same.

_Paine._

"Like wasting an estate on a suit at law to
regulate the trespasses of a tenant, whose lease
is just expiring."

_Junius._

"Like broken tenants who have had warning to quit
the premises, they curse their landlord, destroy
the fixtures, throw every thing into confusion,
and care not what mischief they do the estate."

The above is the same figure, but differently applied. This figure is quite often used by Mr. Paine and Junius.

_Paine._

"Quitting this class of men, I turn with the warm
ardor of a friend, to those who have nobly stood
and are yet determined to stand the matter out. I
call not upon a few, but upon all, up and help us;
lay your shoulders to the wheel."--Crisis, i.

_Junius._

"I turn with pleasure from that barren waste in
which no salutary plant takes root, no verdure
quickens, to a character fertile as I willingly
believe in every great and good qualification. I
call upon you, in the name of the English nation,
to stand forth in defense of the laws of your
country and to exert in the cause of truth and
justice those great abilities with which you were
intrusted for the benefit of mankind."--Let. 68.

There are two facts in the above parallel showing that the same mind indited both. First: Turning away from those who have deserved and who have been receiving his censure to the friends of the cause; and, Secondly: The call which immediately follows: "I call upon you." That it was not stolen from Junius by Mr. Paine, is proven by two facts. First: The language and figure are different; and, Secondly: That which makes it a parallel it is impossible to steal. It is a parallel of conditions, the one in England and the other in America. But if Junius were not Mr. Paine, then would the conditions be destroyed. But there is a parallel of conditions, which can not be plagiarized; therefore Thomas Paine was Junius.

If it be argued in answer to this reasoning: There might be just such conditions existing with the character Junius in England as with Paine in America, which might produce a parallel as above, I admit the possibility; but the chances are infinity to one against such a hypothesis.

But to reduce the chances still more, let us bring a parallel of fact to illustrate a principle of _national honor_.

_Paine._

"There is such an idea in the world as that of
national honor, and this falsely understood is
oftentimes the cause of war. In a Christian and
philosophical sense mankind seem to have stood
still at individual civilizations, and to retain
as nations all the original rudeness of nature.
Peace by treaty is only a cessation of violence
for a reformation of sentiment. It is a substitute
for a principle that is wanting and ever will be
wanting till the idea of national honor is rightly
understood. I remember the late Admiral Saunders
declaring in the House of Commons, and that in the
time of peace, 'That the city of Madrid laid in
ashes was not a sufficient atonement for the
Spaniards taking off the rudder of an English
sloop of war.' I do not ask whether this is
Christianity or morality, I ask whether it is
decency? whether it is proper language for a
nation to use? In private life we call it by the
plain name of bullying, and the elevation of rank
can not alter its character. It is, I think,
exceedingly easy to define what ought to be
understood by national honor; for that which is
the best character for an individual is the best
character for a nation; and wherever the latter
exceeds or falls beneath the former, there is a
departure from the line of true
greatness."--Crisis, vii.

_Junius._

"If we recollect in what manner the _king's
friends_ have been constantly employed, we shall
have no reason to be surprised at any condition of
disgrace to which the once respected name of
Englishman may be degraded.... The expedition
against Port Egmont does not appear to have been a
sudden ill-concerted enterprise: it seems to have
been conducted, not only with the usual military
precautions, but in all the forms and ceremonies
of war. A frigate was first employed to examine
the strength of the place. A message was then sent
demanding immediate possession in the Catholic
king's name, and ordering our people to depart. At
last a military force appears and compels the
garrison to surrender. A formal capitulation
ensues, and his majesty's ship, which might at
least have been permitted to bring home his troops
immediately, is detained in port twenty days and
her rudder forcibly taken away. This train of
facts carries no appearance of the rashness or
violence of a Spanish governor. Mr. Buccarelli is
not a pirate, nor has he been treated as such by
those who employed him. I feel for the honor of a
gentleman when I affirm that our king owes him a
signal reparation. When will the humility of this
country end? A king of Great Britain, not
contented with placing himself upon a level with a
Spanish governor, descends so low as to do a
notorious injustice to that governor. Thus it
happens in private life with a man who has no
spirit nor sense of honor. One of his equals
orders a servant to strike him: instead of
returning the blow to the master, his courage is
contented with throwing an aspertion equally false
and public upon the character of the
servant."--Let. 42.

