Chapter XVI: Part IV: is on Sigillaria and Stigmaria, the "Sigillaria" (4)

Having thus sketched the intimate relations which subsisted between Hooker and Darwin, it remains to appraise his own positive contributions to _Philosophical Biology_. He himself, in his Address as President of the British Association at Norwich in 1868, gives an insight into his early attitude in the enquiry into biological questions. "Having myself," he says, "been a student of Moral Philosophy in a Northern University, I entered on my scientific career full of hopes that Metaphysics would prove a useful mentor, if not a guide in science. I soon found, however, that it availed me nothing, and I long ago arrived at the conclusion so well put by Agassiz, when he says, 'We trust that the time is not distant when it will be universally understood that the battle of the evidences will have to be fought on the field of Physical Science, and not on that of the Metaphysical.'" This was the difficult lesson of the period when Evolution was born. Hooker learned the lesson early. He cleared his mental outlook from all preconceptions, and worked down to the bed-rock of objective fact. Thus he was free to use his vast and detailed knowledge in advancing, along the lines of induction alone, towards sound generalisations. These had their very close relation to questions of the mutability of species. The subject was approached by him through the study of geographical distribution, in which, as we have seen, he had at an early age become the leading authority.

The fame of Sir Joseph Hooker as a Philosophical Biologist rests upon a masterly series of Essays and Addresses. The chief of these were The Introductory Essay to the _Flora Tasmaniae_, dealing with the Antarctic Flora as a whole; The Essay on the Distribution of Arctic Plants, published in 1862; The Discourse on Insular Floras in 1866; The Presidential Address to the British Association at Norwich in 1868; his Address at York, in 1881, on Geographical Distribution; and finally, The Essay on the Vegetation of India, published in 1904. None of these were mere inspirations of the moment. They were the outcome of arduous journeys to observe and to collect, and subsequently of careful analysis of the specimens and of the facts. The dates of publication bear this out. The Essay on the Antarctic Flora appeared about twenty years after the completion of the voyage. The Essay on the Vegetation of India was not published till more than half a century after Hooker first set foot in India. It is upon such foundations that Hooker's reputation as a great constructive thinker is securely based.

The first-named of these essays will probably be estimated as the most notable of them all in the History of Science. It was completed in November 1859, barely a year after the joint communications of Darwin and Wallace to the Linnean Society, and before the _Origin of Species_ had appeared. It was to this Essay that Darwin referred when he wrote that "Hooker has come round, and will publish his belief soon." But this publication of his belief was not merely an echo of assent to Darwin's own opinions. It was a reasoned statement, advanced upon the basis of his "own self-thought," and his own wide systematic and geographical experience. From these sources he drew for himself support for the "hypothesis that species are derivative, and mutable." He points out how the natural history of Australia seemed specially suited to test such a theory, on account of the comparative uniformity of the physical features being accompanied by a great variety in its Flora, and the peculiarity of both its Fauna and Flora, as compared with other countries. After the test had been made, on the basis of study of some 8000 species, their characters, their spread, and their relations to those of other lands, he concludes decisively in favour of mutability and a doctrine of progression.

How highly this Essay was esteemed by his contemporaries is shown by the expressions of Lyell and of Darwin. The former writes: "I have just finished the reading of your splendid Essay on the Origin of Species, as illustrated by your wide botanical experience, and think it goes far to raise the variety-making hypothesis to the rank of a theory, as accounting for the manner in which new species enter the world." Darwin wrote: "I have finished your Essay. To my judgment it is by far the grandest and most interesting essay on subjects of the nature discussed I have ever read."

But besides its historical interest in relation to the Species Question, the Essay contained what was up to its time the most scientific treatment of a large area from the point of view of the Plant-Geographer. He found that the Antarctic, like the Arctic Flora, is very uniform round the Globe. The same species in many cases occur on every island, though thousands of miles of ocean may intervene. Many of these species reappear on the mountains of Southern Chili, Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. The Southern Temperate Floras, on the other hand, of South America, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand differ more among themselves than do the Floras of Europe, Northern Asia, and North America. To explain these facts he suggested the probable former existence, during a warmer period than the present, of a centre of creation of new species in the Southern Ocean, in the form of either a continent or an archipelago, from which the Antarctic Flora radiated. This hypothesis has since been held open to doubt. But the fact that it was suggested shows the broad view which he was prepared to take of the problem before him. His method was essentially that which is now styled "Ecological." Many hold this to be a new phase of botanical enquiry, introduced by Professor Warming in 1895. No one will deny the value of the increased precision which he then brought into such studies. But in point of fact it was Ecology on the grand scale that Sir Joseph Hooker practised in the Antarctic in 1840. Moreover it was pursued, not in regions of old civilisation, but in lands where Nature held her sway untouched by the hand of man.

This Essay on the Flora of the Antarctic was the prototype of the great series. Sir Joseph examined the Arctic Flora from similar points of view. He explained the circumpolar uniformity which it shows, and the prevalence of Scandinavian types, together with the peculiarly limited nature of the Flora of the southward peninsula of Greenland. He extended his enquiries to oceanic islands. He pointed out that the conditions which dictated circumpolar distribution are absent from them; but that other conditions exist in them which account for the strange features which their vegetation shows. He extended the application of such methods to the Himalaya and to Central Asia. He joined with Asa Gray in like enquiries in North America. The latter had already given a scientific explanation of the surprising fact that the plants of the Eastern States resemble more nearly those of China than do those of the Pacific Slope. In resolving these and other problems it was not only the vegetation itself that was studied. The changes of climate in geological time, and of the earth's crust as demonstrated by geologists, formed part of the basis on which he worked. For it is facts such as these which have determined the migration of Floras. And migration, as well as mutability of species, entered into most of his speculations. The Essays of this magnificent series are like pictures painted with a full brush. The boldness and mastery which they show sprang from long discipline and wide experience.

