Chapter IX: Machine Guns in the Armies of the World (1)

AMERICA (UNITED STATES)

GUN.--At present there are three machine guns in use in the United States, viz.:

(_a_) The Gatling.

(_b_) The Maxim Automatic.

(_c_) The Colt Automatic.

(_a_) _The Gatling._--Calibre ·3 in., and takes the service rifle bullet. It has 10 barrels, and is fed by a rotating cylinder. The gun is mounted on a shielded carriage with limber. The rate of fire is about 600 rounds per minute.

(_b_) _The Maxim Automatic._--This is similar to the one in use in our own service, and takes the ·3 in. U.S. service ammunition.

_Mounting._--For infantry and cavalry, a tripod mounting. For use in fortified works, a two-wheeled shielded carriage.

The transport is by means of pack-animals. A complete outfit consists of five packs, _e.g._ the gun and tripod form one pack, and the remaining four packs carry 1,500 rounds of ammunition and accessories for the gun, including water for filling the water-jacket.

For firing blank it is fitted with an attachment called the “drill and blank-fire attachment.”

(_c_) _The Colt Automatic._--Calibre ·3 in., and takes the service rifle bullet. The gun is fed by means of a cartridge belt, and fires 400 rounds a minute.

The weight is 40 lb., and the gun is mounted either on a tripod mounting or a wheeled carriage.

A “silencer” for the Maxim was tested in March, 1909, and the results compared with those obtained from the gun without the silencer. As regards accuracy of fire there was nothing to choose between the two. The silencer, however, reduced the noise to that of a ·22 in. long cartridge, and when used at night the flash was entirely obliterated.

ORGANISATION.--_Infantry._--One battalion in each regiment has a machine-gun platoon consisting of 1 sergeant, 2 corporals, and 18 privates, and 2 guns.

_Cavalry._--In a regiment of 3 squadrons, 1 squadron has a machine-gun platoon of 3 corporals and 18 privates.

AUSTRIA

GUN.--In 1907 after prolonged trial the Austrians definitely adopted the Schwarzlose. It is a very simple weapon and very reliable, firing 375 rounds per minute from a tripod mounting.

ORGANISATION.--A section of machine guns is attached to each regiment of cavalry and infantry; there are also mountain companies of machine guns.

With infantry the section consists of 2 guns; 10,000 rounds are carried per machine gun. The detachment consists of 14 men per gun, 7 for actually working the gun and 7 to lead the horses. There are 7 horses to each gun, of which 1 carries the gun and 500 rounds, 5 carry from 1,500 to 2,000 rounds each, and 1 carries the shields. There is also a spare horse. For hand transport one man carries 2 belts of 250 cartridges, another the gun and 1 belt, a third the mounting and 1 belt, a fourth 2 belts, a fifth the water-jacket, etc. The shields are left on the horse. It will be seen that when the machine gun is taken forward in this way it has ready for immediate use 1,500 rounds.

With cavalry the section consists of 4 guns without shields. On account of the great independence of cavalry, the machine guns have with them 15,000 rounds each, of which 5,000 are on pack-animals and 10,000 in wagons. These wagons usually march in rear of the column. The detachment, which is all mounted, consists of 9 men per gun with 4 pack-horses (1 for the gun and 3 for ammunition). Hand transport is provided for as with the infantry machine guns.

The mountain machine-gun company consists of 3 officers and 64 other ranks. There are 4 guns carried on pack-horses, with 2 pack-horses per gun for ammunition (4,000 rounds per gun).

TACTICAL (taken from a précis of the Austrian Regulations, 1908; published in _Streffleurs militärische Zeitschrift_, April, 1908).--(_a_) _With Infantry._--During the advance it is well to give some machine guns to the principal units of the covering force, for they add to their resisting power, and in the many phases of the preparatory fight they are sure to have opportunities of effecting surprise. The place for the section leader is then near the O.C. detachment. When the machine guns leave the column it is always advisable to detail a few cavalry to cover them.

To take up a position it is necessary to observe the following:

(1) To manœuvre out of sight of the enemy. This will often necessitate unloading and carrying forward the _matériel_ by hand.

(2) Not to keep the guns too close together, which may cause additional losses. The “position of observation” will play an important part in the machine-gun fight.

The narrow effective zone of the machine guns allows them to fire over the heads of other troops. Such fire will be advantageously employed when machine guns occupy high positions. But it is only allowed at ranges greater than 1,000 yards, and when the troops over whom they are firing are at least 400 yards from the guns. Under these circumstances the use of searching fire is forbidden.

Both in attack and defence it is necessary to remember that machine guns are not suitable for a continuous fight of long duration. If during the preparatory fight the machine guns have found opportunities of opening fire, they ought, when the general engagement has begun, to be withdrawn from the firing line and held ready to act again under certain circumstances of importance.

These circumstances are:

In attack: to act on the enemy’s flank to facilitate the infantry advance; to open fire on the decisive point, whether flank or front, from a dominating position, either over the heads of the infantry or by carrying the machine guns up into the firing line.

In defence: to reinforce threatened points; to stop enveloping movements; to repulse an assault; to take part in a counter-attack.

In most cases these tasks will necessitate the machine guns being at once carried into the firing line to fight side by side with the infantry.

(_b_) _With Cavalry._--The rôle of machine guns with cavalry is thus determined:

(1) To take part in dismounted action: if pushed forward, they allow the number of men dismounted to be limited; if kept in reserve or pushed against a flank, they facilitate the success of the frontal attack.