The above parallel, like the preceding one, arises primarily in the mind from the association of ideas. The definition of national honor is the same, and arose out of the same transaction. Taking away the rudder from an English frigate was a national insult, but instead of demanding reparation of the king of Spain, the king of England would satisfy his honor by attacking a king's servant, which furnishes the materials for the censure of Junius, and Admiral Saunders would be satisfied to see the city of Madrid laid in ashes, which furnishes the just ground for the aspersions of Mr. Paine; and from thence they define national honor to be that deportment which is best suited to an individual. They both state the case, and then define; the method and figures are the same. But there is another parallel in these two pieces, and in the same connection. Mr. Paine and Junius both use very harsh language in commenting on the facts in the case, and when they close their censure they say:

_Paine._

"This, perhaps, may sound harsh and uncourtly, but
it is too true, and the more is the pity."

_Junius._

"These are strong terms, sir, but they are
supported by fact and argument."

This apology taken in the same connection, shows the same mind, for it is a law of nature, whether exhibited in mind or matter, that when given the same conditions the same results follow. Now if Thomas Paine be not Junius, then would no such parallels be found; for, as before remarked, literary theft is impossible, inasmuch as conditions can not be stolen, and more especially the most important condition in the above case, _mental constitution_. In other words the case is stated by the _same person_, in the _same style_, but not in the same language.

_Paine._

"This plain language may, perhaps, sound uncourtly
to an ear vitiated by courtly refinements, but
words were made for use, and the fault lies in
deserving them, or the abuse in applying them
unfairly."--Crisis, ii.

_Junius._

"These sentiments, sir, and the style they are
conveyed in, may be offensive perhaps, because
they are new to you. Accustomed to the language of
courtiers, you measure their affections by the
vehemence of their expressions; and when they only
praise you indifferently you admire their
sincerity."--Let. 35.

"Like a stream of water."

"Like a rapid torrent."

"Slave in buff."

"Cream-colored parasite."

"My creed in politics."

"Political creed we profess."

"Expressed myself over-warmly."

"Passionate language."

"By following the passion and stupidity of the
pilot you wrecked the vessel within sight of the
shore." Applied to England.

"In the shipwreck of the state, trifles float and
are preserved, while every thing solid and
valuable sinks to the bottom and is lost forever."

"It needs no painting of mine to set it off, for
nature can only do it justice."

"The works of a master require no index; his
features and coloring are taken from nature."

"She [England] set out with the title of parent or
mother country. The association of ideas which
naturally accompany this expression are filled
with every thing that is fond, tender, and
forbearing. They have an energy peculiar to
themselves, and overlooking the accidental
attachment of natural affection apply with
infinite _softness_ to the first feelings of the
heart."

"With all his mother's _softness_."

[Mr. Paine argued against this title of "mother country" being applied to England. And what is remarkable, Junius was never betrayed into it, even with all his prejudice in favor of the English nation hanging about him. In Letter 1, he speaks of England as having "alienated the colonies from their natural affection to their _common_ country," and in no place says parent or mother country. This fact is a striking parallel.]

"That men never turn rogues without turning fools,
is a maxim sooner or later universally
true."--Crisis, iii.

"There is a proverb concerning persons in the
predicament of this gentleman, 'They commence
dupes, and finish knaves.'"--Let. 49.

"The corrupt and abandoned court of Britain."

"Corruption glitters in the van, collects and
maintains a standing army of mercenaries."

"Trembling duplicity of a spaniel."

"In that state of abandoned servility and
prostitution." ... "The ministry, abandoned as
they are."

"Agony of a wounded mind."

"When the mind is tortured."

"Compound of reasons."

"Compound his ideas."

"Nothing but the sharpest essence of villainy
compounded with the strongest distillation of
folly, could have produced a _menstruum_ that
would have effected a separation."--Crisis, iii.

"He was forced to go through every division,
resolution, composition, and refinement of
political chemistry before he happily arrived at
the _caput mortuum_ of vitriol in your grace. Flat
and insipid in your retired state; but brought
into action you become vitriol again."--Let. 15.