Finally, the chief results of the Phyto-Geographical work of himself and of others were summed up in the great Address on "Geographical Distribution" at York. The Jubilee of the British Association was held there in 1881. It had been decided that each section should be presided over by a past President of the Association, and he had occupied that position at Norwich in 1868. Accordingly at York Hooker was appointed President of the Geographical Section, and he chose as the subject of his Address "The Geographical Distribution of Organic Beings." To him it illustrated "the interdependence of those Sciences which the Geographer should study." It is not enough merely to observe the topography of organisms, but their hypsometrical distribution must also be noted. Further, the changes of area and of altitude in exposed land-surfaces of which geology gives evidence, are essential features in the problem, together with the changes of climate, such as have determined the advance and retrocession of glacial conditions. Having noted these factors, he continued thus: "With the establishment of the doctrine of orderly evolution of species under known laws I close this list of those recognised principles of the science of geographical distribution, which must guide all who enter upon its pursuit. As Humboldt was its founder, and Forbes its reformer, so we must regard Darwin as its latest and greatest law-giver." Now, after thirty years, may we not add to these words of his, that Hooker was himself its greatest exponent?

And so we have followed, however inadequately, this great man into the various lines of scientific activity which he pursued. We have seen him to excel in them all. The cumulative result is that he is universally held to have been, during several decades, the most distinguished botanist of his time. He was before all things a philosopher. In him we see the foremost student of the broader aspects of Plant-Life at the time when evolutionary belief was nascent. His influence at that stirring period, though quiet, was far-reaching and deep. His work was both critical and constructive. His wide knowledge, his keen insight, his fearless judgment were invaluable in advancing that intellectual revolution which found its pivot in the mutability of species. The share he took in promoting it was second only to that of his life-long friend Charles Darwin.

