Chapter VI (2)

I believe, then, that in Central Caucasus the Kartulinian Georgians have been intrusive; and this is rendered probable by the character of the populations to the north and east of them. Between Georgia and Daghestan we have, in the pre-eminently inaccessible parts of the eastern half of Caucasus[41], two fresh families, different from each other, different from the Lesgians, and different from the Circassians.

With such reasons for believing the original direction of the Georgian area to have been westernly, we may continue the investigation. That they were the occupants of a considerable portion of the eastern half of the ancient Pontus, is probable from the historical importance of the Lazi in the time of Justinian, when a Lazic war disturbed the degenerate Romans of Constantinople. It is safe to carry them as far west as Trebizond. It is safe, too, to carry them farther. One of the commonest of the Georgian terminations is the syllable _-pe_ or _-bi_, the sign of the plural number; a circumstance which gives the town of _Sino-pe_ a Georgian look--_Sinope_ near the promontory of _Calli-ppi_.

2. _The Irôn._--To the north-west of Tiflis we have the towns of Duchet and Gori, one on the Kur itself, and one on a left-hand feeder of it. The mountains above are in the occupation of the _Irôn_ or _Osetes_. In Russian Georgia they amount to about 28,000. The name _Irôn_ is the one they give themselves; _Oseti_ is what they are called by the Georgians. