Chapter II: Part 2

After the mention of _Virgil_ and those other great Names, Silence only should ensue; but that our Oration naturally addresses itself to him, to whose Indulgence this Liberty of speaking in the Praise of _Virgil_, and those other great Names, is owing; our most worthy Vice-chancellor[5], I mean, who has brought to Light this Poetic Legacy, which had been buried, as it were, for many Years in Oblivion, and has at length placed it upon a Foundation that will make it perpetual. Such Attainments, Sir, have you made in your Study of the publick Welfare! 'tis thus you make us sensible that none are so faithful and diligent Dispensers of others Bounty, as the Bountiful! I shall not enter into a Detail of the other Virtues, that make up your Character: My Business was to mention that only which relates to our present Function: Permit us, however, to wish you Length of Days in this World, that such Thanks may in Time be due to you, as may exceed the Power of Poetry itself to pay.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The Dean and Chapter of _Durham_.

[2] The Reverend Dr. _Fitzherbert Adams_, Prebendary of _Durham_.

[3] It is a known Saying, Ὁ Θεος γεωμετρει, _God performs the Office of a Geometrician_.

[4] Pro Arch. Poeta, c. v.

[5] The Reverend Dr. _William Lancaster_, S. T. P. Head of _Queen's College_, and at that Time Vice-chancellor of _Oxford_.

LECTURE II, and III.
_Of the Nature and Origin of Poetry in general._

Before we enter upon the different Branches of the Art we propose to treat of, it may not be improper to clear our Way, by giving, as the Schoolmen speak, a general Idea of it, and laying before you a comprehensive View of whatever is common to all its Parts. None, that I know of, has given a just Definition of it; not _Aristotle_ himself, tho' a perfect Master in _Definitions_: And yet there's nothing in the Subject repugnant to one. To be short, then, Poetry seems in general, _An Art of imitating or illustrating in metrical Numbers every Being in Nature, and every Object of the Imagination, for the Delight and Improvement of Mankind_.

_Vossius_'s Definition[6] (I speak it with humble Deference to so great a Man) to me is by no means satisfactory, who makes Poetry consist in being _An Art of representing Actions in Metre_. This Definition falls too short, and is not comprehensive enough of the Nature of the Thing defined. For I would ask, is it not the Business of Poetry to represent every Thing that is capable of being represented? And are Actions the only Things capable of being represented? This, indeed, is expresly asserted by _Dacier_, the _French_ Interpreter of _Aristotle_: But to any one that considers the Passage, it will abundantly appear, that this Opinion cannot be drawn from _Aristotle_ by a just Interpretation of him. That great Philosopher, and Prince of Critics, says, that _Imitators imitate Actions_. Now, can any one, without violating all the Rules of Reasoning this Philosopher has taught, conclude from hence that Actions _alone_ are capable of being imitated? He indeed says, or rather the _French_ Version is made to say, that ALL _that imitate, imitate Actions_; but in his own Original he says no such Thing; the Word ALL is added by the Interpreter: His Words are[7], μιμουνται ὁι μιμουμενοι πραττοντας, i. e. _Imitators imitate Actions_.

But if the Version were true, the Conclusion drawn from it would, however, be false. For _All_ Imitators may imitate Actions, and yet possibly not _Actions only_. But there's no need of many Words to prove _Aristotle_'s Authority unjustly alledged for this Proposition; since he tells us himself, a little before the Passage above cited[8], μιμουνται και ηθη και παθη και πραξεις, i. e. _they imitate Manners, Passions, and Actions_. He thought therefore that not only Actions, but Manners and Affections, were capable of being imitated. It is certain, if by Imitation is meant that which impresses upon the Mind a true and genuine Representation of any Thing, it will be no less repugnant to common Sense than to _Aristotle_'s, to affirm that nothing but Actions can be imitated. For, besides them, we see Passions, Things, Places, and Men are imitated, not only by Poets, but by Painters too. This _Horace_, the best Interpreter of _Aristotle_, sufficiently intimates, when he uses the Word _imitari_ in the same Sense with _describere_, _pingere_, or _sculpere_:

_Molles imitabitur ære capillos_[9]
In Brass shall imitate the waving Hair.

Besides, _Vossius_'s Definition is short in another Respect; as it makes the Object of Imitation too narrow, so it makes the Essence of Poetry consist _solely in Imitation_; whereas there are some Kinds of it that have little to do with Imitation, but much in Illustration; as we shall shew in the Sequel.

That Poetry is an _Art_, is sufficiently plain, and we have no Occasion to use many Words to prove it. It observes certain Laws and Rules, is brought to the Test of right Reason, and, lastly, it aims at some particular End. I cannot but wonder, therefore, why those that fix'd the Number of the Liberal Arts, as they are commonly reckon'd up, should have allowed no Place for Poetry and Oratory among them. They were thought, perhaps, reducible partly to Rhetorick, and partly to Grammar. But this, I think, they are not, with any Propriety. For, not to observe that Poetry and Oratory are in their Merit too good, and in their Extent too great to be included in other Sciences, the Business of Rhetorick is wholly to polish the Style of both of them; and, by the Way, as it is now-a-days managed, tends more, perhaps, to the Detriment and Corruption, than the Credit and Honour of either; but is fully and professedly concerned in neither. As to Grammar, they can no more be reduced to that, than all other Sciences whatever; for to all Sciences Words, whether written or spoken, are subservient. Well, then, _Vossius_ and all agree that Poetry is an _Art_, tho' that great Man has not sufficiently shewn the peculiar Business of it.