INDEX

Absorption, Aristotelian views on, 68

---- Grew and, 58

---- Hales and, 73-76

---- Mariotte and, 68

Adanson, Plant families and, 41

Agassiz, appreciation of, 215, 319

Agriculture, investigations in, 234, 236-237

---- physiology and, 7

---- Theophrastus and, 9

Algae, Berkeley on British, 226

---- collection of, 214, 216

---- Harvey on, 208, 210-212, 216

---- systematic work on, 202

---- Williamson and, 252

Algal floras, 219

Alston, Charles, King's Botanist, =283-284=

---- Hales and, 285-286

---- investigations of, 285

---- publications of, 286

Alternation of generations, 188-189, 198

Amman, Morison's method and, 26

_Anabena_ filaments, Griffith on, 190, 196

Anatomical method, W. Hooker and, 147-148

Anatomy, Balfour and comparative, 262

---- Founders of, 2, 6, 44, 63, 67

---- Grew and plant, 47-57

---- Henfrey and Monocotyledon, 199

---- Hill and plant, 93, 94, 95

Annals of Botany, Ward and, 266

Annual rings, J. Hill and, 94

Antarctic flora, J. D. Hooker and, 305, 311-312

Anthrax, Ward on, 272

Apical growth, Nägeli and Leitgeb on, 135

Apogamy, Alston and, 286

Aquatic fungi, Ward on, 265

Aquatic _Myxomycete_, Ward and, 265

Arber, Agnes, on Grew, 44-64

Arber, Newell, on _Primofilices_, 257

Arboretum, founding of Edinburgh, 300

Archaeology, Williamson and, 249

Archegonia, discovery in Ferns of, 196-198

Aristotle, botanical writings of, 8

Aristotle, value of work of, 15

---- physiology and, 68

Ascent of sap, Grew's explanation of, 58

_Asclepiadaceae_, R. Brown on the, 114-116

Assimilation, Hales on, 80

Bacteria, action of light on, 273

Bacteriology, Ward on, 265, 271-273

Baker, J. Hill's quarrels with, 89-91

---- _Synopsis Filicum_ and, 146

_Balanophoraceae_, Griffith on the, 186

---- J. D. Hooker and the, 308

Balfour, Andrew, pioneer work of, 281

Balfour, J. Bayley, on the Edinburgh Professors, 280-301

---- ---- on the Ginger-beer plant, 269

Balfour, John Hutton, life of, =293-300=

---- ---- Edinburgh Professorship and, 293-295

---- ---- at Glasgow, 295

---- ---- administrative work of, 295

---- ---- teaching methods of, 299

Banks, Sir Joseph, W. Hooker and, 129

---- ---- R. Brown and, 110-111

---- ---- on "rust" disease, 275

Banksian collections, R. Brown and, 112-123, 134

de Bary, on potato disease, 266

---- on "rust" disease, 27

---- Ward's visit to, 264

Basidia, Berkeley's researches on, 230

Bauer, W. Hooker and, 144-145

Bauhin, Caspar, Pinax of, 14-15

---- and John, Morison on, 20

Bean, collections of, 248

---- on Yorkshire Fossil Flora, 247

Bentham, collaboration with Hooker, 313

---- bequest of, 144

---- collections of, 140

---- Herbarium of, 310

Berkeley, Miles Joseph, life of, =225-232=

---- ---- fungal morphology and, 230-231

---- W. Hooker on, 227

---- as naturalist, 225-226

---- as plant pathologist, 231-232

---- as systematic mycologist, 227-230

---- as zoologist, 226

Binney, on Carboniferous plants, 253

---- on coal balls, 245

---- fossil plant tissues and, 307

---- Geological Survey and, 245-246

---- publications of, 246

Blair, on Morison and Ray, 31

Bobart, Jacob, Keeper of Oxford Physic Garden, 17

---- ---- the younger, 18

---- ---- ---- and Morison's work, 18, 23

---- ---- ---- influence on Ray, 43

Botanic gardens, of British colonies, 136

---- ---- of Calcutta, 181-182, 305

---- ---- of Cambridge, 153

---- ---- Chelsea Physic, 84, 92, 179

---- ---- of Glasgow, 129, 130, 292

---- ---- Glasnevin, 213

---- ---- Government subsidy of, 288

---- ---- Kew, 136-137

---- ---- Oxford, 17, 18

---- ---- purpose of, 281

---- ---- rivalry between Edinburgh, 282, 283

_Botanical Gazette_, Henfrey and, 201, 202

_---- Magazine_, editorship of W. Hooker, 142

Botanical Society of Edinburgh, founding of, 294

Botanical illustration, Bauer and, 179

---- ---- Berkeley and, 226

---- ---- Dickson and, 301

---- ---- W. Fitch and, 141-142, 246

---- ---- Grew and, 52

---- ---- Harvey and, 202, 206, 212

---- ---- Hill and, 100, 102, 103

---- ---- W. Hooker and, 141

---- ---- Lindley and, 170, 174

---- ---- McGillivray, 244

---- ---- Tuffen West and, 200

---- ---- Williamson and, 257

Botany, local study of, 249

Botany teaching, Henslow's methods, 158, 159

---- ---- pioneers of, 281, 296

Bottomley, on Gilbert, 233-242

Bower, F. O., 258

---- on W. Hooker, 126-150

---- on J. D. Hooker, 302-323

Boyle, influence on Hales, 66

Bridging species, Ward on, 277

British Algae, Berkeley on, 226

British Flora, Bentham and Hooker on, 315

---- ---- Berkeley on, 227-228

---- ---- W. Hooker on, 143

---- ---- J. D. Hooker on, 315

Brome grass, Ward on, 276-277

Brongniart, Williamson and, 254-256

---- antiquity of Dicotyledons and, 244

---- on fossil seeds, 257

---- influence of, 246

Broome, collaboration with Berkeley, 229

Brown, Robert, life of, =108-125=

---- ---- J. Banks and, 110, 111

---- ---- collections of, 112

---- ---- Cycad ovule and, 187

---- ---- diary of, 111

---- ---- Griffith and, 186

---- ---- Linnean Society and, 112, 123-124

---- ---- on the ovule, 184-185

---- ---- period of, 134

---- ---- on vegetation of New Holland, 113

Brownian movement, 120

_Bryophyta_, Griffith and, 188-189, 190

Bud protection, Grew on, 50

