Chapter XIV: Value of the Diamond (1)

The history of the commercial value of the diamond, extending back to a distant period of time, forms an interesting chapter for the philosopher as well as the merchant. It would appear that the gem had been comparatively independent of the caprice of fashion, and that it has had for many years a value quite as fixed as gold or silver. This comparative valuation only applies to the snow-white diamonds, and to those whose imperfections are not readily discernible to the naked eye.

In estimating the value of diamonds, Barbot divides their shades into fifteen degrees, as follows: In the first degree he places the rare diamonds which exhibit the vivid gleam like the flash of polished steel; second degree, snow-white, first water; third degree, white, first water; fourth degree, white, with faint shades, red, yellow, and blue; fifth degree, white, yellow, or green, second water; sixth degree, grayish-yellow or green, second water; seventh degree, orange yellow; eighth degree, translucent topaz yellow; ninth degree, translucent deep green; tenth degree, translucent brick-red; eleventh degree, translucent deep red; twelfth degree, quite opaque, dingy blue; thirteenth degree, quite opaque, deep bottle green; fourteenth degree, quite opaque, brown or blackish; fifteenth degree, quite opaque, black as jet.

In ancient times, the gem probably had no fixed commercial value, and was sought for as a curiosity or as a talisman. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the goldsmiths of Italy, which was then the richest country in the world, established a comparative valuation for the four precious stones, ruby, emerald, diamond, and sapphire. From these accounts we learn that the diamond of one karat was valued at 100 gold scudi, and that the emerald was estimated at 400, and the red sapphire, or ruby, at 800, or eight times the price of the adamas. These valuations, if we estimate the scudi at nine English shillings, make a diamond of one karat worth $225, and the ruby of the same weight at $1,800, or nearly two thousand dollars, a statement which is quite incredible.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and even before these dates, Venice was the chief gem mart of Europe. Her merchants had control of a great part of the trade with the Eastern countries; and most of the Oriental luxuries passed through their hands. From the account of the auction sale, in the year 1606, of the effects of a diamond merchant in that city, we learn the value of diamonds of one karat weight at that time. They were then valued at £21 13_s._ 4_d._, which was an enormous sum, compared with the value of money at the present day.

In 1750, the price of the stone in Europe was $40 for one-karat gems. This was just before the discovery of the Brazilian mines. The sudden influx of the gems reduced the price shortly after to $5 per karat; but the market soon recovered from the panic, and in 1791, at the time the inventory of the French jewels was made, the price had arisen to $30 for the same class of diamonds. Since this period, the prices have varied, from the influences of the wars of Europe, sinking at the time of the disturbances of the Revolution of 1848, to $20 and $25 per karat. But after the year 1850, the price of the gem steadily advanced, and in 1865, its quotations were almost the same as that of Venice in 1606. This comparison, however, should not be made without remembering the vast difference in the value of money of the two periods.

The valuations of the diamond for more than a century past have been based upon the form of the brilliant, while those of the star, table, rose, and others, have been valued at lesser and sometimes almost nominal prices.

The price of the rose diamonds has been affected by the views of fashion for a long time, and at the present day we are unable to establish any fixed scale. We will, however, append the views of some of the gem experts as to the valuation of this pattern, during the past two centuries.

Robert de Berquen, in 1669, valued the rose cut

of 1 karat at 100 francs.
” 2 ” ” 500 ”
” 4 ” ” 1,500 ”
” 8 ” ” 6,000 ”
” 10 ” ” 9,000 ”

This estimate, however, was not founded upon any principle; and it was not until the celebrated Tavernier formed his rule for the valuation of the rose cut, that the diamond had any definite value. Tavernier, in 1692, took for an example a rose of one karat, of fine water, white, and of good form, and fixed the valuation at 150 francs, and for gems of greater weight multiplied this figure by the square of their weight. The justly celebrated jeweller and traveller also followed the same rule with fine diamonds that were not of regular form. The brilliant cut was not then known.

In 1858, in France, the comparative values were: for one karat, fine brilliant cut, 300 francs; for one karat, fine rose cut, 200 francs.

The following list has been kindly furnished me by Henry D. Morse, Esq., of Boston, as giving the value of diamonds in the United States at the present time, January, 1884. The prices have fluctuated considerably during the past year, and the estimates given are wholesale prices, and regarded as being quite low for fine stones:--

Lots averaging ¹⁄₂ karat each, $60 per karat.
” ” ³⁄₄ ” ” 80 ” ”
” ” 1 ” ” 100 ” ”
” ” 1¹⁄₄ ” ” 110 ” ”
” ” 1¹⁄₂ ” ” 125 ” ”
” ” 1³⁄₄ ” ” 145 ” ”
” ” 2 ” ” 175 ” ”

Above two karats the prices are not much increased per karat, because of their not being as much in demand. Stones of five karats and upwards, being very slow to sell, at the present time can be bought at $175 to $200 per karat, of the same qualities as the two-karat stones quoted above. Very extra white perfect stones, when well cut, bring, when sold singly or few at a time, from 20 to 25 per cent more than the prices quoted. The lower grades of stones are generally sold in lots, and the sizes do not make much difference in price. The larger they are the less desirable, and oftentimes stones of from five to ten karats are sold cheaper than stones of one to two karats; the price depending upon the shade of color and skill in cutting. Lots of this description can be bought for from $75 to $90 per karat. If the tinge is a little more decided they will bring but $60 per karat. The yellow diamonds even ranging as high as ten to twenty karats bring about $45 per karat. Flawy stones bring from $15 to $35 per karat, according to their color, size, and brilliancy. Fine rough stones of assorted sizes, varying from three to ten karats, bring from $30 to $45 per karat according to their shape and perfection. Smaller sizes are reckoned in value from $15 to $20 per karat. Cheaper grades and off-colored crystals are sold as low as $8 to $12 per karat. The bort diamonds vary in value; those coming from Africa bring but $1.50 per karat, while the same variety found in Brazil bring $6. The carbon variety of the best sizes bring about $20 per karat. Fifteen years ago the same mineral could be bought for $2.50 per karat; while the Brazilian bort was quoted at $9.