The Definition we have given above, seems to be full, and every Way compleat, inasmuch as it comprehends the whole Nature of Poetry, is applicable only to Poetry, and all the Species of it; for all of them are always concern'd, either in Imitation, or Illustration, or both at once. Between these two there is some Difference; for he that beautifully imitates any Thing, always illustrates it; but not on the contrary; the Rule does not hold _vice versa_. Those Things that relate to Science, and Discipline, such as the Ideas of the Mind, Virtues, Vices, Manners, and the like, are _illustrated_ by being explained; but no one will say, that by being explained they are _imitated_. But, as I said, it is an undoubted Maxim, that all Kinds of Poetry are employed one or other of these Ways, or both. In Descriptions of whatever Kind, in moving the Passions, in Panegyric, in Satire, in Heroics, in Ethics, the Poet either imitates or illustrates something, or does both; unless, perhaps, we ought to except the Writers of those short Sentences, that are mere _moral Sayings_; such as _Pythagoras_, _Phocyllides_, and the like; who may be said, indeed, to write Verses, but not Poems: They want the Force, the Elegance, the Style, and peculiar Turn of Thought that discriminates Poets from other Writers. 'Tis plain, then, the Business of Poets is either Imitation or Illustration; and that, not only of Actions, but, as we presumed to lay down in our Definition, of every Being in Nature, or in the Imagination. The Object, then, of Poetry, must be enlarged, and those Bounds extended, that _Vossius_ prescribed to it: For is there any Thing in the real or ideal World, not capable of being described or illustrated? any Thing which the capacious Stretch of Poetry will not comprehend?

And since it chiefly consists in Imitation, it may not be amiss, perhaps, to make a short Comparison between that and Painting. All Poetry will not admit of this Comparison, but such only as consists in Description; upon which whatever is in common between them, depends. Painting, as well as Poetry affects the Passions; That by Description alone, This by other adventitious Arts. I would here, however, particularly observe, that Poetry consists much more in Description, than is generally imagined. For, besides those longer and set Descriptions of Things, Places, and Persons, there are numberless others, unobserved by common Readers, contained in one Verse, sometimes in one Word, to which the whole Beauty of the Thought is owing; and which wonderfully affect us, for no other Reason but because they are Descriptions, that is, impress a lively Image of somewhat upon the Mind. To this it is, that metaphorical Expressions, when selected with Judgment, owe their Beauty, and their Elegance; every Metaphor being a short Description.

But to return to our Comparison between Painting and Poetry. They both agree, in representing to the Mind Images of Things, and ought both of them to be govern'd by Nature and Probability. So near is their Affinity, that by a very natural and common Metaphor, Poetry is said to paint Things, Painting to describe them. Both give us _Draughts_ of the Body, as well as the Soul; but with this Difference, that the former is chiefly expressed by Painting, the latter by Poetry. It cannot be denied, but that the Lines of a Face are much more strongly distinguish'd by Light and Shade, than by any Colouring of Words, tho' ever so elegant, or well chosen: Add, moreover, that the Attitudes, the various Positions and Gestures of the Body, the confused Rout and Tumult of a Battle, the Gloominess or Brightness of a Landscape, the Prospect of a Building, and the like, are represented to much greater Perfection by Painters, than Poets; tho', in these Particulars, Description approaches nearer to Painting than in Portraitures. The Reason of these Advantages of the Painter's over the Poet's Art, is obvious; for as the Things represented are the Objects of the Senses, to the Senses Painting exhibits the Images of them, as well as to the Imagination, and that according to the exactest Rules of Optics and Proportion: Whereas the Poet can only apply to the inward Faculties of the Soul, by the fainter Helps of Words and Sound, of Memory and Recollection. In Verse, indeed, we find these Things wonderfully described, and every Way agreeably to Nature; and tho' it is impossible for Words to represent them to the Mind, as graphically as Colours do to the Eyes; yet perhaps less Genius is required in the one than in the other. But the inward Springs and Movements of the Soul, the Actions, Passions, Manners, the distinguishing Tempers and Natures of Men, are drawn with much more Accuracy by the Poet, than the Painter. The one can imitate only so much of the Passions, as appears in the outward Man, in his Countenance, and Gesture; the other fetches them from the inmost Recesses of the Heart, describes them as they lurk there, without Disguise, in all their genuine Conflicts. The Representation we see of these, even in Painting (as far as Colours can represent them) is exquisite, even to Admiration; but, upon the whole, after a fair Comparison between the two Arts, Poetry excels Painting as much as the Soul does the Body, that being best represented by the former, as this is by the latter.

Poetry, then, being a sort of _Imitation_, those that practise the Art are not called Ποιηται, _Makers_[10], from _creating_; as if it was their peculiar Province to produce, out of nothing, new Matter for their Subject: So far is this from being true, that they propose always to copy Nature. But this Appellation is given them by way of Eminence, as their Thoughts are more exercised in _Invention_, and _forming_ Ideas, than any other Writer's; as such Symmetry and Harmony is required in their Compositions; and such Artifice in their Fictions (for they not only adorn their Subject, but generally make it) and, lastly, such Management and Pains in working up the Machines of their Poem, and conducting the several Parts of it, so as to make them all conspire to one uniform Action. In this last Particular Poets remarkably excel other Writers, as all that are versed in them are sensible. But among those that are honoured with the Title of Poets, and are such, all have not an equal Claim to it. To the Epic and Dramatic Writers it is more peculiarly applicable; to the rest, only, as we term it, by Analogy. Their Business is Invention, as well as Disposition; the rest have little to do with the one, much less with the other. So that there are not only different Degrees of Poets, and subordinate Honours; but some who are called so only in an improper Sense: For who would mention _Martial_ and _Virgil_ under the same Predicament?

We said above, that Poetry consisted of _metrical Numbers_: This is a necessary Part of the Definition, as being the very Essence of Poetry, properly so called; and tho', as we observed, there may be Verses without a Poem, there can't be a Poem without Verses. I am obliged, therefore, once more to dissent from Monsieur _Dacier_; who, not, indeed, without the Authority of others, maintains[11], that those fabulous Narratives in Prose, of _Lucian_, _Heliodorus_, and the like, among the Ancients, and of many others among the Moderns, that are held in so great Esteem, in _France_, particularly, and _Spain_, are Poems. I readily own some of them are truly elegant, and give us ample Testimonies of the Authors Wit and Judgment; nay, and except their want of Verse, are very little different from Epic Poems. But if even _Homer_'s _Ilias_, or _Virgil_'s _Æneis_, were to be stript of their Metre, they would no longer be looked upon as Poems; if we may judge of the Nature of a Poem from the general Consent of Writers, who always take it for granted that Verse is an essential Property of it.