_Calamites_, Williamson on, 253, 254, 256

---- secondary growth in, 254

Calcutta Gardens, Falconer and, 305

---- ---- Griffith and, 181-182

Cambridge, Ward at, 262

---- Botanic Gardens, 153

---- Herbarium, Lindley's presentation to, 170

Cambridge Philosophical Society, founding of, 151

---- ---- ---- presentations to, 152-153

---- ---- ---- Ward and, 276

---- Professorship, 152, 274

Carboniferous period, Binney on, 246, 253, 307

---- ---- J. D. Hooker on, 307

---- ---- Williamson on, 4, 253, 256

Cell structure, discovery of, 53

---- ---- Grew on, 53-54

---- theory, Williamson and, 251

Cesalpino, Andrea, abstract of results of, 12, 13

---- ---- classification and, 11

---- ---- on Cryptogams, 21

---- ---- Morison and, 26

---- ---- Theophrastus and, 11

Ceylon Flora, Hooker and, 312, 313

Chelsea Physic Garden, Botany lectures at, 84

---- ---- ---- Griffith and, 179

---- ---- ---- Hill's use of, 92

Chemiotaxis, R. Brown on, 115

---- Myoshi on, 275

---- Pfeffer and, 275

Chlorophyll, Grew's observations on, 59

Circumpolar uniformity, Hooker and, 321

Classification, Adanson on, 41

---- Bauhin and, 14

---- Cesalpino and, 11

---- De Candolle and, 41

---- first attempt at, 9

---- flower and fruit in, 11

---- Gesner on, 10

---- Hill on, 100

---- historical review of, 173

---- Jung and, 15

---- de Jussieu on, 41

---- leaf in, 21

---- Lindley and, 172, 173

---- Malpighi on, 35

---- Morison and, 18, 22

---- natural system of, 13, 41, 172, 173

---- progress in, 9

---- Ray on, 29

Climbing plants, anatomy of, 55

Coal-balls, first investigation of, 245

---- Williamson and, 251

Coffee disease, investigations of, 263

Coleridge, on Grew, 46, 47

Constancy of species, W. Hooker on, 148

Contact stimulus, Hill on, 98, 99

Controversies, Gilbert and Liebig, 238

---- Hill's, 89-91

---- Morison and Ray, 21, 31

---- Rothamsted and German physiologists, 242

---- Williamson and Brongniart, 254

Copley medal, Hales and, 70

Coprolite, discovery of, 155-156

Corn laws, Lindley and repeal of, 169

Cotyledons, Malpighi on, 35, 36

---- systematic value of, 36

Croonian lecture, Timiriazeff's, 80

Cryptogamic botany, Berkeley and, 4, 226

---- ---- W. Hooker and, 128

Cryptogamist, Ward as Government, 262

Cryptogams, R. Brown on, 121, 122

---- Cesalpino and, 21

---- Griffith and, 188-191

---- Harvey and, 4, 205

---- Williamson and fossil, 254, 255

Cycads, R. Brown on, 114, 117, 187

---- relationships of, 254

---- _Zamia_ and, 253

_Cycas_, R. Brown on, 118, 119

---- Griffith on ovule of, 187, 188

Cytase, importance of, 267

Darwin, Charles, omission of, 5

---- ---- Harvey and, 221

---- ---- J. D. Hooker and, 303, 307, 308, 315, 316, 320, 322, 323

---- ---- _Index Kewensis_ and, 314

Darwin, Francis, on Hales, 65-83

Darwinism, Balfour and, 298

De Candolle, A. P., Prodromus of, 134

---- ---- classification of, 41, 42

De Candolle, A. P., work of, 109

Deep sea deposits, Hooker and, 307

---- ---- ---- Williamson and, 251

Development, on study of, 118

Dewar, on Gilbert, 234, 235

Dickson, Alexander, Edinburgh Professorship of, =300-301=

Dublin Herbarium, Harvey and, 211, 222

---- Professorships at, 210-211, 218

East India Company, Griffith and, 3, 180, 184

Ecology, J. H. Balfour and, 297, 298

---- Grew on, 61

---- Griffith and, 182

---- J. S. Henslow and, 152, 154

---- J. D. Hooker and, 321

---- scope of, 7

Economic botany, Berkeley and, 231

---- ---- Griffith and, 180

---- ---- W. Hooker and, 139

---- ---- Museum of, 137-138

Edinburgh Botanical Gardens, Mackay and Don and, 291

---- ---- ---- the McNabs and, 299

---- ---- ---- Rutherford and, 291

---- ---- Schools, rivalry of, 282

---- Medical School, 290, 295

Edinburgh Professors, J. B. Balfour on, =280-301=

---- ---- Charles Alston, 283-286

---- ---- William Arthur, 284

---- ---- J. H. Balfour, 293-300

---- ---- Dickson, 300-301

---- ---- Graham, 291-293

---- ---- John Hope, 286-290

---- ---- Charles Preston, 282-283

---- ---- Rutherford, 290-291

---- ---- Sutherland, 281-283

Elfving, Ward and, 264

---- on bacteria, 273

Embryogeny, Dickson on plant, 300

Embryo-sac, Ward on the, 262

_Encyclopædia Britannica_, on Hales, 68

---- ---- Ward and the, 265

Endosperm, Grew on, 63

Eriksson, on "rust" disease, 276

Evolution, Harvey and, 221

---- J. D. Hooker and, 316

Falconer, Herbarium of, 312

Farmer, J. B., on R. Brown, 108-125

Farming, J. S. Henslow and, 155

Ferments, Ward on, 270, 271

Ferns, Grew on spores of, 63

---- W. Hooker and, 144-148

---- Morison on, 21

---- sexuality in, 135

---- Williamson on, 254, 257

Field botany, Balfour and, 297

---- ---- Edinburgh School and, 296

---- ---- Graham and, 292

---- ---- W. Hooker and, 132

---- Hope and, 289

Fitch, W., as illustrator, 131, 141, 145, 146

Flora of British India, 312

---- of Britain, 43

---- of South Africa, 219

---- of Antarctic, 305, 311, 312

---- of Ceylon, 312, 313

---- of Scotland, 132

---- Fossil, 245, 252

---- ---- of Williamson, 248

---- ---- of Yorkshire, 247

Floras, migration of, 322

Flowers, Ray on morphology of, 35

---- Grew on anatomy of, 52, 62

Food solutions, Grew on, 60

_Foraminifera_, Williamson on, 250, 251

Fossil botany, Binney and, 243, 307

---- ---- Brongniart and, 244