Of colored diamonds, those slightly tinged with various colors, especially the yellow and brown, were valued in London and Amsterdam, in 1872, as follows:--

Under 1 karat 30s. to £2 10s. per karat.
1 to 2 ” 40 ” 4 10 ” ”
2 ” 3 ” £3 ” 5 10 ” ”

The following account of Cape of Good Hope diamonds which were sold by auction at Covent Garden, February, 1872, may interest the reader in comparison with other sales at various periods of time:--

One white rough diamond, 9¹⁄₂ karats, £60; one slightly off color, 7¹⁄₄ karats, £37; a curious cabinet specimen of native diamond in matrix, £14, one large rough gem, drop shape, 14¹⁄₂ karats, £42. Among the cut diamonds the following were sold: a magnificent brilliant, 8 karats, 430 guineas; a fine yellow brilliant of great lustre, 7¹⁄₂ karats, 140 guineas; a brilliant of great spread and good water, about 7¹⁄₂ karats, 140 guineas; a large, lustrous brilliant of fine color weighing about 7 karats, 480 guineas; a court tiara of five graduated brilliant stars, 185 guineas; a brilliant necklace of forty graduated collets, £300.

The following sale by auction, in London, of some of the Imperial jewels belonging to the Empress Eugenie, may also interest the reader; and we have therefore thought proper to insert the account. It took place in July, 1872, at the rooms of Christie, Manson, & Co.:--

Lots 16 and 17. A bracelet, with forget-me-nots formed of turquoises and small diamonds, and another, with pearls and diamonds,--175 guineas. (Attenborough.)

22, 23. A heart-shaped locket, formed of bands of brilliants, and a pair of gold solitaires, with large diamond centres,--215 guineas. (Copeland.)

24. A very small keyless watch, with E. in diamonds, with gold chain, set with rubies and emeralds,--120 guineas. (Agnew.)

26. A chased gold snuff-box, the top set with flowers in brilliants, with the Pasha of Egypt’s cipher in brilliants on blue enamel,--165 guineas. (B. Benjamin.)

33. A brooch, with pendants, formed of five large turquoises and brilliants,--105 guineas. (Streeter.)

35. A brilliant brooch, with sprays set with brilliants,--120 guineas. (Attenborough.)

36. A pair of large pink pearl ear-rings in enamelled setting with brilliants,--105 guineas. (Thompson.)

37. A heart-shaped pendant, formed of a fine large turquoise surmounted by brilliants,--250 guineas. (Martin.)

38, 39. A large black pearl, with brilliant top, and a heart-shaped brilliant locket,--300 guineas. (Woodgate.)

40. A pair of shell-shaped brilliant ear-rings with pearl centres and drops,--106 guineas. (B. Benjamin.)

41. A brilliant brooch, formed as a corn-flower and group of foliage,--348 guineas. (Phillips.)

43-45. A ring with a large brilliant, a fine single stone brilliant ring, and a ring with a large brilliant and two fine emeralds,--485 guineas. (Woodgate.)

46. A ring, with a splendid ruby and two brilliants,--300 guineas. (Challens.)

47, 48. Three very fine emeralds, set as a ring, and a pair of hairpins formed as rosebuds, of pink pearls and brilliants,--275 guineas. (Gibbons.)

49. A marquise ring, with a pink diamond surrounded by brilliants, formerly the property of the Empress Josephine,--400 guineas. (Martin.)

50. A beautiful pendant, the centre a fine emerald, surrounded by bands of brilliants, with emerald and pearl drop,--605 guineas. (Brown.)

51, 52. A group of three wheat-ears tied with a ribbon formed of fine brilliants, making a brooch or head ornament, and the companion group,--975 guineas. (Lennox.)

53, 54. A group of two wheat-ears, en suite, and the companion group,--£810. (Martin.)

55. A fine pendant, with a large square emerald, surrounded by brilliants, with very large pearl drop,--620 guineas. (Ford.)

56. A scroll-pattern brilliant brooch, for a miniature, with large pearl drop,--470 guineas. (Challens.)

57. A broad chain-band bracelet, with sapphire and two large brilliants,--340 guineas. (Lomax.)

58. Two fine emeralds and three large brilliants, mounted as a bracelet,--810 guineas. (Hancock.)

59. A beautiful cross, formed of eleven large brilliants,--900 guineas. (Carter.)

60. A ribbon tie brilliant brooch,--335 guineas. (Grindley.)

61. A handsome pendant of brilliants and pearls, with a fine large black pearl centre and drop,--420 guineas. (Martin.)

62. Two fine large brilliants and an emerald mounted on a buckle set with small brilliants,--430 guineas. (Harborough.)

64. A splendid brooch, formed as a rosebud and leaves, composed entirely of brilliants,--820 guineas. (Attenborough.)

65. A magnificent bracelet, with sapphire centre, surrounded by rubies, brilliants, and emeralds,--£650. (Rothschild.)

67. A fine large pearl, mounted as a hairpin of chased gold, with chain set with small diamonds,--188 guineas. (Chapman.)

68. A splendid fly brooch, the body a very large opal, the head and wings set with rubies, brilliants, emeralds, sapphires, and opals,--£320. (Greenwood.)

