Chapter II: Part 2

March 9, 1918. Surroundings overgrazed and partially restored by complete protection. Red soil, with much coarse rough gravel and stone.

Species stored. Grams.

Bouteloua rothrockii (nearly pure) 1,460 Bouteloua rothrockii (mixed with Aristida spp.) 945 Boerhaavia wrightii 660 Bouteloua rothrockii } Bouteloua aristidoides } 525 Aristida divaricata } Aristida bromoides } Kallstroemia laetevirens Tr. Heterotheca subaxillaris Tr. Plantago ignota 15 Fleshy fungi 10 ----- Total 3,615

Eight species of plants represented by seeds. One species of fleshy fungus in addition.

DEN 4.

September 20, 1918. In _Calliandra_ type. Stony or gravelly soil, red, nearly denuded of grass.

Species stored. Grams.

Prosopis velutina 190 Mollugo verticillata (pure) 90 Anisolotus trispermus (mixed, but mostly of this genus) 50 Solanum elaeagnifolium (12 fruits) 2 Per cent. Mollugo verticillata (inseparable) 50 } Bouteloua rothrockii 1 } Bouteloua aristidoides 10 } Lepidium lasiocarpum Tr. } Polygala puberula Tr. } Ayenia microphylla 2 } Portulaca suffrutescens 1 } 400 Aplopappus gracilis Tr. } Alternanthera repens 1 } Tridens pulchella 1 } Plantago ignota 33 } Panicum hallii Tr. } Fleshy fungi (puffballs) 2 --- Total 734

Fifteen species represented in addition to the fleshy fungi. No perceptible grass growth from the summer rains here, therefore dependent on a wide variety of scattering plants.

DEN 6.

October 17, 1918. Mixed type, partially denuded, no growth from summer rains. Sandy soil.

Species stored. Grams.

Bouteloua rothrockii (crowns) (heads 1 to 2 per cent) 1,435 Bouteloua rothrockii (heads and crowns, about 50 per cent of each) 325 Bouteloua rothrockii (with small percentage of crowns) 315 Boerhaavia wrightii (with a few grass crowns) 150 Prosopis velutina 90 Solanum elaeagnifolium (3 fruits) Tr. ----- Total 2,315

Four species represented. Count of 100 grams of stored _Bouteloua_ crowns gives 1,700, or 17 crowns per gram. At this rate there were at least 27,000 crowns stored in this burrow. If a density of 250 plants to the square yard be assumed (a high estimate) these crowns represent the total _B. rothrockii_ on 104 square yards of range surface. Further examination of the vicinity of this den showed that the surrounding area was not completely cleared, but was devoid of _B. rothrockii_, while still having _B. eriopoda_ with crowns undisturbed.

DEN 11.

April 9, 1919. In partially denuded land where good spring growth of _Eschscholtzia_ was in bloom at time of excavation. Stomach of _spectabilis_ killed in this burrow contained a mass of fresh but finely comminuted green material, probably poppy leaves, strongly colored with yellow from blossoms. No summer growth here in 1918.

Species stored. Grams.

Bouteloua rothrockii (crowns) (miscellaneous chaff, etc.) 107 Eschscholtzia mexicana (buds and flowers) } Anisolotus trispermus (leaves and pods) } Gaertneria tenuifolia (leaves) } 10 Lupinus sparsiflorus (flowers) } Solanum elaeagnifolium (2 fruits) Tr. --- Total 117

Six species represented, some only by leaves or flowers and not by seeds. _Such storage is never in large quantity._ The fresh storage material was weighed after becoming air dry. This illustrates a late spring condition, storage running low.

DEN 14.

August 8, 1919. Excellent summer growth all over range. This burrow in mixed growth, grasses and weeds.

Species stored. Grams.

Miscellaneous portions of _green plants_ of mixed species,
_no seeds_ 5

Representing minimum for any one of the 22 burrows studied. Active storage does not begin until September.

DEN 16.

October 17, 1919. In good grass, but mound overrun by a large _Apodanthera_ vine.

Species stored. Per cent. Grams.

Aristida divaricata 90 to 95 } Chamaecrista leptadenia 10 to 5 } 58 Bouteloua rothrockii Tr. } Prosopis velutina 200 Apodanthera undulata 55 --- Total 313

Five species represented. Two species, _Apodanthera_, and _Chamaecrista leptadenia_, new to storage records. Several whole fruits of _Apodanthera_, about 2 inches in diameter, stored in addition to seeds alone; seeds of this form not previously noted in burrows, but very abundant in this one, indicating importance of the factor of accessibility in storage.

DEN 19.

October 31, November 1, 1919. In good grass. Entire burrow system mapped (Fig. 2, p. 29).

Species stored. Per cent. Grams.

Aristida spp. (probably mostly _divaricata_) 98 } Eriogonum sp Tr. } Bouteloua rothrockii 1 } 1,813 Bouteloua aristidoides 1 } Panicum sp Tr. } Prosopis velutina 1,213 ----- Total 3,026

Five species represented, in addition to those of _Aristida_. Largest storage of _Prosopis_ found. Mound was near a good-sized mesquite tree. No storage in subsidiary burrows.

DEN 21.

January 31, 1920. Male trapped here night of January 29, and suckling female trapped at same place and same opening of mound, night of January 30. Burrow excavated to secure young, which were found in special nest chamber.

Species stored. Grams.