(2) To add considerably to the offensive and defensive power of patrols by replacing the battalions of chasseurs which used to be attached to the cavalry.

(3) Finally, to take part in the cavalry fight; for this they should be judiciously divided among the troops of the advanced guard, and should make use of their mobility. This will allow them to open fire from well-chosen positions before the moment of contact, and help to obtain the desired result.

The place for the machine-gun commander is near the General. If the machine guns have been well placed in the column, they will--thanks to their mobility, which is equal to that of any cavalry detachment--be able to make use of the considerable time required by a large force of cavalry to get into battle formation.

Whereas with infantry the surprise of the enemy is always effected by making use of the features of the ground, the best method for cavalry guns is to utilise their rapidity of motion and their resemblance to other cavalry units, for which at a distance they are easily mistaken.

The widest power of initiative is left to the commander for the grouping of his units in the fight. Very often he will only bring up near the firing line the horse carrying the gun and one carrying ammunition, in order to be able to escape rapidly. At other times all the horses will be brought up close under cover. At others the whole section will dash up to their position at full speed; the guns will be unloaded at once, and the horses will disappear to the rear. The one important thing is to open fire as a surprise.

To sum up: the Austrian Regulations only confirm the rules already laid down by very competent writers who have published works on the subject. They enunciate in a clear and concise form the principles which should govern the employment of machine guns in various circumstances, laying particular stress on the necessity for constant readiness for action in a position of observation.

In _Les Mitrailleuses à l’Etranger_ Lieutenant M. quotes certain Austrian officers who, writing before the publication of the Regulations of 1908, considered that the value of machine guns lay chiefly in their use as a reserve of fire. Lieut.-Colonel Berndt says: “In offence, as in defence, machine guns must be held back as a reserve of fire to be used at the moment when the rapid development of heavy fire is required.” Lieutenant Binder is of the same opinion, and also recommends their being used in the closest co-operation with the infantry. Lieutenant Hayeck-Liprandi, a cavalry officer, fully realises the importance of machine-guns, as relieving cavalry to a large degree of the necessity for dismounted action. He also advocates the attachment of machine-gun sections to regiments at the disposal of the regimental commanding officer.[61]

CHINA

GUN.--The Chinese have bought numbers of Maxims for attachment to their infantry. With cavalry they have adopted the Madsen.

Their organisation is at present in process of evolution, and no official views on their tactical employment have been published hitherto.

DENMARK

GUN.--In 1904 Major-General Madsen, the Danish War Minister, invented the Rekyl (recoil) machine gun. The gun weighs only 13½ lb., is not much longer than the service rifle, and in case of need can be served by one man. It has a rate of fire of 750 rounds per minute with a muzzle velocity of 2,350 ft. per second.

ORGANISATION.--Every Hussar Squadron in the Danish Army is to have a section of three guns attached. The gun is carried on a horse together with 300 rounds of ammunition, and with each gun there is a led horse with reserve ammunition.

TACTICS.--The gun detachment can easily and rapidly follow all the movements of the body of horse to which they are attached, even through woods. It is therefore argued that the possession of this weapon will do away with the necessity for dismounted cavalry action.

FRANCE

GUN.--France has adopted both the Puteaux and Hotchkiss patterns of machine gun without shields. With cavalry the question of mounting has not yet been definitely settled, but experiments have been carried out with wheeled carriages drawn by four horses. The infantry sections have been provided with a tripod mounting (70 lb.), which can be adjusted to two heights, either 1 ft. 6 in. or 2 ft. 6 in. above the ground.

ORGANISATION.--At present (1909) every brigade, both of cavalry and of infantry, has a two-gun section attached. It is intended to provide every regiment with a section as soon as possible.

With cavalry the detachment for each gun consists of 24 men, who are all mounted. The carriage carries 16,500 rounds of ammunition in addition to the gun.

The infantry section is commanded by a lieutenant, who has under him one N.C.O. and 23 men, armed with rifles. There are two gun horses, which each carry a gun, tripod, and one box of ammunition; and eight ammunition horses, which each carry seven boxes, three on each side and one on top. A box contains 150 rounds, so that each section has 8,700 rounds. The “Souchier” telemeter is carried.

TACTICAL.--The French Regulations are at present under consideration, and the tendency seems to be to follow the principles laid down by the Germans.

M. le Commandant Niessel, in his preface to _Les Mitrailleuses à l’Etranger_, by Lieutenant M., says: “There is one principle which should dominate the whole subject and never be lost to view. It is that machine guns are condensed infantry, and that therefore it is as infantry that they should be used in battle. Together with accuracy and power of fire, the characteristic which should especially distinguish infantry in battle is their utilisation of every feature of the ground. Machine guns, then, to exert to the full their powers of effecting surprise and developing great intensity of fire, should reach effective and, if possible, close range without being observed.

“Machine guns ought, then, in battle to be carried forward by hand by the detachment, in order to take up positions as much under cover as possible; this does not in any degree lessen their opportunities of offensive action, for there can be no hope of decisive success for the infantry whom they are supporting except in a vigorous offensive.”

GERMANY

GUN.--Germany has adopted the Maxim gun. The guns are mounted on sleighs which are themselves mounted on limbered gun-carriages, being clamped into grooves. They can either be fired from the carriage or be dismounted and fired from the sleigh. The gun on the sleigh can be adjusted to fire from a height of 1 ft. 6 in., 2 ft. 6 in. or 3 ft. 6 in. above the ground by a simple lattice-work arrangement. The gun can easily be dragged to almost any position where men can go, and can be fired by men lying down under cover.