69. A beautiful watch, in blue enamel setting, surrounded by eleven large brilliants, suspended from a hook, set with a cluster of brilliants,--£1,660. (James.)

70, 71. A fine polished emerald, surrounded by brilliants, and a bracelet with splendid ruby centre and large brilliants,--975 guineas. (Hancock.)

72, 73. A brooch, formed as an anchor, composed entirely of brilliants, and the companion brooch,--£2,150. (Eaton.)

74. A tiara, formed of a band of brilliants, the centre a cluster of fine brilliants and emeralds, surmounted by a large oval emerald, with brilliant sprays and pearl drop,--780 guineas. (Challens.)

75. A bracelet, the centre a very fine sapphire surrounded by large brilliants, with trellis pattern open-work bands, studded with brilliants,--£1,105. (Martin.)

76, 77. A brilliant set as a brooch, with fine pearl drop, and a brilliant brooch with colored stone centre and pearl drop,--730 guineas. (Keane.)

78. A brilliant tiara, formed as a group of leaves,--£970. (Carter.)

79. A pearl necklace, composed of forty-one large pearls of the highest quality, with cluster brilliant snap,--£2,400. (Marquis of Bristol.)

80-84. A pair of polished emerald drops, four pairs of larger ditto, and a single ditto,--750 guineas. (Masters.)

85-89. Two pairs of emerald drops, with brilliant tops, three pairs of larger ditto,--550 guineas. (Carter.)

90-92. Three pairs of very large emerald drops,--£1,275. (Garrard.)

93-103. A brooch, with a fine large emerald surrounded by brilliants, nine larger ditto, and one with a square emerald,--5,000 guineas. (Keane.)

104-106. A brooch with emerald centre, surrounded by fine brilliants, with emerald and brilliant drop, and two larger ditto,--£3,525. (Graham.)

107. A tiara, composed of ten fine large emeralds, surrounded by bands of brilliants,--£2,625. (Keane.)

108. A brilliant brooch, formed as a group of leaves, with six large brilliant drops and pendants, set with smaller brilliants,--1,050 guineas. (Keane.)

109-111. Three brilliant pendants composed of very fine large stones, with brilliant drops and pendants of false pearls,--2,600 guineas. (Keane.)

112. A bracelet, composed entirely of brilliants, the centre an oval sapphire,--£2,250. (Carter.)

113. A pair of long ear-rings composed of very large brilliants,--£3,255. (Stevens.)

114. A brilliant brooch, formed as a double pink,--£1,470. (Stevens.)

The whole realized upwards of £50,000 ($250,000) gold.

The quantity of diamonds now in circulation in fashion, and hoarded by commerce, is enormous, and may be estimated by the ton. Yet the requirements of society and the arts are so vast that the gem apparently seems to be a rare stone, while in reality it ranks low down in the scale of rarity.

Although we believe that there are immense diamond placers yet to be discovered in Africa, Asia, and America, we do not think that the gem will ever lose its high rank in the wants of fashion and ornamentation, or that its price will ever again descend to the valuation of 1848 except in transient times of far-extended commercial distress. The misfortunes of any one country will not affect the established price to any great extent, since the demand from other countries is so great as to preserve a well-marked equilibrium.

India, with its millions of people who prefer to invest their gains in a gem to all other known property, will furnish an eager market for the diamond for many ages to come. The history of the influx and absorption of silver by that country furnishes an interesting parallelism.

Most of the people of the earth entertain superstitious fancies, and especially invest the gems with spiritual powers or special attributes. Hence the innate love of ornament, combined with the desire of possessing a rare treasure, will always give to the gems a prestige and a commercial value above all other things. Puritanical morality may rail against the gems as luxuries; but the nature of man must be changed before these ideas can be universally adopted. The refinements of civilization, as well as the follies of barbaric ages, call for the ornamentation of jewels and gems. And modern economy may, with Tiberius, complain in vain of that “rage for jewels and precious stones which drains the empire of its wealth, and sends, in exchange for its baubles, the money of the commonwealth to foreign nations.”

A brilliant writer has lately stated that “Pictures, gems, china, bronzes, _bric-à-brac_ of every sort, rare shawls, rare engravings, and even rare fruits, flowers, and dogs are steadily tending upwards in value, as if their price depended upon a want and not a caprice. It is the most curious illustration of the unchangeableness of the law which governs even caprices that we are acquainted with; and tends to indicate that the desire for the rare, which we all notice and smile at, in bibliopoles, antiquarians, entomologists, and every variety of the genus collector, is not an exceptionable eccentricity, but a permanent attribute of the human mind, though only noticed in those who have wealth to indulge in some unusual or splendid form. It is like the desire of accumulation, one of the passions, and not one of the mere tastes of men; and may be relied on in business, almost as certainly as self-interest, vanity, or ambition.”

The relative worth of the diamond has never been better described than by the following lines from the pen of an able English author:--

“It is in truth the very essence of property. It is riches condensed and wealth secured; too small to be seen by the midnight burglar; too easily hid to be seized by the tyrant; and too quickly carried away to be wrested from the patriot exile or torn from the hunted outlaw. In vain would the vanquished monarch strive to remove his bags of gold, or transport his territorial domains; but a diamond is an empire made portable, with which he might purchase a better kingdom, and mount a prouder throne. Had the treasure of Crœsus been invested in brilliants he might have founded a nobler Lydia beyond the reach of his Persian invader.”

THE EMERALD.

“The emerald burns intensely bright,
With radiance of an olive light;
This is the faith that highest shines,
No need of charity declines,
And seeks no rest and shuns no strife,
In working out a holy life.”