Aristida spp. (intimate mixture of undetermined species) 1,115 Eschscholtzia mexicana (from spring of 1919) 48 Opuntia (prickly pear, seeds only, no fruits) 10 ----- Total 1,173

Three species represented. Prickly pear hitherto found as fruits only.

DEN 22.

January 1, 1921. Rather good grass growth here in summer of 1920. Burrow typical, sandy soil. Two skulls of former residents unearthed.

Species stored. Grams.

Aplopappus gracilis (some B. rothrockii) 1,030 Astragalus nuttallianus 630 Bouteloua rothrockii (some A. gracilis) 530 Sida diffusa 30 Solanum elaeagnifolium (282 fruits) 53 Loeflingia pusilla Tr. Bouteloua aristidoides Tr. Plantago ignota Tr. Lupinus sparsiflorus Tr. Old storage (mostly Bouteloua aristidoides with traces of B. rothrockii and Aristida divaricata) 60 ----- Total 2,333

Eleven species represented. First instance of quantity storage of _Aplopappus gracilis_. First occurrence of _Loeflingia pusilla_ and _Astragalus nuttallianus_.

DEN 24.

November 8, 1921. On mesa northeast of Albuquerque, N. Mex., near base of Sandia Mountains. Fair grass growth here during preceding summer.

Species stored. Grams.

Sporobolus cryptandrus strictus 5,455
Salsola pestifer 295
-----
Total 5,750

Two species represented. The heads of _Sporobolus cryptandrus strictus_ are retained to a great extent within the leaf sheaths. This necessitates the cutting of the stems into suitable lengths for carrying, and the stored material appears to be merely cut sections of the stems. Close examination, however, discloses the heads within, and shows that as in other instances seed storage is the end sought. These pieces are packed beautifully parallel like so many matches, and vary from a minimum length of 20 to a maximum of 37 millimeters, averaging about 30. Count of 2 grams of the above _Sporobolus_ material shows that there are 125 separate cut sections per gram, or a total of approximately 680,000 pieces in this one lot of storage, indicating a remarkable activity on the part of the individual rat (Pl. VIII, Fig. 1).

Vertical section through Den No. 1, of Table 1 (p. 20), showing the complex system of burrows, some of them plugged with closely packed storage (outlined in white), the depth of the den, and the widened chambers centrally located.]

Storage content of Den No. 1 (Fig. 1, above), showing the separate species of plants listed in Table 1. The rod is 1 meter long. The large pile on the left is composed of seed-laden heads of crowfoot grama (_Bouteloua rothrockii_), the large pile on the right consists of heads of six-weeks grama (_Bouteloua aristidoides_), the pile of heads in the center is desert plantain (_Plantago ignota_), and the smallest heap is composed of buckwheat-bush seeds (_Eriogonum polycladon_).]

The number of lots of storage (24) studied in detail, extending as it does over a period of three years with seasons of varying growth conditions, is not sufficient to permit the construction of a curve showing increase and decrease in quantity of stored material with growing seasons and intervals between; but the results indicate a very decided increase during the autumn storing season, and continuing large well into the winter, since some outside material can still be obtained until midwinter. From about February to April a decrease may be noted, followed, if the spring growth of annuals be good, by a slight increase; and we can very nearly predict the general character of the increases and decreases by the precipitation and consequent growth conditions.

TABLE 2.--_Quantity of storage per den correlated with time of year and growth conditions of preceding season (chiefly from United States Range Reserve near the Santa Rita Mountains, Ariz.)._

------------+-----------+-----------+----------- | | | Den No. | Date. | Quantity. | Preceding | | | season. | | | ------------+-----------+-----------+----------- | 1918. | _Grams._ | | | | 1 | Feb. 7 | 4,127 | Good. 2 | Mar. 9 | 3,615 | Do. 3 | July 25 | 401 | Poor. 4 | Sept. 20 | 734 | Do. 5 | Sept. 21 | 2,520 | Do. 6 | Oct. 17 | 2,315 | Do. 7 | Dec. 20 | 1,247 | Do. | | | | 1919. | | | | | 8 | Feb. 7 | 1,600 | Do. 9 | Mar. 13 | 370 | Do. 10 | Apr. 7 | 180 | Do.[3] 11 | Apr. 9 | 117 | Good.[3] 12 | May 7 | 298 | Do.[3] 13 | May 11 | 1,590 | Do. 14 | Aug. 8 | 5 | Good. 15 | Sept. 4 | 151 | Do. 16 | Oct. 17 | 313 | Do. 17 | Oct. 18 | 583 | Do. 18 | Oct. 25 | 3,410 | Do. 19 | Nov. 1 | 3,026 | Do. 20 | Dec. 13 | 2,816 | Do. | | | | 1920. | | | | | 21 | Jan. 31 | 1,173 | Do. | | | | 1921. | | | | | 22 | Jan. 1 | 2,333 | Fair. 23[4] | Nov. 7 | 1,685 | Good. 24[4] | Nov. 8 | 5,750 | Do. | | | ------------+-----------+-----------+-----------

[Footnote 3: Changing from poor summer season of 1918 to excellent
spring growth of 1919.]

[Footnote 4: From near the Sandia Mountains, N. Mex.; others from
United States Range Reserve, near the Santa Rita Mountains, Ariz.]