ORGANISATION.--Machine guns have been organised into 16 batteries (called Sections), which are independent, and 216 companies, which are attached to infantry regiments.

The battery consists of six machine guns, drawn by four horses and divided into three sections (called Divisions). There are three ammunition wagons and one battery wagon (1st line). There are three 2nd-line wagons. The detachment consists of:

1 captain (in command); 3 lieutenants; 1 sergeant-major; 12 N.C.O.’s; 36 gunners; 28 drivers; 1 armourer; 1 trumpeter; 1 apothecary (dresser); 70 horses (20 saddle and 50 draught).

The men wear a special greyish-green uniform, and are armed with carbine and bayonet; the carbines are carried in the limbers. 87,300 rounds are carried with each battery.

Each company consists of six guns drawn by two horses, three wagons, and one cart. The detachment consists of:

1 lieutenant (in command); 3 second lieutenants; 9 N.C.O.’s; 74 men; 28 horses (7 saddle, 18 draught, and 3 spare).

All the officers and 3 warrant officers are mounted. The men are armed with automatic pistols. 72,000 rounds are carried with each company, as follows:

With the guns 18,000
With the wagons 42,000
With the reserve cart 12,000
------
Total 72,000
======

On going into action each gun is made up to 5,000 rounds. The infantry pattern range-finder is used.

TACTICAL.--_Regulations for Machine-Gun Detachments in the German Army._

_Para. 187._--Machine guns enable commanders to develop at fixed points the maximum volume of infantry fire on the smallest possible front. Machine guns can be employed in any country which is practicable for infantry, and when once they are unlimbered they must be able to surmount considerable obstacles. In action they offer no greater target than riflemen, fighting under like conditions, and they can in proportion to their fire value support far greater losses than infantry.

When movements over the battlefield are contemplated, and the machine guns (unlimbered as soon as hostile fire is expected) are pulled or carried forward, they can utilise all cover which infantry is able to use. Cover that is barely sufficient for a section of infantry can protect an entire machine-gun detachment. The construction of the carriage on which guns, ammunition, and men can be conveyed, and the capabilities of the team, enable machine guns to keep up with mounted troops on the march.

_Para. 188._--The range and striking effect of the machine gun is identical with that of the infantry rifle. The rapid succession of shots and the narrow concentration of the cone of dispersion, together with the possibilities of uniting several guns on a limited front, render it feasible for machine guns to obtain rapidly a decisive success in certain positions, and even at long ranges to inflict heavy losses in a short time on large and deep targets. Machine guns, however, are of small use to a commander fighting a protracted rifle-fire engagement.

_Para. 189._--An engagement with a thin line of skirmishers under good cover should be avoided. It demands a heavy expenditure of ammunition which is not commensurate with the result obtained. During a lengthy rifle-fire action the detachments with their guns should be withdrawn temporarily from their position, so as to save their effect for a decisive moment.

_Para. 190._--The engagement of hostile machine guns that offer a difficult target is by no means the chief duty of machine-gun detachments; in most cases it will be more profitable to leave this to other arms. When engaging hostile machine guns the most accurate information should be sought regarding the enemy’s position.

_Para. 191._--Machine-gun detachments can at all times and under all conditions confidently await the attacks of hostile cavalry. To meet these any formation can be adopted which allows of a well-directed and calmly delivered fire being poured into the advancing cavalry. Both when firing from the carriage and from the gun dismounted the fire must be distributed all along the advancing line of cavalry; special attention must be paid to the supporting lines, to one’s own flanks, and to the defence of the carriages when the guns are separated from them. Machine-gun detachments are able to advance in the open fields without any fear of the enemy’s cavalry, provided the latter is not supported by artillery or infantry, or is not in such force as to be able to attack simultaneously from different sides in several lines.

_Para. 192._--In action against artillery it should be remembered that at long ranges the superiority of fire will always remain with this branch. If machine guns are to engage artillery, the sleighs must be brought as near as possible to it. The rapidity of movement of machine guns due to their being horsed will enable them to start the action from a flank, and thus produce a sensible increase of effect. Scattering the fire from all the machine guns along the entire line of a battery is as useless as it is purposeless.

_Para. 193._--Machine-gun detachments should generally be employed undivided; on special occasions separate sections may be made to act independently. The detachment commander will decide as to the distribution of the ammunition train to the individual sections. The employment of single machine-gun detachments will be seldom advisable. In such cases the senior detachment leader will command the entire force of machine guns.

_Para. 194._--In view of the uses to which machine-gun detachments may be applied, and with the object of increasing their independence of action, it is desirable that a few mounted men should be attached to them for reconnaissance. Otherwise the readiness of machine guns is such that it is only in very obstructed and overgrown country that they require special protection. Here it may be necessary, in order to secure the threatened flanks and rear, and to protect the carriages left behind, to detail small parties of cavalry or infantry. An application for such from a machine-gun commander should be complied with by any infantry or cavalry commander in the vicinity.

_Para. 196._--Machine guns can never replace artillery.

_Para. 197._--Machine guns will always find their chief work to be at the place where their powerful fire effect, together with their mobility (on the march) and the advantage of being able to get across country when separated from their carriage, can best be utilised.