In the above Mr. Paine applies this figure of political chemistry to the causes which led to the separation of the colonies from England. Junius is speaking to the Duke of Grafton. "_Menstruum_" and "_Caput mortuum_," are old chemical terms. The former means that which will dissolve, and the latter the worthless matter which is left. They are both figures of analysis, and show the writer to have given his attention to chemistry. Mr. Paine, it is well known, in 1775, shortly after arriving in America, "set his talents to work" to _make_ saltpeter by some cheap and expeditious method, and formed an association to supply gratuitously the national magazines with powder. This fact also shows that Mr. Paine came to America to fight England; for it was before he had written his Common Sense. His object was, to be prepared; his method was, first the powder and then the Declaration of Independence, which last was produced by the pamphlet Common Sense.

_Paine._

"It renders man diminutive in things that are
great, and the counterfeit of woman in things that
are small."--Rights of Man, part i.

_Junius._

"Women, and men like women, are timid, vindictive,
and irresolute."--Let. 41.

"Fact is superior to reasoning."--Rights of Man,
part ii., chap. i.

"The plain evidence of facts is superior to all
declarations."--Let. 5.

"You sunk yourself below the character of a
private gentleman."--Crisis, ii.

"You are degraded below the condition of a
man."--Let. 34.

"Now if I have any conception of the _human
heart_, they will fail in this more than in any
thing they have yet tried."--Crisis, iii.

"I thought, however, he had been better read in
the history of the _human heart_."--Let. 27.

Mr. Paine and Junius both reasoned, and this very often, from the nature of man, and especially his passions. The following are parallels:

_Paine._

"Spirit of prophecy."
"Man of spirit."
"Air of."
"Strokes of."
"Give color to."
"Tranquillity of."
"Narrow views."

_Junius._

"Spirit of prophecy."
"Man of spirit."
"Air of."
"Strokes of."
"Give color to."
"Tranquillity of."
"Narrow views."

"But the great hinge on which the whole machine
turned, is the _union of the States_."--Crisis,
xv., note.

"This is not the hinge on which the debate
turns."--Let. 16.

"Each individual feels his share of the wound
given to the whole."--Crisis, xii.

"I consider nothing but the wound which has been
given to the law."--Let. 30.

"Thorn in the flesh."

"Thorn in the king's side."

"As the future ability of a giant over a dwarf is
delineated in his features while an
infant."--Crisis, xi.

"The features of the infant are a proof of the
descent."--Let. 58.

"But from such opposition, the French revolution,
instead of suffering, receives homage. The more it
is struck, the more sparks it will emit."--Rights
of Man, part i.

"Hardly serious at first, he is now an enthusiast.
The coldest bodies warm with opposition, the
hardest sparkle in collision."--Let. 35.

"He pities the plumage, but forgets the dying
bird."--Do.

"The feather which adorns the royal bird supports
his flight. Strip him of his plumage, and you fix
him to earth."--Let. 42.

"The ripeness of the continent for independence."

"When you are ripe, you shall be plucked."--Let.
66.

"Had you studied true greatness of heart, _the
first and fairest ornament of mankind_."--Crisis,
vii.

"But neither should I think the most exalted
faculties of the human mind a gift worthy of the
Divinity, nor any assistance in the improvement of
them a subject of gratitude to my
fellow-creatures, if I were not satisfied that
really to inform the understanding, corrects and
enlarges the heart."--Last sentence of Junius.

[This shows a parallel also in the _estimation_ they place upon the human faculties, which is worth more in argument than any parallel of figure or expression.]

"Wounded herself to the heart."

"Stab you to the heart."

"Unite in despising you."

"United detestation."

"We are not moved by the gloomy _smile_ of a
worthless king."--Crisis, iv.

"How far you are authorized to rely upon the
sincerity of those _smiles_ which a pious court
lavishes without reluctance upon a libertine by
profession," etc.--Let. 15.

"That which, to some persons, appeared moderation
in you at first, was not produced by any real
virtue of your own, but by a contrast of passions,
dividing and holding you in perpetual
irresolution. One vice will frequently expel
another, without the least merit in the man, as
powers in contrary directions reduce each other to
rest."--Crisis, v.