In presenting Table 2, showing quantity of storage per burrow correlated with the time of year and the character of the preceding growing season, the fact may be emphasized that the growing seasons in southern Arizona are two in number--early spring and midsummer. The spring season is the less important, the plants consisting chiefly of a variety of small annuals, while the important range grasses make their chief growth and head out almost exclusively in the July-August rainy season. It may be noted also that the actual increases in storage appear somewhat after the growth period proper, since storing does not get well under way until the seed crop is mature. The banner-tailed kangaroo rat shows a marked adaptability to different foods available in the neighborhood of its burrows. It must, perforce, adapt itself and its storage program to the food that it can get, and this varies enormously with the climatic conditions of successive seasons. The large numbers present in suitable localities clearly indicate that the animal is successful in meeting the changing and sometimes extremely adverse conditions of its environment.

Storage content of Den No. 24, of Table 1, from Sandia Mountains, N. Mex. This is the largest lot of storage taken in the course of the investigations. The larger pile consists wholly of a valuable grass, _Sporobolus cryptandrus strictus_: the smaller of Russian thistle (_Salsola pestifer._)]

The same mound as shown in Plate III, Figure 1, after three years of protection, the rodents having been killed out. Nearly as good grass recovery following poisoning operations occurred in the single excellent season of 1921.]

At times, more especially in the seasons of active growth, some of the green and succulent portions of plants are eaten. This was very noticeable in the spring of 1919, when a most luxuriant growth of Mexican poppy (_Eschscholtzia mexicana_) occurred. Stomachs at this time were filled with the yellow and green mixture undoubtedly produced by the grinding up of the buds and flowers of this plant. Small caches of about a tablespoonful of these buds were also found in the burrows at this time. Occasionally in spring one may find a few green leaves of various plants, _Gaertneria_ very commonly, tucked away in small pockets along the underground tunnels, indicating that such materials are used to some extent. As has been shown in detail, however (Table 1), the chief storage, and undoubtedly the chief food, consists of air-dry seeds.

The character of the storage, the absence of rain for months at a time in some years, and the consequent failure of green succulents show that without doubt _spectabilis_ possesses remarkable power, as to its water requirements, of existing largely if not wholly upon the water derived from air-dry starchy foods, i.e., metabolic water serves it in lieu of drink (Nelson, 1918, 400), this being formed in considerable quantities by oxidation of carbohydrates and fats (Babcock, 1912, 159, 170). During the long dry periods characteristic of southern Arizona, no evidence that the animal seeks a supply of succulent food, as cactus, is found; and if it may go for two, three, or six months without water or succulent food, it is reasonable to suppose that it may do so indefinitely. In the laboratory _spectabilis_ ordinarily does not drink, but rather shows a dislike for getting its nose wet. During the periods of drought the attacks upon the cactuses by other rodents of the same region, as _Lepus_, _Sylvilagus_, _Neotoma_, and _Ammospermophilus_, become increasingly evident. The list of plant species thus far found represented in the storage materials of _spectabilis_ on the Range Reserve is shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3.--_List of all plant species found in 22 dens of _Dipodomys spectabilis_ on the United States Range Reserve, near the Santa Rita Mountains, Ariz., with approximate total weights._

GRASSES. Grams. Aristida bromoides (six-weeks needlegrass) 536 Aristida divaricata (Humboldt needlegrass) 9,412 Aristida scabra (rough needlegrass) 344 Bouteloua aristidoides (six-weeks grama) 3,093 Bouteloua radicosa (grama) 1,269 Bouteloua eriopoda (black grama) Tr. Bouteloua rothrockii (seeds, 8,495; crowns, 3,517 grams) (crowfoot grama) 12,012 Festuca octoflora (fescue grass) 70 Panicum arizonicum (Arizona panic-grass) 11 Panicum hallii (Hall panic-grass) Tr. Pappaphorum wrightii Tr. Tridens pulchella Tr. Valota saccharata Tr.

OTHER PLANTS.

Alternanthera repens Tr. Anisolotus trispermus (bird's-foot trefoil) 186 Aplopappus gracilis 1,030 Apodanthera undulata (melon loco) 55 Astragalus nuttallianus (milk vetch) 630 Ayenia microphylla Tr. Boerhaavia wrightii 885 Chamaecrista leptadenia (partridge pea) 5 Echinocactus wislizeni (visnaga) 5 Eriogonum polycladon 35 Eschscholtzia mexicana (Mexican poppy) 250 Gaertneria tenuifolia (franseria) Tr. Collomia gracilis (false gilia) Tr. Heterotheca subaxillaris Tr. Kallstroemia laetevirens Tr. Lupinus sparsiflorus (lupine) Tr. Martynia altheaefolia (small devil's-horns) 12 Mollugo verticillata (carpetweed) 324 Oenothera primiverus (evening primrose) 15 Opuntia discata (prickly pear) 15 Loeflingia pusilla Tr. Lepidium lasiocarpum (peppergrass) Tr. Plantago ignota (plantain) 818 Polygala puberula (milkwort) Tr. Portulaca suffrutescens (purslane) Tr. Prosopis velutina (mesquite) 1,570 Sida diffusa (spreading sida) 30 Solanum elaeagnifolium (742 fruits) (trompillo, prickly solanum) 156 Puffballs and fleshy fungi (undetermined) 12

Total species, exclusive of fungi, 41.

It will be seen from Table 3 that while a large number of species of plants are represented in the totals from so many dens, a majority of them are of very minor importance, and that the seeds of grasses are the principal storage and probably therefore the principal food material. Six of the most important species of grasses (disregarding species furnishing less than 5 grams) comprise 85.6 per cent of the total weight of storage from 22 dens. Crowfoot grama (_Bouteloua rothrockii_) stands first in quantity in the total, forming 39.4 per cent of all stored material, 46 per cent of the six important grasses, and 45 per cent of all grasses. The largest amount of storage of any one species of grass in any one den on the Range Reserve also is of this species, 2,205 grams[5] (Table 1, den 1, p. 20, and Pl. VII, Fig. 2). This is exceeded by a dropseed grass, _Sporobolus cryptandrus strictus_, which amounted to 5,455 grams in a lot from Albuquerque, N. Mex. (Table 1, den 24, and Pl. VIII, Fig. 1).