_Para. 198._--For the correct manœuvring of machine guns it is necessary to possess a clear knowledge of the general situation, of the aims of the commander, and of the state of the action. The disposal of the machine-gun detachments rests with the superior command. By attaching machine-gun detachments to stated bodies of troops, the full value of the former in action can only be realised in exceptional cases.

_Para. 199._--All commanders must quickly make their dispositions to suit the situation, and must always realise that neglect and delay are a more serious hindrance to success than an error in the choice of means.

_Para. 200._--At the commencement of an action the commander will proceed to the O.C. troops, or to the commander of the force to which his detachment is detailed, and receive the necessary orders for the impending action. It is his duty, in case of emergency, to act on his own initiative. During the progress of the action he will remain in constant communication with that commanding officer, in order to keep him constantly informed of what he is doing, and in turn to be posted in the progress of the fight.

_Para. 201._--In choosing a position the first condition to fulfil is to obtain the best possible fire effect for the task in hand; then secondly one may think of cover.

_Para. 202._--The choice of every position must be preceded by special reconnoitring, the opportune and skilful performance of which is essential to success. This includes ascertaining what the targets are, where there are suitable fire positions, and the facilities for approach, the nature of the ground to be crossed, and lastly what security is offered against surprises.

_Para. 203._--In the advance and in defensive positions the commander reconnoitres himself. During retirements the commander remains with the detachment so long as it is within effective range of the enemy, but sends back for reconnoitring purposes a senior officer. Before occupying a position the commander, if possible, must have examined it himself.

_Para. 205._--The attention of the enemy must not be previously directed to the position selected. A personal inspection is often to be carried out only on foot, leaving all escort behind.

_Para. 206._--The following points guide the choice of position: an open field of fire; a front lying as far as possible at right angles to the line of fire; plenty of space; possibility of sweeping all the ground right up to the closest range; concealment, and facilities for communication along and behind the line of fire.

_Para. 207._--Positions close to or on a level with a point to which the enemy has ranged are to be avoided as much as possible. Similarly it is not advisable to take up a position in close proximity to prominent objects, still less straight in front of them, as they facilitate the enemy’s ranging. On the other hand, a position in front of a dark background or in a place covered with vegetation hinders the enemy from picking up the target.

Every kind of concealment, even of an artificial nature, offers advantages, because the observation of the enemy is thereby impeded.

_Para. 208._--During the advance and in moving into position security should not be overlooked. On threatened flanks special scouts must be sent out by the officer who is bringing up the troops, especially in close country. These should not ride far ahead, but should bear in mind to keep in touch with the troops. During the advance roads should be used as long as possible.

_Para. 210._--The pace of the advance and the moment of unlimbering depend on the object of the commander, the state of the action, the nature of the country and the state of the ground.

_Para. 211._--The dispositions for taking up a position must be made in time to avoid any delay in opening fire. Every effort must be made to take up a position unobserved, and to open fire by surprise. Both of these are, however, only possible if special attention is paid to the utilisation of cover during the advance to the position, thus keeping the enemy in ignorance of the locality which it is intended to occupy. In the absence of cover, or when immediate entry into action is required, the surprise of the enemy must be effected by rapidity in occupying a position.

_Para. 213._--The most favourable position must be sought for each individual weapon with regard to fire effect and cover. As a rule there is an interval of 20 paces between guns, but the direction and regularity of the intervals in the detachment are not to be insisted upon. It must be considered, however, that the losses caused by the enemy’s fire will be heavier in proportion as the machine guns are posted closer together. Care must be taken that the individual guns do not interfere with one another’s fire. Placing single guns in echelon may offer advantages where the flanks are threatened.

When the nature of the ground or of the target renders a more careful choice necessary for each gun, it is recommended that this be carried out by the No. 1 of the gun.

_Para. 214._--The decision to open fire must not be made too hastily. It is to be borne in mind that the fire can only have a decisive effect when it is directed against troops situated within effective range. The arm to which they belong has little to do with the question; the decisive point in choice of target is first and foremost the momentary tactical importance of that target. Afterwards fire must be turned on to those targets which, owing to their height, depth, breadth, and density, render a high percentage of hits probable.

_Para. 215._--Good results from indirect fire can only be achieved if the range and position of the target are known, or if the fall or the effect of the shots can be observed from a point close to the detachment.

_Para. 216._--Firing over one’s own troops is only permissible when the nature of the ground renders possible the deployment of several firing lines one above the other.

_Para. 217._--Firing by night can only promise success if the guns can be trained by daylight on to points where the enemy is expected, or if well-lit objects are taken as targets, such as bivouacs or camps.

_Para. 218._--From the very beginning of an action it must be remembered that the number of cartridges carried is limited, and that the consumption of ammunition implies an expenditure of power which should only be made when it will meet with success. Should the decision be taken, however, to fire on a given target, the ammunition necessary to attain the object of the action must be expended. Fire with an insufficient effect weakens the morale of the troops, whilst it encourages the enemy.

_Para. 219._--The losses inflicted on the enemy will affect him more if he incurs them in a short space of time, than if they are distributed over a long period; it is advisable therefore in most cases, even in the face of a weaker enemy, to open fire with the whole detachment rather than with one or two sections only.

The expenditure of ammunition necessary for the silencing of the enemy will in both cases be about the same, but in the former case one’s own loss will be appreciably smaller.

_Para. 220._--A change of objective should not be made until the result aimed at against the first target has been fully realised. A frequent change of objective weakens the fire, and should therefore be avoided.