MARBODEUS.

THE EMERALD.

Dutens and several others who have written upon gems and precious stones during the last two centuries, have asserted that the ancients were unacquainted with the true emerald, and that Heliodorus, when speaking nearly two thousand years ago of “gems green as a meadow in the spring,” or Pliny, when describing stone of a “soft green lustre,” referred to the peridot, the plasma, the malachite, or the far rarer gem, the green sapphire. But the antiquary has come to the rescue with the treasures of the despoiled mounds of Tuscany, the exposed ashes of Herculaneum and Pompeii, and now exhibits emeralds which were mounted in gold two thousand years before Columbus dreamed of the New World, or Pizarro and his remorseless band gathered the precious stones by the hundred-weight from the spoils of Peru.

Although these specimens of antique jewelry set with emeralds may be numbered by the score or more in the museums and reliquaries of Europe, but very few engraved emeralds have descended to us from ancient times. This rarity is not due to the hardness of the stone, for the ancient lapidaries cut the difficult and still harder sapphire; therefore we must believe the statement of the early gem-writers that the emerald was exempted from the glyptic art by common consent on account of its beauty and costliness.

Stones possessing a green color have been used for ornamental purposes from the very earliest periods of the social life of man. And as we review the archæological history of the human race, it would seem as though minerals of this hue had been especially selected among all others for ornamental purposes.

For instances of this primitive selection, we will refer to the green stone hatchets found among the ancient tombs of Brittany; the axe heads of jade in New Caledonia; the green serpentine implements of Africa; the articles carved from green zoisite, revered among the Chinese from time immemorial; as well as the green jade and amazon stones, which the Mexicans wrought with wondrous skill into strange and grotesque forms, and which they prized above even their magnificent and matchless emeralds. It is also clearly evident that the emerald was discovered in very ancient times, and that it was early adopted in ornamentation, and was prized as among the most valuable of the gems, if not the highest in estimation, for its color and fancied virtues.

Pliny was undoubtedly familiar with the true emerald, and expressed his satisfaction in the following language:--

“There is no color so pleasing to the eye as that of the emerald. Whoever delights in the verdure of herb and leaf must enjoy infinitely more the contemplation of emeralds; for no verdure can compare to theirs. They are the only stones that charm the eye without wearying it. It loses its lustre neither in sun nor in shade, nor in artificial light. It shines continually with the same soft glow.”

In the time of Alexander, the emblems of authority of the Persians consisted of golden imitations of vines, loaded with clusters of emeralds, carbuncles, and other gems. At the famous marriage feast of Alexander and his eighty companions with their beautiful Persian brides, emeralds appear to have been the favorite gem used, and to have been esteemed above all other ornaments except the beautiful pearls of the Persian Gulf.

In ancient times this gem was not only prized as an ornament, but also as a talisman, and even as a medicine in the powdered state. Its beauty captivated the vain and frivolous, and its supposed virtues endeared it to the rich and the wise. It was supposed to exercise a good effect upon the eyesight; hence it was worn as a seal to be looked at; when worn as an amulet it endowed the wearer with courage, drove away evil spirits, assuaged terror, and prevented attacks of epilepsy.

Pliny states that Paulina, at the Banquet, was literally covered with emeralds and pearls, arranged over her dress in alternate rows.

The famous and fatal ring which Polycrates cast into the sea, as an offering to the gods in return for forty years of prosperity, was set with a beautiful emerald.

The ancient Etruscans carved the emerald at a very remote period, and the fact is proven by the scarabeus in the Townley collection.

The Castellani collection exhibits ear-rings of gold set with pendants of emeralds which were found in the tombs at Bolsena.

In the Devonshire gems there is a large emerald cut into a Gorgon’s head, in high relief,--evidently a gem of great antiquity and of exceeding value at the time of its conversion into a work of art.

Within the sarcophagus of Maria Honorii fifty rings set with different stones were found, and among them an emerald set in gold and engraved with a head supposed to be that of Honorius himself. It was probably fashioned for a royal signet and buried with the remains of its owner.

The famous mirror or lens, in or through which the cruel and near-sighted Nero was wont to view the bloody combats in the arena at Rome, is supposed to have been cut from an emerald; but it was probably a lens cut from green glass.

It appears, however, from the researches of the antiquaries, that the gem was very rare until the Imperial epoch, when they were introduced from Asia and other countries in accordance with the luxury and extravagance of the age. Castellani’s collection displays some fine examples of the jewelry of this period set with emeralds. Among them there is a beautiful necklace formed of sixteen natural crystals of emerald fastened in gold; and also another composed of ten natural crystals of emerald set in double chains of gold. Among the engraved gems may be seen an emerald intaglio, representing a Nereid on a sea bull, and two other intaglios of beryl, with pictures of Mars, and a portrait of Julia Paula.

From the earliest times of history monarchs and potentates of all ranks and races, from Solomon to Montezuma, were wont to wear signet rings, which were sometimes engraved, and were then often used to impart authority either by the exhibition of the ring itself, or its impression upon papyrus, parchment, or wax. The most celebrated ring of this description we have any authentic knowledge of, was that formed of a large emerald set in gold and worn by Alexander the Great, whose portrait was engraved upon the stone. The hero, when dying, bestowed it upon his favorite general, Perdiccas, and thereby invested him with the authority of succession. History refuses to make known the fate of this splendid gem. It is probable that Ptolemy Soter obtained possession of it when Perdiccas was slain in Egypt, and that eventually Augustus Cæsar may have worn it for his first imperial seal, which was an emerald engraved with the head of Alexander.