[Footnote 5: This amount of dry grama grass seed (heads) amounts to
approximately a bushel.]

Of the species other than grasses found stored in these dens, mesquite beans (_Prosopis velutina_) are most important both by weight and number of dens containing them. The total for the 22 Range Reserve dens is 1,570 grams, or 35.9 per cent of the seeds other than grasses, but only 5.1 per cent of the total storage. In bulk mesquite beans do not loom up large, as they are probably the heaviest material stored. Sections of pods which must have been dragged into the burrows are found, some of them certainly being much too long for carriage in the pouches. The species of plant other than grass found in the largest quantity in any one den, however, was _Aplopappus gracilis_, not recorded in quantity from any den until the excavation of the twenty-second, and then found in a very large bulk of soft, fluffy material, with most of the seeds separated from the heads, and weighing 1,030 grams (Table 1, den 22).

Any of the food materials above listed are likely to be found in the cheek pouches, while in addition such extraneous matter as stones and feces have also been found. All species of plants stored are accessible in the immediate vicinity of the mound, and when any particular plant is found seeding in abundance in the vicinity of the den it is likely to be represented in the storage. Usually the animals can be readily trapped with almost any kind of grain bait, as oats, rolled oats, rolled barley, and wheat; and nut meats also are attractive, though we have no record of the storing of any true nut in the dens, such not being available in the range of the animal on the Range Reserve.

The following plants not represented in the list stored by the kangaroo rat on the Range Reserve have been found in the cheek pouches or mounds of _spectabilis_ in other localities:

_Amaranthus palmeri_, _Sesuvium portulacastrum_, and _Atriplex
wrightii_ (alluvial soil of Santa Cruz Valley, Continental, Ariz.,
Bailey).

Cut leaves and stems of a small sagebrush (Franklin Mountains,
Tex., Gaut).

_Gutierrezia_ heads (San Juan Valley, N. Mex., Birdseye).

_Verbesina enceliodes_, _Portulaca oleracea_, _Bouteloua gracilis_,
and _Munroa squarrosa_ (Rio Alamosa, N. Mex., Goldman).

Tops of buds of _Artemisia filifolia_ (Mesa Jumanes, N. Mex.,
Gaut).

Tumbleweed (_Amaranthus graecizans_), Russian thistle (_Salsola
pestifer_), _Munroa squarrosa_, and _Sporobolus cryptandrus
strictus_ (Sandia Mountains, Albuquerque, N. Mex., Vorhies).

BURROW SYSTEMS, OR DENS.

The burrow system, or den, in which _spectabilis_ stores its caches of food materials, has its nest, and remains throughout the hours of daylight is a complicated labyrinth of tunnels. Ejection of refuse and soil from this retreat builds up the mound frequently referred to. These mounds are, as Bailey says, characteristic of the species, and are as unmistakable as muskrat houses or beaver dams, and as carefully planned and built for as definite a purpose--home and shelter. They are, furthermore, the most notable of all kangaroo rat dwelling places (Nelson, 1918, 400). They range in height from 6 inches to approximately 4 feet and from 5 to 15 feet in diameter.

The mound is built up not only through the cleaning out of chaff and other food refuse, but through extension and modification of the tunnels; old tunnels, entrances, and caches of musty food material are from time to time closed up and others excavated, repair and rebuilding being especially necessary after the collapse of portions of the den as a result of heavy rains or trampling by cattle. Ejected material is most commonly simply thrown out fan-wise from the openings, without much apparent effort to add to the height of the mound.

There are usually from 6 to 12 entrance holes in each mound opening into the subterranean burrow system, each hole from 4 to 5-1/2 inches in diameter. These holes are nearly all situated a little above the surface of the surrounding soil, and as Price has suggested (in Allen, 1895, 213), this is doubtless a wise provision against flooding, as torrential rains sometimes occur in the kangaroo rat country.

Both Bailey and Nelson state that as a rule several of the holes are closed with sand or miscellaneous earth and old storage material during the daytime, but our observations on the Range Reserve are that such closing is only occasional. Many occupied dens have not a single opening closed. Further, night observations disclose that the inhabitant of the mound will appear from some one of the two or three most-used openings when night falls, and not necessarily from one which has been closed by day. Recently an opening closed one day was observed in use during the night, but was left open all the next day.

In attempting to determine whether there exist similarities of plan or system in the dens, it was considered advisable to map them with some degree of accuracy. This we were enabled to do by laying off a square about a given mound, 2-1/2 or 3 meters each way, and subdividing it into a series of small squares of half a meter on each side by drawing cross-lines on the surface of the ground over the top of the mound. One person then did the digging and exploring of the tunnels, as to direction and depth, while the other noted the results on coordinate paper (Figs. 2 and 3); the proper excavation and mapping of one of these workings occupied from four to eight hours for the two.