"We owe it to the bounty of Providence that the
completest depravity of the heart is sometimes
strangely united with a confusion of the mind,
which counteracts the most favorite principles,
and makes the same man treacherous without art,
and a hypocrite without deceiving."--Let. 15.

The last parallel above will bear a moment's thought and study. Paine says: "Without the least merit in the man." Junius says: "We owe it to the bounty of Providence." They were both deeply read in the history of the human heart. The following is of the same nature, showing the same mental philosophy:

_Paine._

"Men whose political principles are founded on
avarice are beyond the reach of reason, and the
only cure of toryism of this cast is to tax it. A
substantial good drawn from a real evil, is of the
same benefit to society as if drawn from a virtue;
and when men have not public spirit to render
themselves serviceable, it ought to be the study
of government to draw the best possible use from
their vices. When the governing passion of any man
or set of men is once known, the method of
managing them is easy; for even misers, whom no
public virtue can impress, would become generous
could a heavy tax be laid upon covetousness."

_Junius._

"In public affairs there is the least chance of a
perfect concurrence of sentiment or inclination.
If individuals have no virtues, their vices may be
of use to us. I care not with what principle the
new-born patriot is animated if the measures he
supports are beneficial to the community. The
nation is interested in his conduct, the motives
are his own."--Let. 58.

"I am not so unjust as to reason from one crime to
another; though I think that, of all vices,
avarice is most apt to taint and corrupt the
heart."--Let. 27.

"Charity with them begins and ends at
home."--Exam. of Prophecies, Appendix.

"His charity has improved upon the proverb, and
ended where it began."--Let. 27.

"Gut a verse."

"Gut a resolution."

The above are a few of the similar figures which have come under my eye. The careful reader will, doubtless, find many more, as I have given my attention to a multiplicity of subjects in this investigation, and many parallels would thus escape me. But I have given more than sixty, which ought to arrest the attention of any thinking man. Together with the above may be taken parallel phrases _frequently_ used by both; for example: "I affirm," "Excess of folly," "In point of," "Give the lie to," "For several reasons," "Branded with," "It signifies not," "Circumstanced," "For my own part," "In short," "Forever," "Common cause."

* * * * *

I now pass on to those figures of speech which come in the form of argumentation, as antithesis and interrogation.

Antithesis is a species of word painting. It is to an argument what light and shade are to a painting. There can, therefore, be no argument without antithesis in some form. It may be defined, contrasting or placing in opposition opinions, sentiments, and ideas. The following are examples:

_Paine._

"At home and abroad."

"A government of our own is our natural right;
and when a man seriously reflects on the
precariousness of human affairs, he will become
convinced that it is infinitely wiser and safer to
form a constitution of our own in a cool,
deliberate manner, while we have it in our power,
than to trust such an interesting event to time
and chance. _If we omit it now_, some Massanello
may hereafter arise, who, laying hold of popular
disquietudes, may collect together the desperate
and discontented, and, by assuming to themselves
the powers of government, finally sweep away the
liberties of the continent like a deluge."--C. S.

_Junius._

"At home and abroad."

"If we see them obedient to the laws, prosperous
in their industry, united at home and respected
abroad, we may reasonably presume that their
affairs are conducted by men of experience,
abilities, and virtue. _If, on the contrary_, we
see an universal spirit of distrust and
dissatisfaction, a rapid decay of trade,
dissensions in all parts of the empire, a total
loss of respect in the eyes of foreign powers, we
may pronounce, without hesitation, that the
government of that country is weak, distracted,
and corrupt."--Let. 1.

As would naturally be expected from what has already been brought forward, in regard to the mental constitution of Mr. Paine, he abounds in this figure and style of argumentation; and it is the same with Junius. Sentence after sentence, and period after period, are in antithesis. The expressions, "On the one hand, and on the other," "At home and abroad," "On this side, and on that," are the constant companions of both. Hence the method, also, in both, of bringing forward contradictions in the conduct and character of individuals, or in any proposition they are attacking. This is the language, also, of ridicule; the contradiction makes it absurd, the incongruity ridiculous. Antithesis is, therefore, an argumentative figure of speech, in which contrast or comparison is made to present an image of things or principles to the mind. It is to rhetoric what light and shade are to painting. In no other way can a writer paint a picture. Hence, when Mr. Paine says, "Were I disposed to _paint_ a contrast," and when Junius says, "Imagine what you might be, and then reflect upon what you are," they reveal the gift of that tremendous power they exhibit in their productions.