_Para. 221._--A distribution of fire over several objectives cannot be avoided under all circumstances, but it must not resolve itself into an aimless scattering of fire.

_Para. 222._--In every case coolness, marksmanship, and strict fire discipline are necessary to get full value in fire effect. In an engagement, should the majority of those in command be put out of action, fire discipline must still be preserved. With well-trained and well-disciplined troops, the presence of mind of the individual soldier, and the example of stout-hearted and cool-headed men will ensure a successful conclusion to an engagement fought against an enemy in a similar plight.

_Para. 223._--The officer commanding the troops announces the object of the action, and also the objective in a general way.

_Para. 224._--The machine-gun detachment commander selects the positions, determines the range, names the targets in detail together with the nature of attack on them, and orders the opening of fire.

_Para. 225._--The section commander passes on the orders. He decides the place for each gun, also the portion of the objective to be fired at, and the range for each individual weapon. He observes the service of the guns, and is especially responsible that the correct target is fired at and for the fire action of his section.

_Para. 226._--The No. 1 of the gun selects the spot to place his gun, and the most suitable height for it to stand above ground, follows in detail all orders, and ensures (using in case of necessity independent measures) that the centre of the cone of dispersion falls on the target. He is responsible for the service of the gun in detail, and attentively watches the weapon so as to remedy any defects which might interfere with its fire effect.

_Para. 227._--By a correct utilisation of the degree of independence allotted to each individual commander, by a rapid and accurate ascertaining of ranges, by a correct judgment of the influence of the weather on the cone of dispersion, it is possible to avoid an interruption of the fire of the whole detachment for an alteration of the sights. Any such interruption must be especially avoided when it is obvious from the nature of the objective that it will only be in view a short time. Again, when firing at such objectives, no time must be lost by giving a long and detailed description of the target.

A well-trained detachment should be able to get quickly on to the target, and to distribute its fire advantageously on receiving brief words of command. If one part of the enemy is silenced or has vanished, the fire must at once be independently directed on the still visible and active part of the objective.

_Para. 228._--The position of the commander is of importance for issuing commands and controlling the fire. In peace exercises all commanders must issue their orders from the same positions and in the same attitude they would adopt in actual warfare. The commander may allow himself to depart from this rule, and order the subordinate commanders to do the same, in so far as such a step is necessary for instructional purposes. Moreover, it must be strongly insisted upon that no man should expose himself more than is absolutely necessary for the observation of the general situation, the service of the guns, the conveyance of ammunition, and the taking of ranges.

* * * * *

_Para. 242._--In an action of two forces meeting, the advanced guard must secure time and space for the main body to deploy. As the accomplishment of this duty depends essentially on the rapid occupation of favourable points on the ground, the allotment of machine guns to the advanced guard will be highly advantageous. On the arrival of the infantry the machine guns must be withdrawn from the firing line, and kept in readiness for further employment.

_Para. 243._--In an attack on a fully developed and defended front, the machine guns will as a rule be kept back. They constitute a highly mobile reserve at the disposal of the G.O.C., which may be used for the speedy reinforcement of threatened points, for acting against the flanks of an enemy, and for the preparation of an attempt to break his line. The attack in view has a chance of success only when superiority of fire is established. For this purpose machine guns possess ample mobility to enable them to follow infantry advancing to the attack. That they should join in the rushes of the firing line is no more required of them than that they should join in the charge.

Under skilful and judicious leadership they will nevertheless be able to come so close to the enemy as to take part in the decisive fire engagement; the temporary increase of distance from the carriages need not be considered.

It is of exceptional advantage to direct the fire against the point of the enemy’s line selected for the attack from a commanding position, or from a flank, since under these circumstances it is not necessary to cease fire when the infantry continue their advance, and prepare for the final rush. Should such a position be reached at a range which admits of the maximum fire effect (800 yards or under) any further forward movement of the machine guns is wrong; it interrupts the fire effect and entails fresh laying and ranging.

_Para. 244._--In the event of a successful issue of the action, the machine guns must co-operate with the first pursuit by a lavish use of their fire power. As soon as the victory is assured they will be hurried forward into the captured position to support the infantry in their occupation of the same, and to crush the last powers of resistance of the enemy.

_Para. 245._--Should the attack fail, the machine guns must support the retiring troops.

_Para. 246._--In using machine guns in defence, one must consider that the guns are not suitable for conducting a protracted action for any space of time, and that the advantage of the machine guns’ mobility cannot be utilised if a fixed part of the position is handed over to them for defence at the outset. It is to be recommended generally, and particularly in the defence, to keep the guns at first with the reserve, and to utilise them as the need arises--to strengthen the defending line at threatened points, to hinder outflanking, and to repel an attempt at storming the position, or for offensive movements. This does not always exclude machine guns from entering into action at the commencement of an engagement, _e.g._ if it is necessary to command certain important approaches. Also, if a covered retreat for the machine guns is assured, it will be possible to place them to the front or to the side of the main line of defence, so that they can sweep with their fire the country which the enemy will presumably occupy with his artillery.

At times a flanking machine-gun fire can be used to sweep dead ground in front of the line of battle.

_Para. 247._--In all cases where machine guns are placed in positions selected beforehand, cover must be constructed. If the time is not sufficient for this, an attempt must at least be made to arrange some artificial concealment, to improve the field of fire, and to determine ranges.