While there is greater complexity in the larger, and probably older, mounds than in the smaller, all are extremely complicated and can only be described as labyrinthine in character. The tunnels wind about through the mound, rising and falling in vertical depth, intercommunicating frequently, but with occasional cul-de-sacs, and in places expanding into chambers, of which there may be three or four large ones. The stored materials are found in some, but not necessarily all, of these chambers, and may also occupy considerable lengths of ordinary tunnel, especially when the quantity present is large. Small evaginations of the tunnels frequently contain lesser caches, and it is in such pockets that bits of fresh material are placed during a growing season, or that grain supplied the previous night for bait is usually found.

The main masses of storage are most often found centrally located at depths of from 15 to 57 centimeters, although at times one may find a cache near the periphery of the system and as near the surface as 2 or 3 centimeters. In the latter case the materials are subject to wetting from rains, and consequent spoilage.

The major portion of the whole tunnel system is within about 50 centimeters of the surface of the mound, but usually some one branch tunnel goes to somewhat greater depth, and this is likely to be the one containing the nest; this is also likely to extend toward or beyond the periphery of the main system, and always ends blindly. Such a one, from which two young were taken on January 31, 1920, was at a depth of about 65 centimeters, and about 1-1/2 meters beyond the periphery of the mound itself.

The individual tunnels average about 8 centimeters in height, and about 11 centimeters in width, though the variation, especially in width, is considerable. The expansions mentioned as being the chief places of storage are from 15 to 25 centimeters in diameter, and may or may not involve a considerable increase in height. They are frequently located at junction points of two or more branches of the tunnel system.

The nest cavity is a chamber of approximately spherical shape and from 17 to 23 centimeters in diameter. Chambers of this character were observed and noted as "old storage" in a number of cases. They were sometimes cut off from the rest of the habitation, and at first were supposed to contain abandoned musty storage. As experience in excavating and interpreting results has been gained we have concluded that these chambers in fact represent abandoned nests.

Bailey gives the dimensions of nest chambers observed in New Mexico as about 6 by 8 inches to 8 by 10 inches. The nest is composed of finer, softer, and more chaffy material than the regular storage. The chaff refuse from the food probably contributes largely to it, though some leaves of grasses not stored for food may also be found, and a nest, especially the one in use, may be distinguished, if excavating is carefully done, by the distinct cavity about the size of a fist in its interior (Pl. IX, Fig. 1). One may sometimes find this cavity distinctly warm from the recent presence of the inhabitant.

The walls or partitions between the chambers and tunnels are in places surprisingly thin, and it is no wonder that one is almost certain to break through in stepping on a mound, since the whole is a honeycomblike structure of from two to four stories in vertical plan, as shown by the transect of a mound in Plate VII, Figure 1. As Bailey writes, these partition walls are a mixture of earth and old food and nest material discarded years ago, resembling the adobe walls of the Mexican houses built of chopped earth and straw. This is the result of the continual ejection of refuse and earth as before mentioned, combined with the caving action of rains and disturbances from larger animals.

Apparently there are no special pockets for deposit of feces in _Dipodomys_ burrows; such matter may be found throughout the den, and is more or less mixed with the food refuse which carpets practically the entire tunnel system. The nest and food stores are, however, clean and neat, the droppings being dry and, though present on the floor of a storage chamber, not actually mingled with the food. Evidently the animal does not clean up the floor litter before storing food material.

The entire system for any one den seems to consist not only of the burrows within the mound itself, as described, but of those small outlying ones which we have referred to as subsidiary burrows. These are two to four in number, and are connected with the main mound by the runways already mentioned. They often seem to be way stations on the runways connecting main mounds, and there is seldom any mound of earth whatever in connection with them. One entire den system, the home mound and three subsidiaries, was mapped after being excavated (Fig. 3), all having been carefully gassed with carbon bisulphide. The subsidiaries were simple and contained no storage. Two of them were shallow, while in the third a depth of 48 centimeters was reached. They appear to be merely places of refuge, though the well-worn trails connecting them with the main mound indicate regular use. These runways are conspicuous on the Range Reserve, and are apparently characteristic of mounds throughout the range of the animal. Dwellers in different mounds must have rather extensive social contacts, notwithstanding the enmity of individuals toward each other in captivity. The main mound, in this instance very complicated, was in one place three stories high, and we have found as many as four utilized stories; but as a rule there are two or three only.

Since collapses are rather frequent during rainy seasons, aside from the trampling previously referred to, the kangaroo rats, where abundant, as on the Range Reserve, may well be a factor in increasing soil porosity and fertility; for in the course of time they probably have succeeded in plowing and cultivating the whole surface layer of the soil. They may thus be a factor in ecologic succession, tending to improve the character of the soil and adapt it to another stage.

Doubtless their own workings afford the only shelter the animals know. In the course of our digging in one mound, the occupant, an adult male, did not forsake the den until the excavation was three-fourths completed; and even then it did not leave by a burrow leading away from our operations, but came toward us, escaped the active efforts of four individuals bent on its capture, and ran speedily along a used runway toward another burrow several meters distant. A sack had been stuffed in the mouth of this, however, and, baffled, the rat then returned to the original burrow and was captured. Observations on other rats thus driven from the home mound indicate that they are very familiar with the runways of the vicinity of the mound and the various subsidiary burrows, and it is a question whether they need to see clearly to follow these runs. Apparently they never attempt to escape by forsaking their well-traveled runways. Tests of the maze-running ability of these animals by animal-behavior experts would be of extraordinary interest, in view of the character of the homes which they always inhabit and the network of runs on the outside.

Nest and the two young, the ordinary number in the litter, of _Dipodomys s. spectabilis_, taken from den on January 31, 1920.]