After the death of Pompey in Egypt, his seal ring, which represented a lion holding a sword in his paw, was taken to Rome and presented to Cæsar, who burst into tears on receiving the signet of his former associate and unfortunate rival.

The practice of interring with the dead some of the jewels worn in life, has been practised in recent times. When Cardinal Borromeo was buried at Milan two hundred years ago or more, a large gold cross, containing seven large and fine emeralds surrounded with diamonds, was placed in his tomb. When Lord Palmerston was buried at Westminster Abbey, the officiating clergyman threw into the grave several diamond and gold rings as a peace offering. In ancient times the custom was of frequent occurrence, and to this habit we owe the preservation of many beautiful gems and jewels, which have in this manner escaped the pillage and fury of thieves and iconoclasts.

The mineral has borne the name of emerald since the middle of the seventeenth century, at which time it was adopted by the mineralogist, Wallerius. But whence it is derived, and on what particular grounds, we are not informed. In Asia, in ancient times, it was described under the Sanskrit name, “marakat,” which is connected with “esmark,” signifying a sea monster, or “makara,” meaning the sea. As it passed westward, among the Persians it became “zabargat,” and still farther on its journey it was changed by the Greeks and Latins into “smaragdus.” The derivation of its ancient terms is also exemplified by the use or purposes in which the gem and its varieties were used. It was therefore frequently chosen by the antique gem cutters and engravers, as the proper material for the representation of all maritime subjects or any allusions to the sea gods.

The emerald is now one of the rarest of gems; and its scarcity gives rise to the inquiry as to what has become of the abundant shower of emeralds which fairly rained upon Spain during the early days of the conquest of Mexico and Peru, bringing down the value of fine stones to a trifling price. As with all commercial articles, there is a waste and loss to be accounted for during the wear of three centuries; but this alone will not explain their present rarity in civilized countries. Even in the times of Charles II., when the destitution of the country was extreme, the Dukes of Infantado and Albuquerque had millions in diamonds, rubies, and precious stones, yet hardly possessed a single sou. So impoverished was the land, and so slender were the purses of all, that the Duke of Albuquerque dined on an egg and a pigeon, yet it required six weeks to make an inventory of his plate. At this period, when the nobles gave fêtes the lamps were often decorated with emeralds and the ceilings garlanded with precious stones. The women fairly blazed with sparkling gems of fabulous value, while the country was starving. Most, if not all, of this missing treasure was transferred to Asia, and with the silver current which flowed steadily from the Spanish coffers into India went many of the emeralds also; for in those regions this gem is regarded as a foreign stone, and the natives, investing it with the possession of certain talismanic properties, prize it above all earthly treasures.

When the Spaniards commenced their march toward the capital of Mexico, they were astonished at the magnificence of the costumes of the chiefs who came to meet them as envoys or join them as allies; and among the splendid gems which adorned their persons they recognized emeralds and turquoises of such rare perfection and beauty that their cupidity was excited to the highest degree. During the after years of conquest and occupation the avaricious spoilers sought in vain for the parent ledge where these precious stones were found. Recent times have, however, revealed the home of the Mexican turquoise, which has proved to be in the northern part of Mexico, as the Totonacs informed the inquiring Spaniards. The first of these mines, which is of great antiquity, is situated in the Cerrillos Mountains, eighteen miles from Santa Fé. The deposit occurs in soft trachyte, and an immense cavity of several hundred feet in extent has been excavated by the Indians while searching for this gem in past times. Probably some of the fine turquoises worn by the Aztec nobles at the time of the Spanish Conquest came from this mine. Another mine is located in the Sierra Blanca Mountains in New Mexico, but the Navajos will not allow strangers to visit it. Stones of transcendent beauty have been taken from it, and handed down in the tribe from generation to generation as heirlooms. Nothing tempts the cupidity of the Indians to dispose of these gems, and gratitude alone causes them to part with any of these treasures, which, like the mountaineers of Thibet, they regard with mystical reverence. The Navajos wear them as ear-drops, by boring them and attaching them to the ear by means of a deer sinew. Lesser stones are pierced, then strung on sinews, and worn as necklaces. Even the nobler Ute Indians, when stripping the ornaments of turquoise from the ears of the conquered Navajos, value them as sacred treasures, and refuse to part with them even for gold or silver.

All the Spanish accounts of the invasion of Mexico agree in the great abundance of emeralds, both in the adornment of the chiefs and nobles and also in the decoration of the gods, the thrones, and the paraphernalia. The Mexican historian Ixtlilxochitl says the throne of gold in the palace of Tezcuco was inlaid with turquoises and other precious stones; that a human skull in front of it was crowned with an immense emerald of a pyramidal form.

The great standard of the republic of Tlascala was richly ornamented with emeralds and silver-work. The fantastic helmets of the chiefs glittered with gold and precious stones, and their plumes were set with emeralds. The mantle of Montezuma was held together by a clasp of the green chalchivitl (jade), and the same precious gem, with emeralds of uncommon size, ornamented other parts of his dress.

The Mexicans carved the obdurate jade and emerald with wonderful skill, using, like the Peruvians, nothing but silicious powder and copper instruments alloyed with tin. They also worked with exquisite taste in gold and silver, and they represented Nature so faithfully and so beautifully that the great naturalist Hernandez took many of these objects thus portrayed for his models when describing the natural history of the country.