It is from this constitutional arrangement of the mind which makes a man a good mathematician. For, if one will trace a mathematical process of reasoning, he will find it to be a system of comparisons or antitheses--and nothing else--having foundation primarily in _equality_. The idea of _equality_ is the origin of mathematics. It was, therefore, a mathematician who wrote Junius. We can not go wrong in this conclusion, for we reason from first principles, and we would expect to find his style and language assuming mathematical preciseness, and only equaled by Mr. Paine in argumentation.

* * * * *

From what has already been said, we would expect to find the frequent use of the _dilemma_, and the _reductio ad absurdum_--or, that the contrary of what is true leads to the _absurd_.

_Paine._

"There is something exceedingly ridiculous in the
composition of monarchy; it first excludes a man
from the means of information, yet empowers him
to act in cases where the highest judgment is
required. The state of a king shuts him from the
world, yet the business of a king requires him to
know it thoroughly; wherefore, the different
parts, by unnaturally opposing and destroying each
other, prove the whole character to be absurd and
ridiculous."

_Junius._

"The right of election is the very essence of the
constitution. To violate that right, and, much
more, to transfer it to any other set of men, is a
step leading immediately to the dissolution of all
government. So far forth as it operates, it
constitutes a House of Commons which does not
represent the people. A House of Commons so formed
would involve a contradiction, and the greatest
confusion of ideas; but there are some ministers,
my lord, whose views can only be answered by
reconciling absurdities, and making the same
proposition which is false and absurd in argument
true in fact."--Let. 11.

I give the following dilemmas:

_Paine._

"If you make the necessary demand at home, your
party sinks; if you make it not, you sink
yourself; to ask it now is too late, and to ask it
before was too soon; and, unless it arrive
quickly, will be of no use. In short, the part you
have to act can not be acted."--Crisis, ii.

_Junius._

"This confession reduces you to an unfortunate
dilemma. By renewing your solicitations, you must
either mean to force your country into a war at a
most unseasonable juncture, or, having no view or
expectation of that kind, that you look for
nothing but a private compensation to
yourself."--Let. 25.

But those methods of argumentation are only a species of antithesis, and may all be reduced to the one fundamental form of comparison. This may remind us of the fact that all improvement arises from comparison, whether in language, government, or personal experience.

I have one marked feature of argumentative figure to point out, and this is, _interrogation_. This is insinuation without direct attack, a sort of flank movement, when charges are made that can not be proven, or when too evident to need proof. This style is also not only common to both Mr. Paine and Junius, but so prominent that it attracts attention at once.

* * * * *

It is frequently the case with Mr. Paine and Junius that "_language fails_," that is, it is poured forth in such torrents of abuse that the reader is made painfully aware of it, and to recapture the mind of the reader, they artfully charge it to the impossibility of doing justice to so bad a subject. For example:

_Paine._

"There are cases that can not be overdone by
language, and this is one."--Crisis, i.

"There is not in the compass of language a
sufficiency of words to express the baseness of
your king, his ministry, and his army. They have
refined upon villainy till it wants a name. To the
fiercer vices of former ages they have added the
dregs and scummings of the most finished
rascality, and are so completely sunk in
serpentine deceit that there is not left among
them one generous enemy."--Crisis, v.

_Junius._

"But this language is too mild for the occasion.
The king is determined that our abilities shall
not be lost to society."--Let. 48.

"Our language has no terms of reproach, the mind
has no idea of detestation, which has not already
been happily applied to you and exhausted. Ample
justice has been done, by abler pens than mine, to
the separate merits of your life and character.
Let it be my humble office to collect the
scattered sweets till their united virtue tortures
the sense."--Let. 41.

"We sometimes experience sensations to which
language is not equal. The conception is too bulky
to be born alive, and in the torture of thinking
we stand dumb. Our feelings imprisoned by their
magnitude, find no way out, and in the struggle of
expression every finger tries to be a tongue. The
machinery of the body seems too little for the
mind, and we look about us for help to show our
thoughts by. Such must be the sensation of America
whenever Britain teeming with corruption shall
propose to her to sacrifice her faith."--Crisis,
xii.