The same young as shown in Figure 1, above. They were probably about two weeks old, the pelage being short but with the white markings of the adult; the tails are relatively short and with scarcely any hair.]

COMMENSALS AND ENEMIES.

COMMENSALS.

It is doubtful whether any animals live in a truly commensal relationship with _spectabilis_, but of not unfriendly associates there are a great number. It is the experience of Bailey, corroborated by observations of Vorhies on living animals, that these kangaroo rats are active in defending their caches of food, and will even fight individuals of the same species savagely and to the death. One moonlight night a strange individual was liberated on a mound. It deliberately entered one of the openings, but after about two minutes' time made an exceedingly rapid exit, running rapidly out of sight as if pursued, though the owner of the home did not appear outside of the burrow. There can be little doubt that the stranger was precipitately ejected by the owner. We suspect, though this is a point difficult to prove satisfactorily, that _merriami_ does not always store food supplies for itself, but visits the burrows of _spectabilis_ regularly to pilfer the seed stored therein. The observed facts thus far recorded which suggest this are that in no _merriami_ burrow examined has a store of food been found, and also that in trapping for _spectabilis_ on its own characteristic mounds one catches a large percentage of _merriami_.

On two separate occasions Vorhies has observed the smaller species running over the mounds of the larger, actually carrying away the grain which had been placed to entice the larger when it might appear. (In these cases the larger species did not put in an appearance until near morning.) Furthermore, the dens of _merriami_ are often connected by distinct runways with those of _spectabilis_, indicating much traveling or visiting. That this is probably not friendly visiting is suggested by the certainty with which an individual of the larger species will strike and kill one of the smaller when they are placed together in the same inclosure. The word "thief" expresses this suspected relationship better than would the term "parasite."

It is not to be expected that such obvious shelter retreats as the mounds of _spectabilis_ should fail to attract the attention of other animals. We have found a small gecko (_Coleonyx variegatus_), scorpions of two or three undetermined species, and certain insects (of the Order Orthoptera) to be very common inhabitants of the dens. With the exception of the parasitic insects the most common are wingless locustids (_Ceuthophilus_ spp.) and the peculiar wingless females of a species of cockroach (_Arenivaga erratica_). These two are seldom absent when a burrow is excavated, the female cockroaches being abundant, although the winged males have never been taken in the burrows.

Cary's observations at Monahans, Tex., and those of others at numerous localities, combined with our own, show that at various times the dens furnish protection and shelter for various species of cottontail rabbits (_Sylvilagus_), ground squirrels (_Citellus_ and _Ammospermophilus_), wood rats (_Neotoma_), grasshopper mice (_Onychomys_), rattlesnakes (_Crotalus_), and most of the common lizards. Of these the ground squirrels _Citellus tereticaudus_ and _Ammospermophilus harrisii_ are most often noted on the Range Reserve using the dens as a retreat, the _Ammospermophilus_ seldom being observed to enter any other kind of burrow. It should be added that the total observations include dens which have been deserted by their rightful owners.

NATURAL CHECKS.

The enemies of the kangaroo rat are not determined in detail, or as to relative importance, but the badger (_Taxidea taxus berlandieri_) and the kit fox, or swift (_Vulpes macrotis neomexicana_), may well be foremost. Dens which have been deeply excavated by badgers are frequently seen, and sometimes two or three badger tunnels penetrate one burrow system. Dens thus despoiled are probably soon reoccupied even if the original owner is captured, and in the course of a few months the reworking of the abode obliterates the signs of destruction.

Droppings of the kit fox show an abundance of bones of small mammals of kangaroo rat size, among them those of _spectabilis_.

Bobcats (_Lynx baileyi_) and coyotes (_Canis mearnsi_) probably are a prejudicial factor. Skunks may sometimes be able to surprise the kangaroo rats, but probably not often. The western horned owl (_Bubo virginianus pallescens_), the barn owl (_Tyto alba pratincola_), and perhaps others may well be among the most feared enemies, but no special investigation of owl pellets on the reserve has been possible. In 592 barn-owl pellets from California were found remains of 230 kangaroo rats, only one other rodent being represented by a larger number (McAtee, 1921, 258).

Much more information on enemies is needed. The relatively low rate of reproduction (see p. 18) indicates comparative freedom from inimical factors.

PARASITES.

_Dipodomys s. spectabilis_ is regularly infested with a species of flea, _Ctenophthalmus_ sp. Seldom or never is a specimen taken in reasonably fresh condition without some of these parasites present on its body, though of course they desert the body of the host after it becomes cold, and hence dead specimens left too long may be free from them. The den conditions are ideal for the breeding of this parasite, because of the great quantities of fine, dusty, organic refuse littering the tunnels and furnishing food and refuge for the larvæ. As demonstrated to us by F. C. Bishopp, of the Bureau of Entomology, a handful of this refuse taken from the floor of a burrow within arm's length of the entrance is almost certain to contain these larvæ.

Less regularly present, perhaps because of its different life history, is a small tick, _Trombicula_ sp. At times this parasite is very common, being present on nearly every individual rat, and at other times specimens are difficult to find; it appears to be more commonly present in summer and fall than at other seasons, and is found attached chiefly to the ears.

No internal parasites have been detected. The nocturnal and fossorial habits of the animal seem to give complete protection against a form of parasite which is very common among some other rodents of the Range Reserve, notably _Lepus_ and _Sylvilagus_. Nearly all rabbits are infested with "warbles," the larvæ of a species of bot-fly, _Cuterebra_ (family Oestridae). Other small mammals also are occasionally parasitized by the _Cuterebra_, but in the handling and examination of perhaps 200 or more individuals of _spectabilis_ and _merriami_, we have yet to find a single case of infestation by an oestrid fly.