When Cortez returned home he displayed five emeralds of extraordinary size and beauty, and presented them to his bride, the niece of the Duke de Bejar. On his famous expedition along the Pacific coast and up the Gulf of California he was reduced to such want as to be obliged to pawn these jewels for a time. One of them was as precious as Shylock’s turquoise, and Gomara states that some Genoese merchants who examined it in Seville offered forty thousand golden ducats for it. One of the emeralds was in the form of a rose; the second in that of a horn; the third like a fish with eyes of gold; the fourth was like a little bell, with a fine pearl for a tongue, and it bore on its rim the following inscription in Spanish: “Blessed is he who created thee!” The fifth, which was the most valuable of all, was in the form of a small cup with a foot of gold, and with four little chains of the same metal attached to a large pearl as a button: the edge of the cup was of gold, on which was engraved in Latin words, “Inter natos mulierum non surrexit major.” These splendid gems are now buried deep in the sand on the coast of Barbary, where they were lost in 1529, when Cortez was shipwrecked with the Admiral of Castile whilst on their way to assist Charles V. at the siege of Algiers.

Mariana, in his history of Spain, declares that Cortez had, besides the five great historical emeralds, also two emerald vases which were valued at 300,000 ducats. Whether these remarkable treasures were swallowed up by the sea with the other five when the conqueror of Mexico was shipwrecked, history does not relate.

Among the presents sent to Charles V. of Spain by the first Spanish commissioners, Puerto Carreso and Montijo, in 1519, and also by Montezuma through his governor Teuthlili, were the following articles, according to the description given by Peter Martyr, the learned Italian, who enjoyed the friendship of Columbus and the confidence of the Spanish Court. The Chronicles of Gomara also contain the same list: a gold necklace composed of seven pieces with 183 small emeralds set in it, and 232 gems similar to small rubies, from which hung 27 little bells of gold and several fine pearls; another necklace composed of four pieces of gold with 102 red gems like small rubies, 172 emeralds, and 10 fine pearls, with 26 little bells of gold attached.

The historians, Gomara and Martyr, mention among the prizes which fell into the hands of Cortez, an immense emerald of a pyramidal form, whose base was as large as the palm of the hand; and which may have been the identical stone which crowned the skull which stood before the throne in the palace of Tezcuco. At all events, an emerald of this description Cortez sent as a present to the Emperor of Spain, together with his letters of explanation, after the fall of the city of Mexico. The letters and the various presents were intrusted to the care of two of his confidential officers, Quinones and Avila. Arriving at the Azores, Quinones lost his life in a brawl, and jeopardized the mission; but Avila escaped and put to sea, to be captured shortly after by a French privateer; and the rich spoils of the Aztecs were presented to the King of France, instead of the Emperor of Spain. Francis I. gazed with delight upon the splendors of the gem, and with a feeling of envy exclaimed that he “would like to see the clause in Adam’s testament, which entitled his brothers of Castile and Portugal to divide the New World between them.” What has become of this historic stone?

The quantity of emeralds obtained by the Spaniards in their pillage of Mexico was large; but it was trifling when compared with that collected by Pizarro and his remorseless followers in the sack of Peru. Many large and magnificent stones were then obtained by the Spaniards; but the transcendent gem of all, called by the Peruvians the Great Mother, and nearly as large as an ostrich egg, was concealed by the natives, and all the efforts of Pizarro and his successors to discover it proved unavailing.

Previous to the plunder of America by Cortez and his followers, emeralds were not numerous in Europe; but early in the sixteenth century they began to appear in Spain, and were soon afterwards distributed among the powerful and wealthy throughout Europe. England seems to have had at one time a large share of them, and perhaps many of them were taken by her freebooters from the richly laden Spanish galleons. In the days of Queen Elizabeth emeralds were exhibited in profusion, if we can give credence to the chronicles and inventories of that period.

The parure of emeralds which the Queen of Navarre bequeathed in 1572, to her daughter Catherine, must have been of wonderful beauty and perfection.

What is the stone lately given to Mustapha, the ex-premier of Tunis, by the Bey, and described as the famous emerald once belonging to the Spanish Crown? Was it one recovered from the shipwreck of Cortez, or was it one of those given away by the Spanish rulers in the early days of the conquest of Peru, when they imagined the emerald mines were as broad and exhaustless as the silver beds of Potosi?

The finest emerald in Europe is said to belong to the Emperor of Russia. It weighs but thirty karats; but it is of the most perfect transparency, and of the most beautiful color. There are many other fine emeralds among the imperial jewels of the Czar, some of which are of great size and rare beauty. The ancient crown of Vladimir glitters with four great stones of unusual brilliancy. The grand state sceptre is surmounted by another emerald of great size. The sceptre of Poland, which is now treasured in the Kremlin, has a long green stone, fractured in the middle. It is not described, and may be one of the Siberian tourmalines, some of which closely approach the emerald in hue. The imperial orb of Russia, which is said to be of Byzantine workmanship of the tenth century, has fifty emeralds. This fact alone would seem to prove that emeralds were known in Europe or Asia Minor long before the discovery of America; but, on the other hand, the ancient crown which was taken when Kazan was subjugated in 1553, is destitute of emeralds. And hence we are inclined to believe the imperial orb to be of modern workmanship, especially as some of the ancient state chairs do not exhibit emeralds among their decoration of gems and precious stones.

The immense uncut Peruvian emerald, given by Rudolph II. to the Elector of Saxony, is still preserved in the Green Vaults at Dresden.

Queen Elizabeth of England sent to Henry IV., the champion of the Reformed faith, a beautiful emerald, which she herself had worn. She gave it as a token of esteem, and reminded the gay monarch that the gem possessed the virtue of not breaking so long as faith remains entire and firm.