"In what language shall I address so black, so
cowardly a tyrant. Thou worse than one of the
Brunswicks and all the Stuarts."--Let. 56.

"The king has been advised to make a public
surrender, a solemn sacrifice in the face of all
Europe, not only of the interest of his subjects,
but of his own personal reputation, and of the
dignity of that crown which his predecessors have
worn with honor. These are strong terms, sir, but
they are supported by fact and argument."--Let.
42.

In the last parallel above, it will be noticed, the strong terms were called forth by a sacrifice of _national honor_ with Great Britain, and a prospect of it in the United States. I call attention to this in this place to save repetition of proofs, showing that proud spirit of personal honor so prominent in Paine and Junius, and from which they both say: national honor is governed by the same rules as personal honor. I now pass to notice the most prominent mental characteristics.

MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS.

If the reader will carry forward in his mind what I have already said on style and the object for which Mr. Paine and Junius wrote, it will greatly aid me in reducing the size of this book. I shall act on the principle of this suggestion, and while I give new matter upon new subjects, the reader will find the parallels greatly strengthened by what has already been said. The reader will also apply the facts already brought forward to the passages I shall hereafter present, so that, like a two-edged sword, it may be made to cut both ways. And first of _avarice_ and the _miser_:

_Paine._

"Could I find a miser whose heart never felt the
emotion of a spark of principle, even that man,
uninfluenced by every love but the love of money,
and capable of no attachment but to his interest,
would and must, from the frugality which governs
him, contribute to the defense of the country, or
he ceases to be a miser and becomes an idiot."

_Junius._

"Of all the vices avarice is most apt to taint and
corrupt the heart."--Let. 27.

"As for the common _sordid views_ of avarice,"
etc.--Let. 53.

"The miser himself seldom lives to enjoy the
fruits of his _extortion_."--Let. 20, note.

"Every passion that acts upon mankind has a
peculiar mode of operation. Many of them are
temporary and fluctuating; they admit of cessation
and variety. But avarice is a fixed, uniform
passion. It neither abates of its vigor nor
changes its object."--Crisis, x.

"I could never have a doubt in law or reason
that a man convicted of a high breach of trust and
of a notorious corruption in the execution of a
public office, was and ought to be incapable of
sitting in the same parliament."--Let. 20.

I call attention to that pride of character and personal honor, so conspicuous in both Paine and Junius:

_Paine._

"A man who has no sense of honor, has no sense of
shame."--Let. to Cheetham.

_Junius._

"Honor and honesty must not be renounced, although
a thousand modes," etc.--Let. 58.

"Knowing my own heart, and feeling myself, as I
now do, superior to all the skirmish of party, the
inveteracy of interested, or mistaken opponents, I
answer not to falsehood or abuse."--R. M., part
ii.

"Junius will never descend to dispute with such a
writer as Modestus."--Let. 29.

"Fortified with that proud integrity, that disdain
to triumph or to yield, I will advocate the rights
of man."--Do.

"For my own part, my lord, I am proud to affirm,
that if I had been weak enough to form such a
friendship, I would never have been base enough to
betray it."--Let. 9.

A thousand passages might be selected from both to show this riding trait of character. The proud, imposing spirit that would dare to undertake the business of a world for the good of mankind, and to tread on the pride of courtiers, and to tell the king, who ruled over the greatest nation on earth, that nature had only intended him for a good-humored fool, is pre-eminently the leading trait in Junius and Paine. No one can mistake it; no one can fail in finding it; no one can help feeling the force of it. It has never been produced in any other man. The world's history has given us but the one example of it. We search in vain for another parallel. And if Mr. Paine did not write Junius, nature produced twins of the same mental type to do the same work for mankind, and then defeated all her arts and gave the lie to all her laws, by exhibiting the one and forever concealing the other. But surely nature can conceal nothing. Her method is to reveal, not to conceal. She writes the character of man on all he touches, and reveals it in the very language he would employ to conceal it.