ABUNDANCE.

One's first impression of a well-occupied _spectabilis_ area is that a large family must inhabit each den, but, as previously mentioned, we have gradually been compelled to shift from this conception to the idea of but a single animal to a mound, except when the young are present. Therefore a census of the adult kangaroo rat population can readily be made, simply by counting the mounds. Such a census affords at least a conservative estimate of the number of adult individuals occupying a given area.

The first estimates of abundance on the Range Reserve were from actual counts of dens on areas measured off for experimental fencing, and gave the figure of about two mounds to the acre. From time to time rough estimates were made on different portions of the pastures, and these checked well with the above. Later still, a careful count showed 300 mounds on approximately 160 acres (see p. 8), or 1.87 mounds per acre. Nine areas of 2 acres each, representing different environmental conditions, were later selected in different portions of the Range Reserve, and the dens accurately counted. The number of dens per 2 acres varied from none to a maximum infestation of 12, neither extreme occurring over large areas. The total number of dens was found to be 43 on the 18 acres, or an average of 2.38 dens per acre.

From all these estimates it may fairly be concluded that two mounds, or two animals, per acre is a conservative estimate for the infestation of the entire Range Reserve, with the possible exception of small areas at its upper edges, where the altitude limit of _spectabilis_ is passed. It is, however, impossible to estimate the area of the State infested with kangaroo rats, for some large stretches of fine grassland show no kangaroo rats whatever, while others have more than are present on the reserve; and we have no estimates of the extent of either type.

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS.

In May, 1894, Fisher found a ranchman at Willcox, Ariz., who complained more bitterly of the depredations of _spectabilis_ than of those of any other mammal.

On the United States Range Reserve the food material appropriated by the kangaroo rat during good years is inappreciable. There is such an excess of forage grass produced that all the rodents together make very little difference. But with the periodic recurrence of lean years, when drought conditions are such that little or no grass grows, the effects of rodent damage not only become apparent, but may be a critical factor determining whether a given number of domestic animals can be grazed on the area (Pl. VIII, Fig. 2).

With two kangaroo rats to the acre (1,280 per square mile), there would be 64,000 animals on the 50 square miles of the Range Reserve. If each rat stores 4 pounds of grass seeds and crowns and other edible forage during the season (and in severe seasons we find that more crowns are stored than under ordinary conditions), a total of 256,000 pounds, or 128 tons, of edible forage are rendered unavailable to stock. In dry years it is probable that this amount of forage would be of critical importance. Allowing 50 pounds of food a day for each steer, the forage destroyed would be sufficient to provide for the needs of one steer for 5,120 days, or for the needs of 14 steers for one year. On a stock ranch the size of the Range Reserve this might mean the difference between success and failure.

It seems not unlikely, therefore, that during seasons of drought the banner-tailed kangaroo rat, where it is abundant on the grazing ranges of the Southwest, may be a factor of critical importance in relation to forage production and carrying capacity. It must be remembered, moreover, that the stored material consists largely of seeds, so that this loss is of greater importance than would be the case were it ordinary forage. Some of the range grasses of this region found in greatest quantity in the stored material depend in large part, under certain conditions, upon seed reproduction. Rehabilitation of a depleted range after severe drought and consequent close grazing and trampling is retarded by the heavy toll of seed taken by the kangaroo rats.

CONTROL.

Kangaroo rats may be easily eradicated by the use of the poisoned grain used for prairie-dog control by the Biological Survey and the University of Arizona Extension Service. This can be obtained by application to the State representative of the Biological Survey or to the local county agricultural agent, or may be mixed as follows:

_Formula for poisoned bait._--Dissolve 1 ounce of strychnine
sulphate in 1-1/2 pints of boiling water. Add 1 heaping
tablespoonful of gloss starch, previously mixed with a little cold
water, and boil until a clear paste is formed. Add 1 ounce of
baking soda and stir to a creamy mass. Add 1/2 ounce of glycerine
and 1/4 pint of corn sirup and stir thoroughly. Pour over 16 quarts
of rolled barley and mix well until every grain is evenly coated.
Allow to dry before using.

In bushel quantities use as above directed, 2 ounces of strychnine,
2 ounces of soda, 1 ounce of glycerin, 1-1/4 ounces of starch,
1-1/2 quarts of boiling water, and 5/8 pint of corn sirup.

Scatter poison, when the natural food of the kangaroo rat is
scarce, on clean hard places near the holes, 1 quart to 50 holes.

If powdered strychnine alkaloid is used, prepare the hot starch
paste first. Then sift strychnine and baking soda, previously
thoroughly mixed, into the hot starch paste and stir to a creamy
mass. Proceed as in the above directions with sirup, glycerin,
etc.

Use this poison within five days after mixing or retain in
air-tight containers.

_Caution._--All poison containers and all utensils used in the
preparation of poison should be kept _plainly labeled_ and _out of
reach of children_, irresponsible persons, and live stock.

A spoonful of the poisoned grain scattered about the used entrances
of a mound is sufficient, and prebaiting is not necessary, as with
prairie dogs.