Those who are of the other Opinion, think they are supported by no less Authority than _Aristotle_'s; who asserts τ' εποποιιαν to consist μονον τοις ψιλοις λογοις, η τοις μετροις. The foremention'd learned Writer insists, that ψιλοις λογοις can signify nothing else but plain Prose; that therefore _Aristotle_ admitted some sort of Epic Poem without Metre. Others, that take the contrary Side, endeavour to shew, that by ψιλοις λογοις is to be understood a poetical Discourse, not without Metre, but without _Harmony_ and _Rhythm_; by which _Aristotle_ meant Music, and Measures which they used to dance to. So that, according to these Interpreters, the Particle η is not _disjunctive_ in this Place, but _explanatory_. They that would see the Arguments in Defence of this Exposition, may consult _Vossius_[12]. But if we grant our Opponents what they desire, _viz._ that _Aristotle_ meant only Prose by ψιλοις λογοις, as indeed it is most probable he did; yet it will not follow that he reckoned such fictitious Narratives, as we are now speaking of, or indeed any kind of Prose whatever, to be a Species of Poetry. To make this plain, we must enquire into the genuine Sense of the other Word εποποιια. Here the _French_ Interpreter supposes, without any Hesitation, that it signifies nothing else but an Epic Poem, or the Art of making it. But _Vossius_ proves, to a Demonstration, that it must have a larger Sense, so as to include the Epic Poem, and that kind of Fable without Metre, which is the Subject of our present Debate. The Meaning, then, of _Aristotle_, is this, that the _Epopœia_ is the _Genus_, one Species of which is the _Epic_ Poem; the other, the _Novel_, or Fable in Prose. Upon this View, then, we see, that granting ψιλοις λογοις, in _Aristotle_, to denote only Prose; yet it can't from thence be concluded, that these fictitious Narratives, or any kind of Prose, can be brought under the Head of Poetry. To the _Epopœia_ they truly belong, and to nothing else.

Metre, then, we'll conclude to be an essential Part of Poetry. Another Question arises, whether _Fiction_ is likewise so. Some tell us, that no one should be entitled a Poet, but he that invents some Fable, and heightens it with the Decoration of Verse. To this Opinion I can by no means assent. The first Writers of Verses, no doubt, made them in Praise of somewhat that was real, and before them. For it is highly probable, that this Art, as most others, was in its Infancy employ'd about Things that were most obvious, and easy to the Learner. Now it is certainly more easy to describe a Subject that already exists, than to form a new one. _Vossius_[13] thinks, that Love was the first Occasion of Poetry. Which is not improbable, considering that this Affection is coeval with Mankind, is universal, and naturally productive of Poetry. True Love, then, or somewhat true, was the Poets first Theme; afterwards, by Length of Time, they rose to Things that were more difficult, and blended artful Devices and Truth together. So that Poetry was before Fiction; and even since they have been united, there have been many Poets, truly so called, who have had to do with Fiction. Those that exercise that Talent with Art, are Poets in a more peculiar Manner, and of a superior Genius. But if those only were to be honour'd with the Title, the Number of them would be very small. To all, therefore, it ought to extend, who, tho' they _invent_ nothing, yet _illustrate_ their Subject with Metre, animated with the Style and Spirit of Poetry.

I cannot, therefore, sufficiently wonder that the great _Scaliger_[14] should assert, there was no Difference between Poetry and History, except in the _Diction_. 'Tis certain he could not mean Poetry in general; for there are many Sorts of it, which are so totally different from History, that they have scarce any Thing in common with it. Even the Epic Poem, tho' it consists much in Narration, yet is distinguish'd enough from History, by the subject Matter, by the Disposal of the Parts, and many other Criterions. _Scaliger's_ Opinion may seem true in respect of one kind of Poetry only, such as that of _Lucan_, which is properly call'd an Historical Poem: Tho' this may be heighten'd with that poetic Rage and Fire, which, I presume, is somewhat more than _Diction_, and incompatible with History.

Tho' we generally use the Words _Poesis_ and _Poetica_, _Poesy_ and _Poetry_, indiscriminately; yet, if we would speak properly, they ought to be distinguish'd. By a _Poem_ (a third Word, that often occurs in this sort of Dissertations) is meant the Work of the Poet; by _Poesy_, the actual Exercise; by _Poetry_, the Art or Habit.

And since Harmony and Sonorousness are so necessary a Part of Poetry, it may not be foreign to our Purpose to compare it with Music; especially as these two entertaining Arts are not only nearly allied in their Nature, but in Fact also, often united: This we see, especially in Odes and Songs, and the Entertainments of the Theatre; where Poesy and Music lend each other their friendly Aid, become joint Associates, and both conspire to captivate their Hearers. In this, also, they farther agree, that they have both the same Admirers. I speak of such as have made a Progress in Letters; for we often meet not only with Lovers of Music, but Masters in it, that, for want of Learning, have no Taste for the Pleasures of Poetry. But among those that are advanced in Literature, an Admirer of one of these Arts, loves the other also; and he that understands one, has a Knowledge in both, or desires and wishes for it. From hence it was, no doubt, that the Ancients made the same _Apollo_ the Patron of Poetry and Music, and attributed to the Muses the divinest Melody, adorning them with the Ensigns of the Harp, and other musical Instruments. _Aristotle_, likewise, seems to have comprehended Music under Poetry; and tho' that may not be altogether so proper, since Music consists of Sound only, without Words, yet it is plain the Affinity between them is very great. Both charm the Ear with sonorous Measures; Music, indeed, in a higher Degree, but Poetry comes much nearer to it in this Respect, than Prose, how flowing or tuneable soever.

Both turn more particularly upon the Harmony of the Parts, and the proper Disposal of them; both suited to Men of the politest Taste, and both improve it. In short, so nearly are they the same, that the Word _Singing_ is equally applied to both. But this Difference there is, that Poetry is much the more excellent in its kind; because the whole Circle of Learning enters into its Composition; it applies itself more particularly to the Soul, as the other to the Senses; and, lastly, the Advantages of it to Mankind are abundantly greater.