---- ---- R. Brown and, 122

---- ---- in England, 243

---- ---- in France, 254, 255

---- ---- J. D. Hooker on, 243, 307

---- ---- Lindley on, 176

---- ---- Williamson and, 7, 256, 259

---- ---- Witham and, 243

---- plants, development in, 258

Fossils, Williamson's collections of, 258

Frankland, Percy, Ward and, 271

Fungi, J. Banks on, 275

---- basidia in, 230

---- Berkeley on, 229

---- ---- Berkeley and Broome on, 229-230

---- classification of, 227-230

---- on epiphyllous, 263-264

---- Eriksson on, 276

---- on exotic, 228

---- J. S. Henslow on, 156, 157

---- Kew collections of, 228

---- life-history of, 271

---- morphology of, 230-231

---- nutrition of, 265

_Gardeners' Chronicle_, editorship of Lindley, 166, 169

Gardening, Williamson and, 252

Gatty, Mrs, on seaweeds, 216, 221

_Genera Filicum_, 144, 145, 147

_---- Plantarum_, of Bentham and Hooker, 313

---- ---- of Endlicher, 314

---- ---- of de Jussieu, 314

---- ---- of Linnaeus, 314

Genera, Tournefort and, 40

Geographical distribution, of Fungi, 228, 229

---- ---- J. D. Hooker on, 319-322

Geological zones, Williamson and, 248

Geology, Binney and, 245, 246

---- Father of English, 247

---- of Yorkshire, 247

---- Williamson and, 251

Geotropism, Grew on, 59

Gesner, classification and, 10, 11

Gilbert, Sir Joseph Henry, life of, =233-242=

---- ---- career of, 234

---- ---- chemical training of, 233-234

---- ---- Hellriegel and, 240

---- ---- Lawes and, 233

---- ---- Rothamsted and, 234

Ginger-beer plant, Ward on, 269, 270

Glasgow, Botanic Gardens at, 129, 130, 292

---- W. Hooker and Professorship of, 130-133

Glasnevin, Harvey and Botanic Gardens of, 213

Goebel, on W. Hooker, 148, 149

---- on _Bryophyta_, 189

Golden age, of Botany, 193-194

Graham, Edinburgh Professorship and, =291-293=

---- Glasgow Gardens and, 292

---- teaching and, 292, 293, 299

Grand'Eury, Williamson and, 253

Graphical method, Ward and, 276

Gray, Asa, 224, 321

Greeks, Botany of, 9

Greenhouses, ventilation of, 81

Greville, W. Hooker and, 144, 147

Grew, Nehemiah, life of, =44-64=

---- ---- anatomy and, 47-57, 135

---- ---- Hales and, 81

---- ---- Malpighi and, 48

---- ---- Schleiden and, 48

---- ---- versatility of, 45

Griffith, William, life of, =178-191=

---- ---- botanical work of, 180

---- ---- collections of, 182

---- ---- contemporaries of, 183

---- ---- Herbarium of, 312

---- ---- methods of, 183

---- ---- morphology and, 182-183

---- ---- travels of, 180-182

---- ---- University College and, 179

Griffiths, Mrs, on algae, 211, 223

Growth, Hales on, 82

---- logarithmic curve of, 273

Gwynne-Vaughan, on _Nymphaeaceae_, 199

Gymnosperms, R. Brown on, 117, 118

---- seeds of, 257

Hales, Stephen, life of, =65-83=

---- ---- Alston and, 285-286

---- ---- Chemistry and, 67, 78-80

---- ---- Physics and, 67

---- ---- Physiology and, 67, 71-78, 80-83

Hartog, Marcus, Williamson and, 255

Harvey, William Henry, life of, =202-224=

---- ---- collections of, 208-210, 216-218

---- ---- Darwin and, 221

---- ---- W. Hooker and, 207-208, 211, 219

---- ---- influence of, 221

---- ---- lectures of, 213-215

---- ---- publications of, 219

Hellriegel, on _Leguminosae_, 240-241, 267

Henfrey, Arthur, life of, =192-203=

---- ---- on critical species, 201

---- ---- on fertilisation, 195

---- ---- on sex in plants, 193-198

---- ---- Suminski and, 197-198

---- ---- text-books of, 200

---- ---- as translator and editor, 200

---- ---- work of, 192

Henslow, George, on Henslow, 151-163

Henslow, John Stevens, life of, =151-163=

---- ---- Berkeley and, 226

---- ---- botanical work of, 154

---- ---- collections of, 152-153

---- ---- Ecology and, 152-153

---- ---- Education and, 153-154, 158-159

---- ---- lectures of, 157

---- ---- on "rust" disease, 275

---- ---- scientific studies of, 151-152

---- ---- views of, 156

Herbalist, Hill as, 92, 100

Herbalists, work of, 47

_Herbals_, of Culpeper, 47

---- of Dodonaeus, 10

---- of Fuchs, 9

---- of Lobelius, 10

---- of Parkinson, 47

---- of Pierre Pena, 10

---- of Tragus (Bock), 9

Herbarium, of Falconer and Griffith, 312

---- Kew, 140

Herbs, classification and, 29, 30, 34

Hermann, work of, 26, 39

Hill, John, life of, =84-107=

---- ---- as actor, 85

---- ---- on anatomy, 93-96

---- ---- character of, 104-107

---- ---- as gardener, 93

---- ---- as herbalist, 92

---- ---- on Linnean method, 39

---- ---- on literature, 86-87, 92-93

---- ---- medical career of, 85

---- ---- methods of, 88

---- ---- on Natural History, 87

---- ---- on physiology, 96-100

---- ---- as systematist, 103

---- ---- on taxonomy, 100-103

Hill, T. G., on J. Hill, 84

_Himalayan Journals_, Hooker's, 305

Hofmeister, influence of, 6

---- morphology and, 4

---- predecessors of, 135

---- work of, 186, 191, 194, 195

Hofmeisterian epoch, papers of, 198

Hooke, on anatomy, 135

---- on cellular structure, 53

---- microscope and, 53

Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, life of, =302-323=

---- ---- as Administrator, 308-311

---- ---- Bentham and, 313

---- ---- Darwin and, 303, 316-319

---- ---- early life of, 302-303

---- ---- Edinburgh and, 293

---- ---- Essays of, 319-322

---- ---- as Geologist, 307-308