_Para. 248._--After a successful action machine-gun detachments must be utilised in the boldest fashion, to turn the victory to account during the pursuit. They are highly suitable for this purpose, as they unite great power of fire with rapidity of movement. The pursuit must be continued as long as strength permits. The machine guns will approach to within effective range of the enemy, and hinder every attempt of the adversary to re-form and take up a position. Flanking fire is especially effective. A liberal supply of ammunition must be pushed forward, this being necessary for the energetic maintenance of fire in pursuit.

_Para. 249._--When breaking off an action in the event of an unsuccessful issue, the machine-gun detachment can render considerable service by opposing the enemy, regardless of the possible loss of the guns, and by pouring a vigorous fire into him. For keeping the enemy in check, positions behind defiles with covered lines of retreat are especially suitable.

Special importance must be attached to the provision of sufficient ammunition, to the thorough reconnaissance of the lines of retreat, and to the correct estimation of the moment for beginning to retire, especially when the movement is to be carried out in echelon. To avoid obstruction the ammunition wagons must be moved away at the right moment. Increased attention must be paid to the flanks, since it is from these that danger most threatens during a retreat. If suitable positions can be occupied on the flanks, increased facilities for conducting the retreat will be obtained by utilising them.

_Para. 250._--Machine guns attached to independent cavalry might be used to increase the power of cavalry, mounted and dismounted, and on the offensive and defensive. The duties that will fall on machine guns in this service demand great mobility and the strictest fire discipline.

_Para. 251._--The commander of the independent cavalry will make all decisions regarding the employment of machine guns. He communicates all his plans of action to the machine gun commander, and provides him further with special orders concerning the first entry into action of the machine guns. If the machine guns are not to be used, it is advisable to leave them behind in a suitable covering position.

_Para. 252._--On reconnaissance duty with the cavalry, machine guns will be most frequently employed in breaking down the resistance of the enemy at small posts or defiles which they have occupied, or vice versa--to stiffen the opposition made by the cavalry at such points. On such an occasion even the assistance of a single section with its ammunition will be of use to the cavalry detachment.

_Para. 253._--In the advance of cavalry against cavalry the machine-gun detachments must take up their positions as soon as possible, so as to support first the deployment, and then the attack of the cavalry. The most advantageous position will be well to the front and to a flank of the advancing cavalry, since from there a continuation of the fire is rendered possible up to the moment almost of the charge, and at the same time an outflanking movement of the enemy is prevented on that side. A position secure against direct attack is to be desired, yet a consideration of the effect gained by the position described above precedes all thought of cover. A change of position is almost always out of the question, owing to the rapid development of a mounted action.

_Para. 254._--A wide separation of the sections is not advisable, since several lines of fire hamper the movements of cavalry.

_Para. 255._--In a forward movement of the machine guns when limbered up, decreasing the intervals to less than 10 paces must be avoided, since smaller spaces render difficult the passage of the limbers to the rear.

_Para. 256._--During the fight the detachment commander will have to act on his own responsibility, according to the state of the action. He must not wait for orders, and must always watch the cavalry engagement; he must use every opportunity to join in the issue at stake and make preparation for decisive action in case of either a successful or an unsuccessful termination of the struggle. Under certain conditions it may be advantageous to await events with his guns ready to march.

_Para. 257._--In the event of a favourable issue of the action, it will be his duty to follow the beaten enemy with his fire and to prevent him from offering further resistance.

_Para. 258._--The nature of a cavalry engagement will often render it necessary to keep the carriages close to the guns or to shoot from the wheeled carriages. Since the massing of several carriages in rear of the detachment offers the enemy a favourable opportunity for attack and impedes firing towards the rear, the question will arise whether the ammunition wagons should be kept back in a secure place.

_Para. 260._--The machine-gun detachments attached to the cavalry divisions remain with them in action. They will find occasion to prove of service in the varied duties of cavalry during and especially after action.

_Para. 261._--Also for protecting batteries in position, machine guns can be profitably employed, if infantry are not forthcoming for this duty.

_Extract from “Field Service Regulations, 1908”_

“The fire effect of machine guns is influenced primarily by correct sighting, possibility of observation, size and density of target, and methods of fire.”

“It is further affected by the suddenness with which fire is opened, by the number of machine guns firing at the same target, and by the enemy’s fire. The high rate of fire concentration of the bullet-sheaf, and the possibility of bringing several machine guns into action on a narrow front, enable great effect to be produced in a short time even at long ranges. When the front of the target is broken and irregular, the effect is reduced. A wrong sighting elevation or an imperfect observation of fire may render the fire completely ineffective.”

“Dense lines of skirmishers standing suffer heavy losses at ranges of 1,650 yards and under. At lines of skirmishers lying, good effect is to be expected at 1,100 yards and under, provided that the observation of fire is good. Against artillery in action the fire is similar to that of infantry. Owing to the mobility of machine-gun batteries they are especially adapted for securing the increased fire effect due to _oblique_ fire.”

“At short ranges under hostile fire machine guns can only be brought up and withdrawn under cover.”

* * * * *

The German _Cavalry Drill Book_ of 1909 has some interesting paragraphs on the employment of machine guns, which are here given:

_Para. 497._--Horse artillery and machine guns, by reason of their fire, enhance the offensive and defensive powers of cavalry. In defence and against unexpected opening of fire they form the most effective portion of the force.

_Para. 498._--Horse-artillery fire will often be the first thing to make the enemy disclose his dispositions, and thus is useful for reconnaissance. In conjunction with machine guns it can break down the enemy’s resistance in defiles, and thus save the cavalry the necessity of dismounted action.