From hence I am naturally led to enquire into the Use and End of Poetry, which is generally reckoned twofold, _viz._ to _instruct_ and to _please_. So that we come now to the last Branch of our Definition, wherein we asserted, that Poetry was design'd _for the Pleasure and Improvement of Mankind_, according to that well known Saying of _Horace_,

_Aut prodesse volunt, aut delectare Poetæ._[15]
A Poet shou'd instruct, or please, or both.
_Roscom._

It is agreed, then, by all, that this is the twofold End of Poetry; but which the principal, is still a Doubt. It may bear a Dispute, indeed, which is in _Fact_ the principal; but which _ought_ to be so, surely can be none: For in this, as in all other Arts, the Advantage ought to be considered before the Pleasure. Some, indeed, of our modern Writers, think otherwise; and boldly pronounce Pleasure to be the chief End of Poetry. It can't be denied, but this Opinion is perfectly consonant to their Writings; in which they not only principally consult their Reader's Pleasure, but in Opposition to their Advantage. Witness those lewd Poems with which this divine Art is polluted. But if we would consult Reason, we should allow that even in Verse what improves us, ought to be more regarded than what delights us. I own, the severest Wits, that lay down the most rigid Precepts of Virtue, ought to have a View to Pleasure in their Compositions; for it is the distinguishing Mark of the Poet from the Philosopher, that tho' Virtue is the Aim of both, yet the one presses it closer, indeed, but in a less engaging Manner. In the dry Method of a Teacher he defines his Subject, he explains his Terms, and then gives you Rules; the other cloaths his Precepts in Examples, and imperceptibly insinuates them under the beautiful Disguise of Narration. I own, likewise, that Readers are generally more sensible of the Pleasure they receive, than the Profit, even when it is less proposed by the Writers; for it is That makes the strongest Impression upon the Imagination: Nay, and I grant, that this is what Writers themselves ought to study. Yet notwithstanding all this, Profit may be the chief End of Poetry, and ought to be so; but for that very Reason Pleasure should be joined to it, and accompany it, as a Handmaid, to minister to its Occasions. When Children are allured with the sweeten'd Draught, or gilded Pill, they, as the Physician intended, consider nothing but the Beauty of the one, or the Taste of the other: But it is well known, this was not the _chief_ Intent of the Physician in his Prescription.

This Rule relates principally to the more perfect and sublimer Kinds of Poetry, and especially the Epic and Dramatic. For we don't pretend that Epigram, Elegy, Songs, and the like, conduce much to the Improvement of Virtue. It is enough, if these Writings keep within the Bounds of Chastity, and give no Offence to Good-manners. Poets sometimes write, not so much to move others Passions, as to indulge their own. And as Pleasure is the chief, or, perhaps, the only _Effect_ of this sort of Levities, so it may very innocently be proposed by Authors as the chief _End_ of them. Tho' even from these lesser Flights one Advantage arises, that they improve the Wit, and polish the style, both of the Writer and the Reader; a Circumstance that may be observed in Favour of all Kinds of Poetry.

If it be asked, What are those inward Sensations of Pleasure with which Poetry affects us, or from whence it is Mankind are so highly delighted with that Way of Writing; I answer, this may in some Measure be collected from what has been already said, and farther, from what we shall have Occasion to say hereafter under the subject Matter of Poetry. At present let the following Considerations suffice: It is obvious enough why Harmony of Verse should please us, since that's a Pleasure that arises from a proper Disposition of Sounds, which make their Way directly to the Senses. But still we feel a much higher, from the Images of Things beautifully painted, and strongly impressed upon the Mind. As we are naturally desirous of Truth, we are glad to find our Ideas confirmed by those of others; for from thence we conclude ours are just, and agreeable to Nature. This Assimilation of Ideas is still more pleasant, when it arises from some sudden unforeseen Impression; for all Impressions upon the Mind, whether of Joy or Grief, are more affecting, the swifter they are made, and the more unexpected; the slower they are, the more languid. This is confirmed no less by Experience, than Reason. Since the Impressions, then, of Poetry, are of the vehement kind, it is no Wonder so much Pleasure should attend them, especially when the Ideas we speak of are heighten'd with all the Elegance of Expression. This Pleasure is likewise in some Measure to be attributed to the natural Love of Mankind for Imitation, the Reason of which we shall attempt to give in its proper Place. From these Principles we may account for the Pleasure that arises from Description, as well as that from Fiction.

The Pleasure we receive from the Variety of Thought, and sudden Transitions in Poetry, seems owing to our natural Love of Novelty; for so imperfect is the Happiness of us Mortals, that every Thing by Constancy grows nauseous and insipid to us.

With Regard to the Passions, why some of them should give us greater Pleasure, the more they are put in Motion, is plain; but how Delight should flow from Pity, Terror, and even Sorrow itself, seems truly wonderful, and difficult to account for. And, indeed, to do Justice to this Question, we ought to know the secret Springs of the Soul, and to lay open the Foundations of human Happiness and Misery: Which, because it will require a distinct Dissertation, we shall pass by, at present; reserving it for a more full Enquiry, when we come to treat more particularly of the Nature of Tragedy.