---- ---- as Systematist, 311-315
---- ---- as Traveller, 304-307

Hooker, Sir William, life of, =126-150=

---- ---- Berkeley and, 227

---- ---- collections of, 139, 140

---- ---- on cryptogams, 227

---- ---- diagnosis and, 147-148

---- ---- Floristic works of, 143-145

---- ---- Glasgow and, 127, 129

---- ---- _Icones Plantarum_, 143

---- ---- Journals and, 142-143

---- ---- Kew and, 127, 130, 133-134, 136, 140, 149

---- ---- Linnean Society and, 127

---- ---- as Naturalist, 126-127

---- ---- as Pteridologist, 144-148

---- ---- as Systematist, 148-149

---- ---- teaching and, 130-132

Hookerian collections, Kew and, 310

Hope, life of, =286-290=

---- Alston and, 287

---- Botanic Gardens and, 288

---- de Jussieu and, 287

---- physiology and, 286-289

Horticulture, Lindley and, 3, 171, 172

How, British Flora and, 43

Hutton, Fossil botany and, 176-177

Huxley, lectures of, 261

---- on mutability of species, 317

_Icones Plantarum_, W. Hooker and, 143

Imbibition of water, Hales on, 75-76

---- ---- Sachs on, 76

Immunity, Grass and, 276

---- Ward on, 266

_Index Kewensis_, origin of, 314

India, J. D. Hooker's flora of, 312

---- J. D. Hooker's travels in, 306

Ingenhousz, on plant nutrition, 69

Insectivorous plants, J. D. Hooker on, 308

Ipswich Museum, J. S. Henslow and, 156, 159, 160

Jackson, Daydon, _Index Kewensis_ and, 314

Jodrell Laboratory, Ward at, 262

---- ---- Williamson and, 259

Judd, on Williamson, 251

Jung, Linnaeus and, 15

---- Ray and, 35

---- Systematic botany and, 15

de Jussieu, de Candolle and, 41, 42

---- classification and, 109, 134, 287

---- Tournefort and Ray and, 42

Keeble, F., on Lindley, 164-177

Kew Gardens, Administration of, 309-310

---- ---- Bentham's gifts to, 140

---- ---- Hales and, 81

---- ---- Herbarium at, 305

---- ---- Herbarium and Library at, 141, 310

---- ---- Hill and, 93

---- ---- W. Hooker Director of, 127, 130, 133-4, 136-7, 140, 149

---- ---- the two Hookers at, 308-309

---- ---- Lindley and, 136-138, 169-170

---- ---- Mycological Herbarium at, 231

---- ---- Orchid Herbarium at, 170

---- ---- Thiselton-Dyer and, 81, 150, 203, 259

Kidston, Witham's collection and, 245

_Kingia_, R. Brown on, 117

King's Botanist, Alston as, 283

---- ---- Arthur as, 284

Knaut, work of, 26, 39

Lang, on Griffith, 178-191

Lankester, E., 193

Lankester, Ray, on _Schizomycetes_, 265

Lawes, agriculture and, 235

---- Gilbert and, 235-236

---- on nitrogen assimilation, 267

Leaves, classification on form of, 21

---- movements of, 96-99

---- structure and functions of, 96-97

---- vernation of, 50

Leguminous nodules, Gilbert on, 239

---- ---- Hellriegel and, 240

---- ---- Ward on, 267

_Lepidodendron_, Williamson and, 258

Lichens, Ward on, 264, 270

Liebig, mineral theory of, 237-240

---- controversy with Gilbert, 238

Light on plants, Hales and, 80, 81

---- ---- Hill on, 97

Lily disease, Ward on, 266, 267

Lindley, John, life of, =164-177=

---- ---- activities of, 166

---- ---- J. Banks and, 168

---- ---- _Botanical Register_ and, 174

---- ---- characteristics of, 177

---- ---- on cryptogams, 195

---- ---- on Darwin, 174

---- ---- Horticulture and, 171

---- ---- Hutton and, 245, 248

---- ---- Library and, 174, 177

---- ---- literary work of, 169-174

---- ---- Professorship of, 168, 169

---- ---- Williamson and, 250

Linnaeus, British botany and, 6

---- Hope and, 286

---- Jung and, 15

---- on Morison and Cesalpino, 27-28, 42, 43

---- on Ray, 38, 42, 43

---- Taxonomy and, 6

---- method, 2, 3, 39

---- ---- Adanson and, 41

---- ---- Hill and, 101-103

---- ---- England and, 39, 40

---- period, 109, 134

---- system, Alston on, 285

---- ---- Hope on, 289

---- ---- influence of, 193

Linnean school, influence of, 195

Linnean Society, R. Brown and, 111, 112, 114, 121-124

---- ---- Berkeley and, 232

---- ---- Darwin-Wallace Celebration, 317, 318

---- ---- Griffith and, 183-185

---- ---- Harvey and, 207

---- ---- Ward and, 263, 264

---- ---- publications of, 184-186, 253

London University, Botany teaching at, 179

---- ---- Henslow and, 154

_Loranthaceae_, Griffith on, 185-186

Lotsy, morphology and, 186

Lycopods, Williamson and, 256

Lyell, _Calamites_ and, 253

---- J. H. Hooker and, 308, 320

---- mutability of species and, 317

_Lyginodendron_, Williamson and, 256, 257

Malpighi, anatomy and, 44, 135, 286

---- Grew and, 6, 48, 63

---- Hales and, 67, 68, 81

---- on seeds and seedlings, 35, 36

Manchester, Geological Society of, 245

---- Natural History Society of, 249

---- Professorship at, 250

---- Ward and, 264

Mangroves, Griffith and, 186-187

Manures, experiments with, 234, 236, 237

---- effect of, 237

---- nitrogenous, 238

_Marchantia_, Henfrey on, 199

Massee, George, on Berkeley, 225-232

_Materia Medica_, Alston and, 285

---- ---- Hope and, 287-289

---- ---- the Prestons and, 283

---- ---- Sutherland and, 282

Mayow, Hales and, 66, 79

McNab, Edinburgh Botanic Gardens and, 291, 292, 299

Medullary rays, Grew on, 56

Metabiosis, Ward on, 270

Microscope, R. Brown and, 119, 120

---- Hill and, 94

Microtechnique, Henfrey and, 199

Microtome, Hill's use of, 94

von Mohl, protoplasmic continuity and, 199, 200

Morison, Robert, life of, =16-43=