It has been stated that the Emperor Charlemagne regarded the gift from the Empress Irene as the dearest of all his talismans. This treasure consisted of a piece of the true cross, enclosed in a large emerald, which was attached to a strong chain of golden links. When his sepulchre was rifled of the treasures deposited with the deceased monarch, this relic was removed with the rest of the jewels; and in 1811 was presented to Napoleon by the Burghers of the city of Aix-la-Chapelle. Bonaparte one day playfully threw it over the neck of Queen Hortense, declaring that he had worn it on his breast in the bloody battles of Austerlitz and Wagram, as Charlemagne had worn it on the field of battle in the Middle Ages. Hortense wore it until the day of her death.

The emeralds of the French Crown at the time the famous inventory was taken in 1781, do not appear to have been of very great purity. Several of them exhibited fine color, but had many faults. Five of the best were valued at that time at fifty thousand francs, or ten thousand dollars, each.

In the famous Hungarian crown, the large sapphire is surrounded with four green stones of oblong form, whose species are unknown. It is also a mystery how they came there, as they are not mentioned in the inventory made of the jewel when Queen Elizabeth of Hungary pledged it to the Emperor Frederick IV.

The Sultan of Turkey is known to possess some exquisite emeralds; and Rambusson, a French writer on gems, declares that they are the finest in the world. One of them is said to weigh one hundred and twenty-five ounces, and is probably another lump of antique glass. Another of three hundred karats weight, and of less doubtful character, is a gem of great purity and perfection of color. It adorns the handle of a poniard.

In the museum at Florence there is a small vase carved in emerald, and also another ornament of similar form, fashioned from a fine beryl. The mineralogical collection at Munich boasts of some immense emeralds which are supposed to have been obtained from Spain, and part of her Peruvian booty. There are also some splendid specimens of uncut emeralds in the cabinet of minerals at Vienna. The Saxon and the Papal crowns contain very beautiful emeralds.

Probably the most beautiful specimen of the natural emerald in the world is that presented to the renowned shrine of Loretto in Italy, by Don Pierre Daragon, when Spanish ambassador at Rome. He was formerly viceroy in Peru and obtained the treasure at that time. The specimen is a mass of white limestone, crowned with great crystals of emeralds more than an inch in diameter and of exquisite color and lustre.

The name of Emerald Isle is generally supposed to have been derived from the ever green appearance of its shores but an antiquary asserts that it arose from the ring which was set with “Optimo Smaragdo,” and which Pope Adrian sent to King Henry II. as the instrument of his investiture with the dominion of Ireland.

There is a very fine and large crystal of emerald in the museum at Leiden, but its history is unknown.

Dhuleep Singh of India possesses a flattened crystal of three inches in length by two in width, and half an inch in depth, which is regarded as of great value in India. It is said to be of very fine color and with but few imperfections.

The Duke of Devonshire’s crystal in its natural state is reckoned as one of the finest, if not the finest single specimen in the world. It is from Muzo in New Granada, and more than two inches in length. Its form is that of a hexagonal crystal, and its weight is 8 oz. 18 dwts. The color of the stone is beautiful, but several flaws impair the value as a gem.

During the visit of the Prince of Wales to India, many fine emeralds were exhibited to the royal party by the Hindoo nobility. At the grand reception given them at Madras, the Prince of Virianagram wore a bracelet composed of three splendid emeralds of very great size. At Kandy, in Ceylon, the Buddhist priests brought forth from their sanctuary for the inspection of the Prince, an immense emerald four inches long by two inches in depth.

A ring cut out of a single emerald, 1¹⁄₄ inches in diameter, with the name of the Emperor Jehangir engraved upon it, was presented to the East India Company.

One of the most costly and difficult works in engraving upon the emerald in modern times, was that executed by Carlo Costanzi during the last century. Upon a table of emerald two inches in diameter, the head of Pope Benedict and those of St. Peter and St. Paul were engraved. Two years and a half were required by the lapidary for the execution of his task. The engraved gem may now be seen in the treasury of St. Petronio at Bologna.

Some very fine emeralds are said to be preserved in the royal collection at Madrid, one quite as large as the Devonshire emerald and without many flaws.

The Spanish freebooters, returning home from their American fights laden with gems, did not forget the shrines of Spain in their peace offerings. Marshal Lannes, in sacking the church of our Lady of the Pillar, which was one of the richest in Spain, obtained an immense booty. Madame Junot declares in her memoirs that it was not far below five millions of francs in value.

Harsh stories are also told of the acts of vandalism of Marshal Junot while he was military governor of Spain. It is related that when he visited the Cathedral of Toledo, the church dignitaries freely exhibited to him the magnificent jewels and treasures which belonged to the church and had been accumulating for many ages. The crown of the Virgin, which was beautifully constructed of gold and adorned with exquisite gems, was placed in his hands for close examination. The summit of this admirable and holy piece of human art was surmounted by a large emerald of almost transcendent beauty. The French freebooter examined the beautiful jewel for a few moments, and then coolly twisted off the emerald from its setting and placed it in his pocket, exclaiming, with a Parisian grimace, “Ceci doit être à moi.”

Finely formed crystals of emerald, when not too large, were in early times mounted in gold and in jewelry without receiving any artificial polish from the lapidary. Examples are often found in the tombs of antiquity. The Princess Bariatinsky has a valuable necklace of ancient emeralds fashioned in this manner.

The Orientals, taking advantage of the facility with which the prisms are broken at right angles to the axis, frequently used slices of the crystals, sometimes artificially polished, but often with the natural planes of cleavage preserved. This practice was quite common prior to the fifteenth century. They also adopted the unfortunate custom of engraving them with condensed quotations from the Koran, and often drilled holes through the centre of the stones so as to string them as necklaces or as ear ornaments.