We have already, in a few Words, shewn, wherein the Advantages of Poetry consist; no one can be a Stranger to them: This Art will receive no less Honour, if we look back into its Antiquity. If it took its Rise from Love, (the Opinion, which, in Conformity with _Vossius_, we have above proposed as most probable) yet to Religion it owes its Increase and Progress; and it may be question'd, which of the two is its true Parent. _Dacier_ calls it the Offspring of Religion; and it is certain, in the earliest Ages of the World it was usual to sing Hymns to the Honour of God upon the solemn Festivals; upon those especially, when after the In-gathering of Harvest they offer'd up to him the First-fruits, and prais'd him for the Blessings they were now in Possession of. In Course of Time, Poetry, which had hitherto depended wholly upon Nature, and knew not the Name of Art, by the Corruption of Mankind grew itself corrupted. To bring it back to its Purity, it was the Care of the wiser Part of Men to lay it under certain Laws and Regulations. From hence arose the _Art_ of Poetry. It is a great Dispute among the Learned, what Nation produced the first Poets. The _Greeks_, who to their own refined Taste ascribe the Origin of all Learning and Arts, laid Claim, likewise, to this, and instanced in _Orpheus_, _Linus_, and _Musæus_, as the first Poets. But _Vossius_[16] proves it very probable that this Triumvirate of Poetry never existed; and that they are not proper, but common Names, derived from the old _Phœnician_ Language. Be that as it will, (for I am little disposed to engage in so minute a Controversy) I agree with the same _Vossius_, that Shepherds (I may add, or Husbandmen) found out the Use of Poetry; and that they lived in _Greece_, near those celebrated Mountains and Springs, _Helicon_, _Parnassus_, _Aganippe_, _Hippocrene_, _Pirene_, and the like, that were therefore sacred to the Muses and _Apollo_. But still it does not appear, that Poetry owes its first Original to the _Greeks_, (for, as the forementioned learned Author goes on[17]) "if we examine this Matter by the Scripture, we shall find the People of God, the first Inhabitants of the Earth, from whom all Nations are descended, have the best Title to this Honour. Poetry flourished among the _Israelites_, not only before the _Trojan War_, but before the coming of _Cadmus_ into _Bœotia_, who first taught the _Greeks_ the Use of Letters. And tho' we were utterly ignorant of what is mentioned concerning the _Hebrew_ Poetry, yet the Antiquity of Music would teach us that the Original of Verse must be owing to the Oriental Nations; for little Doubt is to be made but Singing begun in the very Infancy of the World. This is farther confirmed, from what we read of _Jubal_, the seventh from _Adam_, who is styled the Father of such as handle the Harp and Organ. Antiently, then, Musicians and Poets were the same."

But to examine still farther into the Origin of Poetry, (for what we have hitherto said relates only to the _Subject_, and the _Authors_, not to the immediate _Occasion_ of it:) Now this seems to be owing to the Love implanted in Mankind of _Imitation_ and _Harmony_. _Vossius_ very undeservedly ascribes it to the three following Causes, _viz. Nature_, an _Attempt_ to write Verse, and _a finish'd Skill_. By _Nature_ he understands not only the ευφυια, or Happiness of Parts, but the ὁρμη, the Impetus, usually styled the Poetic Fire. I am very sensible of the Advantage of these, and of their Necessity to constitute a good Poet; but much doubt whether they are to be reckoned (what he and I both speak of) the efficient Causes of Poetry. No one can _excel_ in Poetry, without a Genius peculiarly turn'd for it; but the Question is, what _general_ Reason can be assign'd, that gives all Men, even those that have no Talent for it, as well as those that have, a natural Inclination to it. As to the poetic Fire, it may be reckoned a Concomitant of Poetry, but not the Cause of it. No more can an Attempt to write Verses, which is rather the Thing itself in its first State of Imperfection; much less can the Perfection of any Thing be the Cause of its being perfected; that's absurd, and a mere Contradiction in Terms.

The Reason, then, of the Thing in Question, must be fetch'd from the Love of Imitation and Harmony. To this Principle it is owing, that among the most barbarous Part of Mankind we meet with Attempts in Painting, Music, and Poetry. For it is a great Mistake to think that these Arts are consistent only with such refin'd Nations as are Mistresses of all other Arts: No, they are Things of an universal Nature, and agreeable, as it were, to all Mankind, from the very Composition of their Being. Only with this Difference, that in those Parts of the World where Learning and Manners are cultivated, these Arts are nurtur'd, and rise in Perfection; but where the People are rude, and unpolished, they suffer in the common Calamity of the Place. But still, even there, the Seeds shoot forth; witness those barbarous, uncouth Songs, the mean Instruments of Music, and imperfect Sketches in Painting, which are found, according to the Relation of Travellers, among the _Indians_, and almost Savage People of the North.

This Fondness of Mankind for imitating, proceeds, probably, from nothing else but their Desire of _Knowledge_ and _Power_. To produce something out of nothing, is the peculiar Property of the Almighty: As Man, therefore, cannot create, it is his Ambition to approach as near to the Exercise of that Power, as his Nature will allow him; and that can be only by imitating Things already made.

His Passion for Harmony is no Wonder; because whatever we call beautiful arises from a just Proportion, and proper Arrangement of its Parts. It is this composes the whole Frame of the Universe; and the more perfect every Individual of it is, the greater Share of Harmony it possesses.

So much for the Original and Cause of Poetry. Of its Antiquity, in Comparison of Prose, I need say but very little, since that seems, beyond all Doubt, to have been prior to it, in Point of Time, tho' behind it in Dignity. Some, indeed, have asserted, that Poetry was the ancienter, out of a Zeal, I suppose, to its Honour, which needs no false Supports: But this Opinion is by no means credible. 'Tis certain, all Learners proceed, as Nature directs them, from the plainest and easiest Things, to those that are more compounded and difficult: For Men to speak Verse before Prose, is the same as if they should pretend to run, or dance, before they could stand, or walk. It is a very weak Argument, with which _Strabo_ (as _Vossius_ cites it) endeavours to maintain the contrary Opinion. To prove Verse the ancientest Way of Writing, he observes, that Prose is styled _Oratio Pedestris_, [as if we should say creeping Prose.] "Now Speech was carried, before it ventured to walk. _Vossius_ artfully replies, that it was called _Pedestris_, not because Men against Nature condescended to it, but because they mounted above it, as it were, and left it upon the Earth: For Prose seems to creep, when compared with the Loftiness of Poetry. Now, to retort the Argument, there's no Doubt but Men walk'd first, before they ventured on Horseback." If any one would see more of this, he may consult _Vossius_. That Poetry, as an Art, flourish'd before Oratory, or that the celebrated Professors of the one are not so ancient as those of the other, is clear from History; but that Men spoke Verse before Prose, is past all Credit, or Probability.