It was this proud spirit which gave Paine that contempt for monarchy which he so often expressed. "I have an aversion to monarchy," he says, "as being too debasing to the dignity of man." This is a language which courtiers could not understand, and they would consider it the vain babbling of a mad-man; but it is the very basis of that government which he labored to establish in America and France. This is also the spirit of Junius when he says with such withering sarcasm: "It may be matter of curious speculation to consider, if an honest man were permitted to approach a king, in what terms he would address himself to his sovereign." And after having gained the ear of the king, when he says: "Let it be imagined, no matter how improbable, that he has spirit enough to bid him speak freely and understanding enough to listen to him with attention. Unacquainted with the vain impertinence of forms, he would deliver his sentiments with _dignity_ and firmness." Here Junius, also, fortified with that proud integrity of character which he held in common with all who would not be enslaved, and which he possessed as the birthright of man, was free to place the dignity of an honest man in antithesis to a weak understanding in a king only supported by the vain impertinence of forms. Paine was too proud to be vain; his pride came up from nature; it was the pride of human worth, and opposed to that vanity of art which always makes pretentions to more worth than nature has conferred. Nature gives us pride, art makes us vain. It was this pride, in opposition to vanity, which Junius expressed in his great battle against the usurpations of government, when he says: "Both liberty and property are precarious unless the possessors have sense and spirit enough to defend them. This is not the language of vanity. If I am a vain man my gratification lies within a narrow circle." That is, "to write for fame and be unknown."

From this pride of character, so strong and peculiar, we may draw no weak conclusion in regard to the authorship of Junius, for the parallel is perfect, and the age in which he wrote gave us nothing like it in any one but Paine. This characteristic gives tone to the whole mind, and a shade of coloring to every faculty. It reflects itself upon the people, and draws therefrom the conclusion that they have more "sense and spirit" than they really possess. It gives a double coloring to hope, paints two bows instead of one, and reduces the time for the establishment of right. It thus produces more faith in the people than facts will sustain. For example:

_Paine._

"The fraud, hypocrisy, and imposition of
governments are now beginning to be too well
understood to promise them any longer career. The
farce of monarchy and aristocracy in all
countries, is following that of chivalry, and Mr.
Burke is dressing for the funeral."

"The time is not very distant when England will
laugh at itself for sending abroad for a king."
&c.

_Junius._

"I believe there is yet a spirit of resistance in
this country, which will not submit to be
oppressed; but I am sure there is a fund of good
sense in this country which can not be
deceived."--Let. 16.

"Within the space of a few years we have seen two
revolutions, those of America and France.... From
both these instances it is evident that the
greatest forces that can be brought into the field
of revolutions, are reason and common
interest...."

"We may hereafter hope to see revolutions or
changes in government, produced by the same quiet
operation, by which any measure determinable by
reason and discussion, is accomplished."--R. of M.
Part ii.

"Although the king should continue to support his
present system of government, the period is not
very distant, at which you will have the means of
redress in your own power; it may be nearer,
perhaps, than any of us expect.

"I do not believe that monarchy and aristocracy
will continue seven years longer in any of the
enlightened countries of Europe."--R. of M. Part
ii. Pref.

"You are roused at last to a sense of your danger:
the remedy will soon be in your power."--Ded.

But Paine and Junius were both mistaken. Reason will, perhaps, forever fail to produce a revolution without bloodshed. Reason only prepares for war, and when time has slowly accomplished the work of reason in any reform, it terminates that work in convulsions of war. The political corruptions, also, which Junius was so hopeful would soon be resisted by the English people, still exist, and the reforms he advocated, although partly accomplished, fail to produce any better result. The reason is, the people never resist tyranny till scourged into it, from self-interest; and, besides, they must worship a tyrant of some political form, bending the knee to king or party, and baring the back to the lash. A leader the people must have, under whose banner they can rally, and which they consider it treason to desert, and whether they vote for a president or bow to a king, is all the same. The political prayer of royalty or republicanism, if not in the same words, expresses the same fact. The one is, "Oh, Lord! to the king I bow, thou knowest he can do no wrong." The other is, "Oh, Lord! to the party I bow, thou knowest I never scratched a ticket."

Although Paine and Junius were thoroughly read in the history of the human heart, they failed to place a proper estimate on the character of mankind. They failed because they reasoned from their own pride of character, their own feelings, hopes, and desires, and these far exceeded the mass of mankind.