One of the finest gems that adorned the gorgeous harness of Runjeet Singh was a beautiful emerald maltreated in this manner. Major Pearse found in a Punjaub tope a reliquary formed from an emerald three inches long and two inches thick, with the ends rounded off. It was originally a gem of fine color, but had been bored half through its axis to contain two finger joints of some revered Buddhist saint or petted monkey.

The emerald has been a subject of controversy among the chemists and mineralogists, and its character, especially the cause of its beautiful color, is not clearly defined even at the present day. But that distinguished chemist, Professor Lewy of Paris, seems to offer, thus far, the most correct and plausible theory. More than ten years ago he boldly asserted that the hue is not due to the oxide of chromium, and with this opinion he confronted such eminent men as Vauquelin, Klaproth, and others of high rank in the scientific world. Not content with his researches in his laboratory in Paris, he resolutely crossed the ocean and sought the emerald in its parent ledges in the lofty table-lands of New Granada. Here he obtained new information of a geological character which goes far to strengthen his position. The experiments of M. Lewy indicate, if they do not prove, that the coloring matter of the emerald is organic, and readily destroyed by heat, which would not be the case if it was due to the oxide of chromium. All my own fire-tests with the Granada emerald corroborate the views of M. Lewy, for in every instance the gem lost its hue when submitted to a red heat.

Nevertheless, the recent researches of Wöhler and Rose give negative results. These experienced chemists kept an emerald at the temperature of melted copper for an hour, and found that, although the stone had become opaque, the color was not affected. They therefore considered the oxide of chromium to be the coloring agent, without, however, denying the presence of organic matter. The amount of the oxide of chromium found by many chemists varies from one to two per cent, while Lewy and others found it in a quantity so small as to be inappreciable, and too minute to be weighed.

Before the ordinary blowpipe the emerald passes rapidly into a whitish vesicular glass, and with borax it forms a fine green glass, while its sub-species, the beryl, changes into a colorless bead; with salt of phosphorus it slowly dissolves, leaving a silicious skeleton.

M. Lewy visited the mines at Muzo in Granada, and from the results of his analyses, together with the fact of finding emeralds in conjunction with the presence of fossil shells in the limestone in which they occur, he arrived at the conclusion that they have been formed in the wet way,--deposited from a chemical solution. He also found that when extracted they are so soft and fragile that the largest and finest fragments can be reduced to powder by merely rubbing them between the fingers, and the crystals often crack and fall to pieces after being removed from the mine, apparently from loss of water. Consequently, when the emeralds are first extracted they are laid aside carefully for a few days until the water is evaporated.

This statement relative to the softness of the gem and its subsequent hardening has been met with a shout of derision from some of the gem-seekers,--none louder than that of Barbot, the retired jeweller. Barbot seems to forget that the rock of which his own house in Paris is constructed undergoes the same change after being removed from the deep quarries in the catacombs under the city.

This phenomenon is observed with many rocks. Flints acquire additional toughness by the evaporation of water contained in them. The yellow gneiss of Ceylon is soft when quarried, but hardens on exposure to the atmosphere. The Egyptian verde antique marble, which was named after Augustus and Tiberias, was easily quarried with steel implements, but quickly hardened on exposure to the external air. The mosaic plates of this mineral which are inlaid in the decorative work of the Tuscan Gothic buildings are yet quite hard. The steatite of Saint Anthony’s Falls grows harder on exposure, and other minerals, when quarried from considerable depths, become firmer on exposure to the action of the air. Observations of this kind led Kuhlman to investigate the cause; and he believes that the hardening of rocks is not owing solely to the evaporation of quarry-water, but that it depends upon the tendency which all earthy matters possess to undergo a spontaneous crystallization by slow desiccation, which commences the moment the rock is exposed to the air.

The coloring matter of the emerald seems to be derived from the decomposition of the remains of animals who have lived in a bygone age, and whose remains are now found fossilized in the rock which forms the matrix of the gem. This rock in Granada is a black limestone, with white veins containing ammonites. Specimens of these rocks, exhibiting fragments of emeralds _in situ_ and also ammonites, are to be seen in the mineralogical gallery of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. Lewy believes that the beautiful tint of these gems is produced by an organic substance, which he considers to be a carburet of hydrogen, similar to that called chlorophyll, which constitutes the coloring matter of the leaves of plants; and he has shown that the emeralds of the darkest hue, which contain the greatest amount of organic matter, lose their color completely at a low red heat, and become opaque and white; while minerals and pastes which are well known to be colored by chromium, like the green garnets (the lime-chrome garnets) of Siberia, are unchanged in hue by the action of heat.

At the present time the composition of the emerald is supposed to be a silicate of alumina and glucina, with traces of organic matter and also other earths and oxides; but silica, alumina, and glucina are the principal component parts. It resembles quartz in some of its physical properties, having a specific gravity of 2.6 to 2.7, and a refractive energy of 1.58, but its degree of hardness is slightly greater, ranging from 7.5 to 8.0, while that of quartz is but 7.0.

The Peruvians maintain that the emerald ripens and deepens in color after having been mined and exposed to the air and light. Whether this assertion has been corroborated or not we cannot yet say; but it is a well-substantiated fact that some minerals do gain in color and hardness on exposure, and equally well proved that many others lose their tints very perceptibly. Strange to say, the cystine calculi undergo a similar change of color, and assume a fine greenish-blue tint when exposed to the light, changing from a fawn color. The specimens in Guy’s Museum described by Dr. Marcet in 1817 were of a pale brown, but according to the report of Golding Bird they now resemble the green sulphate of iron. Dr. Peter observed the same mysterious change of color in the two cystine calculi preserved in the museum of Transylvania University, and noted the fact that the change takes place on the side exposed to the light.