If any Question should arise about the Prevalence of Nature and Art in Poetry, I cannot answer it better than in the Words of _Horace_[18]:

_Natura fieret laudabile carmen, an arte,
Quæsitum est; Ego nec studium sine divite vena,
Nec rude quid prosit video ingenium; alterius sic
Altera poscit opem res, & conjurat amice._

Some think, that Poets may be form'd by Art,
Others maintain, that Nature makes them so.
I neither see what Art without a Vein,
Nor Wit without the Help of Art can do;
But mutually they need each other's Aid.
_Roscom._

But if this is the Case, whence comes that Saying so common in every one's Mouth, _That a Man must be born, not made a Poet_; whereas, in _Horace's_ Judgment, a Man is both born and made so? In answer to this, No more to be sure is intended by the Proverb, than that Strength of Genius enters more into the Composition of a Poet, than the Refinements of Art; tho' both are necessary to the forming him a great one. Writings that betray a true poetic Spirit, how unpolish'd soever they are, extort from us Praise and Admiration; but those that are cold and lifeless, tho' form'd upon the most scrupulous Observation of the Laws of Poetry, are neglected, or condemn'd. The Sloth or Inaccuracy of the one, demands our Censure; but the stupid Rigidness, and labour'd Dulness of the other, provokes at once our Rage, our Hate, and Disdain. It is of little Consequence that _Horace_ seems to put these upon the Foot of Equality. A Poet that lays down general Rules in Verse, and in so short a Compass, cannot be supposed to enter minutely into every Distinction. Besides, the Saying above may be true in this Respect; that Poetry _especially_, and beyond all other Sciences, requires a Fecundity of Nature; and besides such a _peculiar_ Turn of Wit, as is _seldom_ found, and _few_ are blest with.

And this is partly the Reason, why Poets were said to be _inspired_; partly, I say, for the chief Reason is probably owing to that Fire, or more than, human Impulse, called by the _Greeks_ ενθυσιασμος, which distinguishes them from other Writers. That this was no real Inspiration in the ancient Poets, (except in those sacred ones that communicated God's Will to Mankind) nor is now so in the Moderns, I suppose needs no Proof; but it is certain, however, that not only the Poets said it was, but the Heathens, also, thought it divine. Hence arose that more than common Reverence, the Populace paid to them. Hence the Title given of them of _sacred_, and _divine_. Hence that solemn Invocation of the Muses and _Apollo_, and sometimes other Deities, with which the Poets, and the Poets only, introduce their Works.

I have no Inclination to spend my Time in examining into the Fables which have long since become an Appendage to Poetry, nor to search out the hidden Meaning of them: I leave that Task to those whom we call the Mythologists; let them, if they please, explain the Allegory of the two Tops of _Parnassus_, of the Number Nine among the Muses, the Mystery of the Wings of _Pegasus_, and of the Fountains rising at the Stroke of his Hoof. These, I would only observe, are the Stains of Poetry, contracted from the Corruption of Heathenism, which infected Religion no less with its trifling Puerilities; and it is but just that we, upon whom the clearer Light of Truth has shone, should at length learn to despise such ridiculous Tales, which, by Repetition, are now grown nauseous; and to refine Poetry, as well as true Religion, from the Dross and Alloy of Falshood.

There are some other Things, of less Moment, which I shall pass over with barely mentioning. Poets had anciently Crowns of Laurel and Ivy, to denote by those Ever-greens the Immortality they gain to themselves, and confer on others. Mountains, Groves, and Springs, were sacred to the Muses, because Poets naturally fly from the Noise and Tumult of the City, to the peaceful Solitude of the Country; that so, disengaged from Care and Interruption, they may dedicate the utmost Efforts of Nature to their beloved Profession: Besides,

_Carmina secessum scribentis, & otia quærunt_[19]:

Leisure and green Retreats the Poets court.

Because Verse flows naturally there, and the Fancy is strangely awaken'd into Poetry with the Pleasures of Solitude around it.

Lastly, Another Question may possibly be ask'd, and deservedly too, (for it is a Matter of some Importance to know) how far Poetry and Oratory agree, and wherein they differ. To give a direct Answer to this, we say, that Eloquence is common to both; Eloquence, therefore, ought to be consider'd as twofold; that of Oratory, and that of Poetry. Those Things that come under the Title of Eloquence in general, relate to both Arts; such as, Topicks of Praise, whether of Persons, Facts, or Things; Topicks of Exhortation, Congratulation, Consolation, and the like, with which the Orator, as well as the Poet, excites Anger, Love, Pity, and all other Passions. Both observe alike a proper Decorum of Manners, according to Age, Fortune, and Condition of Life. Ardent Expressions, and lively Thoughts, are the Embellishments of both. In both the Diction is elevated, or familiar, grave, florid, or strong, as Occasion serves. For all these Things, as I said before, are Branches of Eloquence in general, are drawn from the same Heads of Invention, and illustrated by Examples fetch'd from Orators or Poets. So that it is impossible almost for him that treats of one of these Arts, not to mention some Things that are in common to both. However, the Difference between them is very great; and Poetry has several other Characteristics besides that of Metre; a Style, for instance, peculiar to itself, Fiction, copious Descriptions, poetic Fire, and (to add no more) a certain Licence, denied to Orators, in the due Exercise of which the Poet's Art is chiefly conspicuous. These are all worthy an accurate and distinct Consideration, and such an one hereafter, perhaps, they may come under.

The technical Measure of Verses, and the different Sorts of them, I leave to the Grammarians, whose Business it is to scan Syllables, to weigh Dactyls and Spondees, Trochees and Iambics; to teach the Difference between Heroic, Elegiac, Alcaic, Sapphic, Anapæstic Verse, and many others, with which the fruitful Field of Poetry abounds: Not that these Things are to be despised: but only as they are more proper to be taught in the School, than the University. It is not my Business to dwell upon so barren a Soil, or to trifle my Time about the Externals of Poetry; but to enter into the Spirit of it, and make Things, not Words, the Subject of my Enquiries.

FOOTNOTES:

[6] Voss. de Art. Poet. &c. p. 21.