---- ---- the Bauhins and, 20

---- ---- Cesalpino and, 26

---- ---- classification of, 19, 21

---- ---- method of, 22-25

---- ---- Ray and, 34, 35, 39

---- ---- on _Umbelliferae_, 22

---- ---- works of, 19-20

Morphology, Berkeley on Fungal, 230-231

---- Floral, 35

---- Foundation of Plant, 15

---- Griffith on, 179

---- Hofmeisterian epoch, 198

---- modern, 135

---- Ray's essays on, 35

---- of reproductive organs, 187

Museums, J. S. Henslow and, 160

---- Hill and, 87

---- W. Hooker and, 137-140

Mutability of species, 317, 320

Mycology, Systematic, 227

Mycoplasm theory, 274, 275

Myoshi, chemiotaxis and, 275

Nägeli, fertilisation in Ferns, 196

Nathorst, on Bennettiteae, 253

Natural History, Henslow and, 3

---- ---- Hill on, 87

---- ---- Ray on, 43

Nature Study, J. S. Henslow and, 161, 162

Newton, Hales and, 66, 72, 78, 80

Nitrogen assimilation, Gilbert and Lawes and, 238-241

---- ---- Hellriegel and, 240-241

---- ---- leguminous plants and, 240

---- ---- Ward and, 267, 268

---- theory, 237-241

Nucleus, R. Brown and, 119, 135

Nutation, Grew on, 60

---- Hales on, 74

Nutrition, Hales on, 72, 80, 83

---- Ingenhousz on, 69

---- transference of, 278

_Nymphaeaceae_, Henfrey on, 199

Oceanic islands, J. D. Hooker on, 321

Oliver, F. W., on Henfrey, 192-203

Oolitic plants of Yorkshire, 253

_Orchidaceae_, R. Brown and, 115, 116

---- Lindley and, 165, 174-176

Organography, Dickson and, 301

Origin of Species, J. D. Hooker's essay, 320

Ovule, R. Brown on, 117-119, 184-185

---- Griffith on, 185-188

---- Schleiden and, 185

Oxford, Professorship at, 16, 17

---- Gardens of, 16, 17, 27

Parasites, education of, 277

---- host of, 268

Parasitic habit, adoption of, 269

Parasitism, adaptive, 277

Permanence of species, Lindley and, 173

Philosophical Biology, J. D. Hooker and, 315-323

Philosophical Transactions, Ward and, 264, 266-267, 269, 270, 275

Phlogiston theory, 66, 79

Photosynthesis, 80

Plant diseases, Ward on, 268

Plant histology, early work in, 199

Plant nutrition, 69, 72

Plant pathology, 4, 231-232

Plant physiology, Agriculture and, 7

---- ---- Chemistry and, 7

---- ---- experimental, 68, 83

---- ---- founders of, 2, 6, 68

---- ---- Gilbert and, 234-235

---- ---- Grew on, 58, 60, 61

---- ---- Hales and, 71-78, 80-83

---- ---- Hope and, 287, 289

---- tissues, Grew on, 54

Plants, medicinal properties of, 47

Pleomorphism, Bacteria and, 265

---- _Uredineae_ and, 266

Pollen, Amici's discovery, 194, 195

---- R. Brown and, 115-116

---- chamber, in _Cycas_, 187-188

Polyembryony, 117

Popularisation of Science, 250

Potato disease, 231, 266

Praeger, R. L., on Harvey, 202-224

Presl, on Ferns, 145-147

Preston, C. and G., _Materia Medica_ and, 283

_Primofilices_ of Arber, 257

_Proteaceae_, R. Brown on, 114

Protective mimicry in _Orchidaceae_, 116

Protoplasm, von Mohl and, 135

_Pteridophyta_, Griffith on, 188

---- alternation of generations, 188-189

Pteridosperms, secondary growth in, 256

---- seeds of, 257

Q. J. M. S., Ward and, 263-266

Quaker Schools, Science in Irish, 205

Ray, John, life of, =28-43=

---- ---- on Classification, 28-29, 34, 36-38

---- ---- on floral morphology, 35

---- ---- influence of, 23, 109

---- ---- Jung and, 15

---- ---- _Methodus Plantarum_, 32-34

---- ---- on seeds and seedlings, 35

---- ---- on transmission of water, 68

---- Society, Harvey on, 210

Renaissance of Botany, 5, 193, 194, 203

Renault, Williamson and, 255

Reproduction, Hill's views on, 99-100

_Rhamnus infectorius_, Ward on, 267

Ringing experiments, Hales and, 76-77

Root pressure, Hales on, 77, 78

Roots, Grew on, 51, 53, 55, 56

Ross, J. D. Hooker's travels with, 303-305, 312

Rothamsted, experiments on plants, 234-241

---- experiments on animals, 241

---- publications, 235-236, 241

Royal Horticultural Society, Lindley and, 166, 168

Royal Society, Gilbert and, 234

---- ---- Grew and, 63

---- ---- Hales and, 70

---- ---- Henfrey and, 193

---- ---- Hill and, 88-91

---- ---- Hooker, J. D., and, 310-311

---- ---- Ward and, 279

---- ---- Williamson and, 251, 253, 257, 259

---- ---- medal, 172, 234, 279

Rust fungus, physiological species of, 276

Rutherford, Edinburgh Medical School and, 290

---- Chemical work of, 290

Sachs, on growth, 82

---- on Hales, 65, 67, 68

---- History of Botany, 65, 191, 193

---- on Hofmeister, 198

---- on physiology, 72, 74, 75

---- on Ray, 68

---- Textbook, 194

---- on transpiration, 72-74

---- on water transport, 76

---- on Ward, 262

_Schizomycetes_, Ward on, 265

Schleiden, fertilisation, 194-196

---- Grew and, 48

---- morphology and, 134, 185, 186, 197

Schwendener's Theory, Bornet and, 278

---- ---- Ward and, 264, 278

Science and Art Department, Ward and, 261

Scientific exploration, Golden age of, 304

Scott, D. H., on Williamson, 243-260

Scottish Flora, Hope and, 289

Seaweeds, Flora of, 219

---- Harvey and, 208, 210-212, 214, 216

---- systematic study of, 202

Secondary growth, in Cryptogams, 254-256

---- ---- systematic importance of, 254, 256

Seeds and seedlings, Grew on, 49, 62

---- ---- ---- Malpighi on, 35

---- ---- ---- Ray on, 35

Sex in plants, Alston on, 286

---- ---- ---- in Cryptogams, 195, 196

---- ---- ---- denial of, 285