A word of caution should perhaps be offered in connection with control measures. As man has come to occupy a greater portion of the earth's surface, and as he has become more and more the master of his environment, he has inevitably disturbed the relationships of the birds and mammals about him, has upset the balance of nature. If he kills the carnivorous species because of their depredations on game and live stock he must be prepared to cope with the increased hordes of rodents which feed on vegetation and on which the carnivorous animals act as a check. If he destroys the rodents, he may remove the checks on certain noxious plants or insects. One control measure often necessitates the adoption of another.

This is not to argue against control measures, for if our harmful species were not controlled, agriculture in many sections would be impossible. Control measures, however, should be scientifically founded and applied. The indiscriminate slaughter of supposedly harmful species of birds and mammals in the guise of benefiting agriculture may do far more harm than good. Many of the species which do some harm do far more good. The exact status of each suspected species should be carefully determined through an adequate scientific investigation. If the species is condemned, sound control measures should be thoroughly applied.

In grazing districts or in areas devoted to intensive agriculture the death sentence should probably be passed on the banner-tailed kangaroo rat. It should be recalled, however, that this is the largest and one of the handsomest of all its family, and that it is one of the most characteristic and interesting of all the desert fauna; where extensive grazing or agricultural operations are not undertaken, therefore, we feel that the kangaroo rat should be let alone, unless its presence threatens infestation of valuable agricultural or grazing lands.

SUMMARY.

(1) Kangaroo rats may be separated with ease from all other mammals; the long tail and short and weak fore feet separate them from the pocket gophers; the white hip-stripe distinguishes them from the pocket mice. The decidedly larger size and the white-tipped tail separate _Dipodomys spectabilis spectabilis_ and _D. deserti_ from _D._ _merriami_ and _D. ordii_. The darker color and vividly contrasted black-and-white tail of _spectabilis_ distinguish it from _deserti_.

(2) _Dipodomys s. spectabilis_ occurs in the open arid country of portions of the Lower and Upper Sonoran Zones of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Sonora, and Chihuahua. It lives in harder soil than does _deserti_, and builds more conspicuous mounds.

(3) There is no evidence of intergradation or hybridization between _spectabilis_ and _deserti_.

(4) _Dipodomys s. spectabilis_ is nocturnal; it is gentle, and does not offer to bite when taken in the hand; is silent for the most part; active; somewhat sociable with its fellows, but fights in defense of its food stores; progresses chiefly by leaping; signals by a drumming or tapping on the ground with its hind feet.

(5) The breeding season of _spectabilis_ begins in January and continues into August. Whether more than one litter is raised in a single season is unknown. The number of young in each litter varies from 1 to 3, averaging 2.

(6) _Dipodomys s. spectabilis_ does not hibernate, but provides food stores, mostly seeds, for use during seasons when food would be otherwise unavailable. Storage in each den varies in quantity from 5 grams (about 1/6 ounce) to 5,750 grams (12.67 pounds). Materials stored include several important forage plants; for example, various species of _Bouteloua_ and _Aristida_, with _B. rothrockii_ (crowfoot grama) the most important. Accessibility and abundance of different plants have much to do with the kinds of storage found.

(7) The dens of _spectabilis_ are the most notable of all kangaroo rat dwelling places. They range from 6 inches to 4 feet in vertical height, and from 5 to 15 feet in diameter. Here the kangaroo rat has its home, shelter, and food-storage chambers. Within the den is found a tortuous network of burrows, with many storage and some nest chambers, the whole arranged so as to be two to four stories high.

(8) _Dipodomys s. spectabilis_ is not of great economic significance, except locally, in ordinary seasons. During periods of extreme drought it may be of critical importance on grazing areas from the standpoint of the carrying capacity of the range.

(9) Kangaroo rats are easy to poison by following the same formula as that used by the Biological Survey for destroying prairie dogs.

(10) In many places unsuited to extensive grazing or agriculture _spectabilis_ does no appreciable damage. It is one of the most interesting of all the rodents peculiar to our Southwestern deserts, and should not be molested except where it is destructive.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

ALLEN, J. A.

1895. On a collection of mammals from Arizona and Mexico, made by Mr. W. W. Price, with field notes by the collector. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 7, art. 6, pp. 193-258. 17 figs. in text.

BABCOCK, S. M.

1912. Metabolic water: Its production and rôle in vital phenomena. Research Bull. No. 22, Univ. Wisconsin Agr. Exp. Station, pp. 159 and 170, March.

BAILEY, V.

1905. Biological survey of Texas. North Amer. Fauna No. 25, Biol. Surv., U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 222, 16 pls., 24 figs. in text.

CLEMENTS, F. E.

1905. Research methods in ecology. Lincoln, Univ. Pub. Co., pp. xvii, 334, 85 figs. in text.

GRIFFITHS, D.

1910. A protected stock range in Arizona. Bull. No. 177, Bur. Plant Ind., U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 28, 6 pls., 1 fig. in text.

GRINNELL, JOSEPH.

1921. Revised list of the species in the genus _Dipodomys_. Journal of Mammalogy, vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 94-97, May 2.

MCATEE, W. L.

1921. Farm help from the birds. In Yearbook of the U. S. Dept. Agr. for 1920, pp. 253-270; unnumbered figs. in text.

MERRIAM, C. H.

1890. Description of three new kangaroo rats, with remarks on the identity of _Dipodomys ordii_ of Woodhouse. In North Amer. Fauna No. 4, Div. Ornith. and Mamm. (Biol. Surv.), U. S. Dept. Agr., 41-49.

NELSON, E. W.

1918. Smaller mammals of North America. Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. 33, No. 5, pp. 371-493; numerous unnumbered figs. and colored pls. in text.

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