[7] Περι ποιητικης, cap. 2.

[8] cap. 1.

[9] De Art. Poet. V. 33.

[10] Ποιεω, in the _Doric_ and _Æolic_ Dialects is writ ποεω, whence Ποητες, _Poeta_. See _Chishul's Inscript. Sigea_, § ult. A _Maker_ in our own Language under Queen _Elizabeth_, was the common Appellation for a Poet, agreeably to the _Greeks_, with whom, likewise, the Verb ποιεω simply signified to _make Verses_. See _Taylor's Lysias_, Ed. 4to, p. 27.

[11] In Aristot. Poet. c. 1.

[12] De Art. Poet. p. 7, 8.

[13] P. 13.

[14] See Voss. de Art. Poet. p. 11.

[15] De Art. Poet. v. 333.

[16] De Art. Poet. p. 78, 79.

[17] P. 80, 81.

[18] Art. Poet. v ℣ 408.

[19] Ov. Trist. 1. El. 1.

LECTURE IV, V, VI, VII.
_Of the Style of Poetry._

My present Design being to give some Account of the Thought and Diction peculiar to Poets, I must first premise, that there are many Things relating to this Subject, which Words can scarce come up to, and are much better conceived than expressed. Every one will be satisfied of this, that considers of how delicate a Nature Poetry is; how variously it diversifies both Words and Things, by such Bounds as have a very close Connection, upon which, however, the Beauty of the Thought and Diction often turns[20]. These, tho' clearly enough distinguished in the Mind; yet, such is the Weakness of Words, can never be explained in Writing. A true Judgment, duly exercised in reading the best Poets, and in making proper Reflections upon them, is the only Means of arriving at this Part of Knowledge. The outer Lines of it, which afford proper Matter for a Dissertation, I shall endeavour to represent to you, as well as I can.

But I would here, likewise, farther observe, that Writing and Thinking are (at least ought to be) so nearly allied, that it is impossible for any one, in treating of _Style_, not to mention some Things that relate to _Thought_ likewise. This, therefore, will be my Case. At present, however, I shall confine my self _chiefly_ to the former, reserving the latter for another intire Dissertation.

By Style I understand a Method of Writing peculiar to every Writer, Art, or Science; or that which distinguishes Writings and Writers from one another. The Beauty of it consists in such a proper Choice of Words, and in so apt a Connexion of them, as may express the Conceptions of the Mind clearly, and at the same Time cloathed with a becoming Dignity. The Style of Poetry is extremely various; because every Species of this divine Art has a Diction proper to itself; we shall just touch upon the several Kinds in this Dissertation, as we shall treat more fully, perhaps, of each, when we come to examine them separately. Our chief Business, at present, is, to speak of the Style of Poetry in _general_, and shew wherein the Difference consists between that and Prose.

Now this is so great, that the Poets use many Phrases, even with the greatest Elegance, which a Prose Writer could not, without the Imputation of false _Latin_, or the Guilt of Solecism. Instances of such Expressions, reducible to no certain Rule, are very frequent. To mention only a few: Adjectives and Participles that describe the Situation or Part of the Body, very elegantly require the following Noun to be put in the accusative Case, in Imitation of the _Greek_ Construction; v.g. _Stratus membra sub arbuto_; _Ære caput refulgens_; _saucius ora_; _Lacerum crudeliter ora_, and the like[21].

Adjectives of the Neuter Gender, and singular Number, and sometimes of the plural, are used adverbially. So, _Triste micans_; _Dulce ridentem Lalagen amabo, dulce loquentem_; _Cometa ferale rubens_; _torva tuentem, &c._

Many Adjectives govern a Genitive, in a Manner altogether poetical. _Irritus incepti_; _non modicus voti_; _melior dextræ_; _Pubes læta laborum_; _egregius linguæ_; _Pravus togæ, inglorius ausi_; _anhelus laboris_; _integer vitæ scelerisque purus_; _lassus maris & viarum, militiæque_; _seri studiorum_; _fortunatus laborum_; _fessi rerum_; _trepidi rerum_; and numberless others of the same Sort. Often, likewise, and with no less Elegance, they govern an Infinitive: _Orpheus blandus ducere quercus_; _superare pugnis nobilis_; _celer sequi; vultus nimium lubricus aspici_; _durus componere versus_; _Adria facilis moveri_; _fortis tractare serpentes_; _doctus Phœbi dicere laudes_; _cantare periti_; and the like.

Adjectives, and their Substantives, denoting Number and Multitude, are used in the singular Number: As, _Populus frequens_; _multa rosa_; _innumera avis_; _quam multo repetet Græcia milite_; _licet illi plurima manet lacrima_.

To mention but one Observation more: Some Adjectives, which in common Prose agree with their Substantives, are turned into the Neuter Gender and plural Number, and the Substantives into the Genitive Case: As, _Ultima mundi_; _ardua montis_; _cuncta terrarum_; _prospera rerum_; _dura rerum_; _aspera ponti_; _acuta belli_; _strata viarum_; _opaca locorum_; and many more to the like Purpose.

It would be endless, to produce all the Examples that come under these Rules; they abound in every Page almost of the best Poets, especially the _Lyric:_ For the _Lyrics_ chiefly delight in the true poetic Style, as may be collected from the Examples I have here produced, most of them from the Odes of _Horace_. But there are, besides, various poetical Expressions, which tho' not reducible to any particular Class, yet occur up and down in Reading, and are worthy of treasuring up in the Memory. Such are frequent in _Virgil_:

----_dederatque comam diffundere ventis_[22].

And giv'n the Winds,
To wanton in her Tresses.

_Ut cum carceribus sese effudêre quadrigæ,
Addunt se in spatia, & frustra retinacula tendens
Fertur equis auriga, neque audit currus habenas_[23].

As when the Racers from the Barriers start,
Oft whirling round the Goal, the Charioteer
Vainly attempts to check the flying Steeds.
Himself is born away, the dusty Car
Swift smoaks along, nor bounding hears the Reins.