_Para. 498._--Artillery and machine guns enable the cavalry, ... especially by fire effect upon their flanks, to distract hostile columns from their line of march.

_Para. 500._--Detached forces of the Division may be allotted artillery and machine guns to increase their powers of offensive action.... The employment of single machine guns is forbidden.

_Para. 501._--The commanders of artillery and machine guns must be kept informed of the situation and of the cavalry commander’s intentions. They remain with him until the employment of their commands has been arranged for; and, if necessary, it is their duty to bring this question of employment to his notice. At later stages they must keep in constant communication with him. Guns and machine guns come into action for the first time by order of the leader.

_Para. 502._--As a general principle, fire is to be opened on those portions of the enemy the defeat of which is likely to influence the decision of the fight. Under anything like equal conditions, a duel with the hostile artillery cannot lead to rapid results. But should the hostile artillery expose itself, the opportunity must be seized with rapidity and energy. It may be also necessary to engage hostile artillery in order to draw their fire from the cavalry.

_Para. 503._--Fire control is facilitated by keeping the batteries together, nor is any great dispersion of the machine-gun sections, as a rule, to be recommended. Many lines of fire cramp the movements of cavalry during the mounted combat. The conditions of the fight, however, or the configuration of the ground, may necessitate dispersions and separate positions.... Machine guns only require an escort when the field of view is very restricted.

_Para. 507._--In the _mounted cavalry combat_ guns and machine guns must be brought into action so as to support, firstly, the deployment; secondly, the attack. Positions for the machine guns, to a flank and in front of the advancing cavalry, all on rising ground, will allow fire to be maintained until immediately before the collision, and will make it difficult for the enemy to envelop a flank. On the other hand, the disadvantage is that any large flank movement takes time, and sometimes so much time that the decisive moment may pass while it is being carried out, and the guns may arrive too late.... It is desirable that artillery positions should be secured from direct attack by the nature of the ground. But if circumstances demand it, artillery and machine guns must come into action on the spot, without regard for cover or other advantages.

_Para. 509._--Unless fresh bodies of cavalry offer a tempting target, fire will be turned on to the hostile batteries and machine guns immediately after the collision of the cavalry masses.

_Para. 510._--During the fight the leaders of artillery and machine guns will for the most part have to act on their own initiative. They must seek every opportunity for intervention, and, according to the course of the fight, must make preparations for action under favourable or unfavourable conditions. On occasions it may be necessary to remain limbered up and ready to move.

_Para. 511._--After a successful attack artillery and machine guns advance rapidly to follow up the beaten enemy with fire, and to prevent his rallying for renewed opposition. If the result be unfavourable, artillery and machine-gun leaders must come to a timely decision whether the circumstances call for a retirement to a covering position, or whether they should not hold on to their fire position even at the risk of losing the guns.

_Para. 512._--Owing to the character of the cavalry encounter, it is often advisable to keep the limbers with the guns. And it may sometimes be well to leave a portion of the second-line wagons and the carts of the machine-gun detachments behind in a place of security, and to order the light-ammunition column to march at the head of the second-line transport. Yet another question may arise for the machine-gun detachments; whether to take the wheeled carriage or only the sleigh mountings into the firing line.

_Para. 513._--If the assault succeeds, guns and machine guns hurry to the captured position to take part in the pursuit.

Should their own attack fail, or should that of the enemy succeed, artillery and machine guns must endeavour to cover the retirement, and, disregarding the hostile artillery, must turn their fire into pursuing riflemen.

* * * * *

In a recent article in the _Jahrbücher für die Deutschen Armeen und Marine_ Captain von Beckmann gives the following summary of the tactical use of machine guns:--

1. Machine guns must take up the smallest possible space, and be capable of quickly coming into action (at rifle ranges). They must be capable of accompanying infantry and cavalry wherever these arms can go.

2. They can never take the place of artillery, though capable, especially at short ranges, of affording effective support to the latter.

3. The fire of one machine gun is approximately equivalent to that of 80 infantrymen. The dispersion of fire is considerably less; therefore while the effect is greater with an accurate sight, it is less if the range is not accurately known.

4. The most suitable targets are those of some size and depth--_e.g._ infantry columns, cavalry in all formations, and artillery when limbered up. At medium ranges, extended firing lines may be fired upon, but little effect can be produced upon men lying down, even at the shortest ranges--though the morale effect may be considerable.

5. Short bursts of heavy fire are especially effective. On the other hand, long-continued fire is unsuitable, owing to the expenditure of ammunition and the heating of the barrel.

6. Artillery in position provided with shields can only be effectively damaged by enfilade or oblique fire.

7. Machine guns may either be employed directly under the orders of the G.O.C. or be attached to certain units. In the first case they will usually act in complete machine-gun units. In the second case they will generally do so only at suitable targets at long and medium ranges. In the later stages they will mostly be used in sections. The use of single machine guns is to be avoided.

8. The intervals between machine guns in action must depend on circumstances. They should not be too small if the guns are to hold their ground for any length of time. When a section (2 guns) is acting alone, the guns must be able to afford effective mutual support in all directions.

9. Ammunition must be carefully husbanded, especially at the longer ranges, while a good supply of ammunition is essential. Even at long ranges, this ammunition will have to be carried by men specially equipped for the purpose.