They were both too proud to flatter.

_Paine._

"As it is not my custom to flatter but to serve
mankind, I will speak freely."--Crisis, xi.

"The world knows I am not a flatterer."--R. M.,
part ii, Preface.

_Junius._

"I am not conversant in the language of panegyric.
These praises are extorted from me; but they will
wear well, for they have been dearly
earned."--Let. 53.

The above characteristic is quite peculiar. I do not remember of ever seeing the like of it in any other writer, and as there is a perfect parallel here, the fact that it stands almost alone gives it great weight.

* * * * *

They were both enthusiasts, as the following parallel on _moderation_ will show:

_Paine._

"Though I would carefully avoid giving unnecessary
offense, yet I am inclined to believe that all
those who espouse the doctrine of reconciliation
may be included within the following descriptions:
Interested men, who are not to be trusted; weak
men who can not see; prejudiced men who will not
see; and a certain sort of _moderate_ men, who
think better of the European world than it
deserves; and this last class, by an ill-judged
deliberation, will be the cause of more calamities
to this continent than all the other
three."--Common Sense.

_Junius._

"The lukewarm advocate avails himself of any
pretense to relapse into that indolent
indifference about every thing that ought to
interest an Englishman, so unjustly dignified with
the title of _moderation_."--Let. 58.

"I have been silent hitherto, though not from that
shameful indifference about the interests of
society which too many of us possess and call
_moderation_."--Let. 44.

Paine and Junius both had the same opinion of moderate men.

* * * * *

They both, also, had secretiveness large. That Junius never revealed himself to the world, and that he baffled all the king's spies, is evidence enough on his side. I will now present a few evidences in regard to Mr. Paine. First, in regard to his wife. No one knows why they parted, and, when interrogated, he would make the evasive answer, "I had a cause." But, if pressed, he would bluntly respond, "It was a private affair, and nobody's business." He also sent her money without letting her know the source of it. Secondly: His Common Sense was kept a secret from Dr. Franklin till published, and this when the doctor had placed the materials in his hands toward completing a history of colonial affairs. He says: "I expected to surprise him with a production on that subject much earlier than he thought of, and, without informing him what I was doing, got it ready for the press as fast as I conveniently could, and sent him the first pamphlet that was printed off." Thirdly: He projected a plan of going to England in disguise, and getting out a pamphlet in secret, to rouse the English people. See what he says about it on page 66 of this book. Fourthly: "The Address and Declaration" of the gentlemen who met at the Thatched House tavern in 1791, in England, was written by Mr. Paine, although he was not known, and took no part in the meeting. He only revealed himself as the author of it after Horne Tooke, the supposed author, had stated that Mr. Paine was the author. But this is what he says about it: "The gentleman who signed the address and declaration as chairman of the meeting, Mr. Horne Tooke, being generally supposed to be the person who drew it up, and having spoken much in commendation of it, has been jocularly accused of praising his own work. To free him from this embarrassment, and to save him the repeated trouble of mentioning the author, as he has not failed to do, I make no hesitation in saying, I drew up the publication in question," etc.--Rights of Man, note.

This is sufficient to show a trait of character which made Junius, as a secret, a success. Without this strong ruling passion there could have been no Junius to spring like a tiger upon king and court. But, if it can be shown in any mental characteristic that Mr. Paine is incompatible with that character which is stamped upon Junius and made him a success, I will surrender the argument.

Mr. Paine says, as Horne Tooke had not failed to declare him the author, he then acknowledged it as his own. Had Mr. Tooke been silent, you may well be assured Mr. Paine would never have divulged it to friend or foe of either. Since Mr. Paine above has used the expression, "Jocularly accused of praising his own work," the reader will not fail to remember the same characteristic in Junius, when he says of Philo Junius, and who was also the real Junius himself, that "the subordinate character was never guilty of the indecorum of praising his principal." This again reminds us of Mr. Paine, when speaking of that passage in Numbers: "Now the man Moses was very meek, above all the men which were on the face of the earth." Paine bluntly responds: "If Moses said this of himself, instead of being the meekest of men, he was one of the most vain and arrogant of coxcombs."

* * * * *