And many in _Juvenal_:

_Sic laudamus equum, facilis cui plurima palma
Fervet, & exultat rauco victoria Circo:
Nobilis hic, quocunque venit de gramine, cujus
Clara fuga ante alios, & primus in æquore pulvis_[24].

We commend a Horse
(Without Regard of Pasture, or of Breed)
For his undaunted Mettle, and his Speed;

Who wins most Plates, with greatest Ease, and first
Prints with his Hoofs his Conquest on the Dust.
_G. Stephens._

But especially in the Prince of the Lyric Poets:

----_amat
Janua limen._

In rusty Silence mourns your Gate. _Oldsworth._

----_& ademptus Hector
Tradidit fessis leviora tolli
Pergama Graiis._

_Qua pinus ingens, albaque populus,
Umbram hospitalem consociare amant
Ramis, & obliquo laborat
Lympha fugax trepidare rivo._

There where the Poplar and the stately Pine
Meet in a Shade, and closely twine,
To form the Bow'r with thick entangled Bows,
And where the limpid Stream in curling Murmurs
flows. _Oldsworth._

_Quis multa gracilis te puer in rosa
Perfusus liquidis urget odoribus,
Grato, Pyrrha, sub antro?
Cui flavam religas comam,
Simplex munditiis?_

Beneath the rosy Bow'r,
_Chloë_, what am'rous Boy
Sweet as the dewy Flow'r
Now tastes your Lips,
(Delusive Joy!)
Now leaning on your Breast,
Urges to be supremely blest?
For whom do you prepare
(Neat Negligence of Dress!)
The Tresses of your golden Hair? _&c._
[29]
_Vivet extento Proculeius ævo,
Notus in fratres animi paterni;
Illum aget, penna metuente solvi,
Fama superstes._

When Fame of _Proculeius_ sings,
She mounts on everlasting Wings;
His free and gen'rous Actions prove
A Father's in a Brother's Love. _Oldsworth._
[30]
_Brachia, & vultum, teretesque suras,
Integer laudo; fuge suspicari,
Cujus octavum trepidavit ætas
Claudere lustrum._

Her Face, her Neck, her Breast, her Arms,
I praise, not taken with her Charms;
Suspicious Thoughts remove;
Let almost forty feeble Years
Secure thy Mind from jealous Fears,
And tell that _Horace_ is too old for Love.
_Oldsworth_.

I shall omit any more Examples; tho' what I have hitherto laid before you, I dare say, have brought their own Reward with them, as they are true Specimens of poetic Elegance, and abundantly illustrate what I had to say upon this Head. To alledge all that relate to it, would be only to transcribe the greatest Part of the best Poets. And as the Beauty of the poetic Style chiefly consists in its own Peculiarities, those that would thoroughly understand it, must endeavour, with Diligence and Application, to make it familiar to them.

Nor is the Style of Poetry distinct from Oratory in _Greek_ and _Latin_ only; the same Difference runs thro' all Tongues, both modern and ancient, _English_ as well as foreign. To this is owing that Difficulty, which the Learners of a new Language complain of much more in reading the Poets, than the Prose Writers. The Reason why the former use such a Variety of Style so remote from that of the latter, seems to be owing to this; that as Poetry requires a peculiar Way of Thinking, it affects, likewise, a peculiar Manner of Writing and Speaking, that so it may be set off at as great a Distance from Prose as possible. Besides, as it is confined within the strict Rules of Measure, it is but just to allow it a greater Liberty of Diction, and so compensate, in some Degree, that Inconvenience with this Advantage.

The Expressions I have hitherto produced are purely poetical, which, beautiful as they are in Verse, if once resolved into Prose, become flat and insipid; you would acknowledge them, indeed, to be poetical Materials, but rudely scattered, and disjointed; and, as _Horace_ describes it,

----_Invenias disjecti membra Poetæ[31]_.

Dissected Fragments of a Poet's Limbs.

Other Phrases there are, which tho' not merely poetical, yet are much more suitable to Verse than Prose: They may well enough be used sparingly, and with Caution, by an Orator, or an Historian; but if they occur frequently, they are Blemishes in his Composition, and mere Affectation. Of this Stamp are, _Campus pinguis sanguine_; the Field now sated with Blood: _Vela vento turgida_; the turgid Sails: _Duces sordidi pulvere honesto_, or _non indecora_; with honourable Dust besmeared; and the like.

But tho' the Expressions above, that are purely poetical, or that are chiefly so, conduce much to the Beauty of a Poem, yet good Verse may be made of those only that are common to all Kinds of Writing. For Proof of this one Example shall suffice, from the Odes of _Horace_:

_Sæpius ventis agitatur ingens_[32]
_Pinus, & celsæ graviore casu
Decidunt turres, feriuntque summos
Fulmina montes._

Storms often vex the stately Oak,
High Mountains feel the Thunder's Stroke;
And lofty Tow'rs, when Winds prevail,
Are ruin'd with the greater Fall.
_Creech._

In these Verses, tho' truly beautiful, there is not so much as one Phrase, not one Word, but what might with Propriety be used in Prose. It is observable, however, that even these, and the like Expressions, when transposed, and taken out of Metre, lose all their Elegance: For tho' every Word, considered in itself, is agreeable to either Style, yet there is somewhat so distinguishing in the poetical, as throws a Beauty upon Words, which, out of Metre, would appear insipid, or absurd; and yet, tho' we are sensible of the Thing, it is impossible to assign a Reason for it.

Another Peculiarity there is in the Style of Poetry, that a Thing is often express'd, not by Name, but by some concomitamt Circumstance, or Adjunct belonging to it; by which Means the Mind is led on to an entire Conception of it, by pleasing Intervals, as it were, and a successive Gradation of Thought. Thus _Virgil_,

_Depresso incipiat jam tum mihi taurus aratro
Ingemere, & sulco attritus splendescere vomer._

Ev'n then my Steers and Plough,
In the deep Furrows shall begin to groan.
_Trapp._

Again,

----_prunis lapidosa rubescere corna._

And on the Plumbs the stony Cornel grew.

And in the same Book,

_Impositos duris crepitare incudibus enses._