10. When the enemy is unexpectedly met with while on the march, machine guns will be of special value to the advance guard in rapidly seizing points in order to hold the enemy at a distance. The occupation of such points at wide intervals will often effectively deceive the enemy as to the strength of the force. Machine guns thus employed will be withdrawn as soon as the infantry come up and deploy, so as to be available for other work.

11. The wide extensions of modern armies will often make it impossible for any but mounted troops to be concentrated at decisive points--either to make the most of favourable opportunities, or to ward off an unexpected danger. Mounted machine-gun detachments will be very valuable for such purposes.

12. In the attack of a defensive position deliberately occupied, part of the machine guns will at first be held in reserve, but, according to the latest opinions formed from the lessons of the Russo-Japanese War, the majority of the machine guns will support the advance of the infantry. They are especially effective in keeping down the defenders’ fire during the last stage of the attack when the artillery is no longer able to fire over the heads of the infantry.

13. On the defensive it is advisable that a considerable number of machine guns should be held in reserve, especially with a view to preventing any unexpected turning movements, repelling assaults, delivering counter-attacks, and in case of such reinforcing any threatened points in the line of defence. In fortified positions machine guns may be usefully employed in front of the position to force the enemy to deploy prematurely. His artillery as it comes into action will frequently offer very suitable targets. The majority of machine guns, however, will be placed in the line of defence (or at least immediately in rear of the sections to which they are allotted) as soon as the direction of the enemy’s attack has been ascertained. This presence in the front line will make it possible to reduce the number of men actually in that line and will thus economise troops.

14. In the pursuit machine guns will be especially effective against the flanks and rear of the retiring enemy. Again, in covering a retirement and checking the enemy’s pursuit, machine guns with cavalry and artillery will delay the enemy’s advance and enable their own infantry to break away. In this case the first duty will be to protect their own artillery.

15. With the Independent Cavalry machine guns form a very valuable addition to the effective strength both for defence and offence. Even in reconnaissance work they will be able to break down the enemy’s resistance at certain points (villages) and to increase the tenacity of their own forces in the defence of similar points. Light machine guns carried on the saddle would be of the greatest assistance to smaller bodies of cavalry in such circumstances. Machine guns are also valuable in purely cavalry engagements, especially when it is possible for them to take the enemy in flank. If this be impossible, they can effectively follow up a success, or cover the retirement of their own cavalry. If some of the machine guns act as escort to the artillery, the cavalry escort can be dispensed with. This will increase the effective strength of the cavalry and also give the artillery a wide choice of position and great security, thus increasing its efficiency. Even if at the beginning the cavalry commander himself directs the working of the machine guns, the officer commanding the latter will have to act on his own initiative later on, in accordance with the tactical situation of the moment.

GREAT BRITAIN

ORGANISATION.--Great Britain was one of the earliest countries to adopt machine guns, and the Maxim has been in use for the last twenty years. Machine guns are organised in sections of two guns, and a section forms part of each regiment of cavalry and battalion of infantry, who provide and train the personnel.

The organisation is as follows:--

A SECTION WITH A CAVALRY REGIMENT

---------------------------+--------------+---------------
Personnel. |Riding horses.|Draught horses.
---------------------------+--------------+---------------
Lieutenant 1 | 3 | --
Sergeant 1 | 1 | --
Corporal 1 | 1 | --
Privates 12 | 12 | --
Drivers 8 | -- | 16
Bâtman 2 | -- | --
---------------------------+--------------+---------------
25 (1 officer) | 17 | 16
---------------------------+--------------+---------------

_Equipment._--6 pack-saddles (the two lead horses of each wagon are provided with pack saddlery); 4 G.S. limbered wagons (2 for guns and 2 for ammunition); 2 machine guns with tripods and pack-saddles on limbered G.S. wagons, each drawn by 4 horses.

_Ammunition._--3,500 rounds with each gun; 16,000 with regimental reserve; 10,000 with brigade ammunition column; 10,000 with divisional ammunition column for each gun respectively.

SECTION WITH AN INFANTRY BATTALION

---------------------------+--------------+---------------
Personnel. |Riding horses.|Draught horses.
---------------------------+--------------+---------------
Subaltern 1 | 1 | --
Sergeant 1 | -- | --
Corporal 1 | -- | --
Privates 12 | -- | --
Drivers | |
(1st-line | |
transport) 2 | -- | 4
---------------------------+--------------+---------------
Total 17 (1 officer) | 1 | 4
---------------------------+--------------+---------------

_By Permission of Messrs. Vickers, Sons & Maxim, Ltd._]

_By Permission of Messrs. Vickers, Sons & Maxim, Ltd._]

_Equipment._--2 machine guns with tripods on 1 limbered G.S. wagon drawn by 2 horses.

_Ammunition._--3,500 rounds with each gun; 8,000 with regimental reserve; 10,000 with brigade ammunition column; 10,000 with divisional ammunition column for each gun respectively.

TERRITORIAL FORCE: SECTION WITH AN INFANTRY BATTALION

---------------------------+--------------+---------------
Personnel. |Riding horses.|Draught horses.
---------------------------+--------------+---------------
Subaltern 1 | 1 | --
Sergeant 1 | -- | --
Rank and | |
File 15 | -- | 2
---------------------------+--------------+---------------
| |
Total 17 (1 officer) | 1 | 2
---------------------------+--------------+---------------

_Equipment._--2 machine guns on field carriages each drawn by 1 horse.

_Ammunition._--4,000 with the guns; 6,000 with regimental reserve; 10,000 with brigade ammunition column.