---- ---- ---- in Ferns, 135, 196-197

---- ---- ---- in flowering plants, 194

---- ---- ---- Grew on, 61, 62

Shrubs, Ray's classification of, 30, 34

Sibbald, 281

Solms-Laubach, on Williamson, 256, 257

---- ---- on Scott, 258

Sorby, Williamson and, 251

South Kensington, Science Schools at, 261, 262

Species, critical, 201

---- "lumping" of, 201

_Species Filicum_, 145, 146

Spencer, Herbert, 80

_Sphenophyllum_, Williamson and, 255-256

Starch, extraction of, 160, 161

Stems, annual rings in, 57

---- comparative anatomy of, 51, 56

---- modified, 57, 58

---- secondary thickening in, 56

_Sternbergiae_, Williamson on, 252

_Stigmaria_, Williamson on, 257

Suminski, sex in Ferns, 196-197

---- and Schleiden's theory, 197

Susceptibility, Ward on, 268

Sutherland, Edinburgh Professor, =281-282=

Symbiosis, physiological aspect of, 269

---- fermentation and, 270

_Synopsis Filicum_, publication of, 146, 147

Systematic botany, Balfour and, 299

---- ---- Bauhin and, 14

---- ---- Berkeley on, 227-230, 231

---- ---- British School of, 6

---- ---- R. Brown and, 121

---- ---- Cesalpino and, 11

---- ---- Ferns and, 144-148

---- ---- first publication on, 32

---- ---- Founders of, 2

---- ---- Griffith and, 184

---- ---- Harvey and, 220

---- ---- W. Hooker and, 3, 127, 132

---- ---- J. D. Hooker, 311-315

---- ---- Lindley and, 3

---- ---- _Materia Medica_ and, 282

---- ---- Morison and Ray and, 6, 47

---- ---- Seventeenth Century and, 14

Taxonomy, Hill and, 100

---- Linnaeus and, 6

---- Ray on, 6

---- rise of, 202-203

Theophrastus, Botany and, 8, 9

---- Cesalpino and, 11

---- Hill and, 85, 86

---- influence of, 11

---- Jung on, 15, 35

---- Ray on, 35

Theory of Descent, J. D. Hooker and, 316

Thiselton-Dyer, 2, 81, 259

---- ---- anatomy and, 150

---- ---- New Botany, 203

---- ---- on Ward, 261-279

Thomson, Gilbert under, 233-234

---- J. D. Hooker and, 306, 312

Timiriazeff, 80

Tournefort, Alston on, 285

---- on Cesalpino, 27

---- on Ray, 38

---- on Morison, 27

---- on de Jussieu, 42

---- work of, 40

Tracheae, Grew on, 51, 57

Transmission of water, Hales on, 68

Transpiration, Hales on, 72-77

---- and Light, 81

Trees, classification of, 31, 34

Treub, 186, 187

Trimen, Ceylon Flora and, 312

Tulasne, on "rust" disease, 275

Turgescence, Hales and, 82

University College, London, Gilbert and, 232, 233-4

---- ---- ---- Griffith and, 179

---- ---- ---- Lindley and, 166, 168, 177

---- ---- ---- Williamson and, 249

_Uredineae_, Banks and, 275

---- Eriksson and, 276

---- Ward and, 263, 266, 274, 275

Vascular Cryptogams, classification of, 254-255

---- ---- Henfrey and, 194

---- system, of climbing plants, 55

Vegetable physiology, Weddell and, 248

Vernation of leaves, Grew on, 50

Vessels, Hill and function of, 95

---- Grew and formation of, 52

---- Grew and nature of, 55

---- Grew and spiral, 57

Vienna Congress and Hill, 104

Vines on Morison and Ray, 8

---- on Ward, 261, 262

Wallace and Darwin, 315, 317

Ward, Harry Marshall, life of, =261-279=

---- ---- at Cambridge, 274

---- ---- in Ceylon, 262-264

---- ---- at Cooper's Hill, 266

---- ---- at Manchester, 264

---- ---- methods of, 278-279

---- ---- on coffee disease, 262-264

---- ---- on bacteriology, 265-268, 271-274

---- ---- on symbiosis, 268-271

---- ---- on _Uredineae_, 266, 275-277

Warming, on Ecology, 321

Water supply, Ward on, 274

_Welwitschia_, J. D. Hooker on, 308

Wheat, experiments on, 236-237

Wieland, on fossil plants, 253

Wilfarth, 267

Williamson, William Crawford, life of, =243-260=

---- ---- collections of, 258

---- ---- early life of, 247

---- ---- as Fossil Botanist, 7, 253

---- ---- as Geologist, 249

---- ---- as Lecturer, 250, 251

---- ---- at Manchester, 250

---- ---- mistakes of, 257, 258

---- ---- as Naturalist, 248

---- ---- results of, 256

---- ---- Ward and, 264

---- ---- as Zoologist, 4

_Williamsonia_, 253

Witham, 243-245, 307

Yorkshire, palaeontology of, 247

_Zamia_, Williamson on, 253

Zoologist, Williamson as, 4

---- Berkeley as, 226

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE

Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=.
Superscripts are denoted by ^ and have not been expanded.
Subscripts in chemical formulae are denoted by _ eg CO_2.

Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors
have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences
within the text and consultation of external sources.

All botanical terms in the text have been retained. Except for
those changes noted below, misspelling by the authors,
inconsistent or archaic usage, has been retained. For example,
cell-walls, cell walls; sea-weed, seaweed; Linnæus Linnaeus;

p 69 'limped' changed to 'limpid'.
p 106 'concensus' changed to 'consensus'.
Footnote [105] 'completer' changed to 'more complete'.
Footnote [112] 'p. 8*.' changed to 'p. 8.'.
p 173 'Endogens' (repeated in list) changed to 'Exogens'.
p 220 'deterrants' changed to 'deterrents'.
p 248 'estuarian' changed to 'estuarine'.
p 300 'Walker Arnott' changed to 'Walker-Arnott'.

Index: 'Anabaena' changed to 'Anabena'.
Index: (De Candolle:) 'Prodomus' changed to 'Prodromus'.
Index: 'Elfing' changed to 'Elfving'.
Index: (Ward:) '261-279' made bold '=261-279='.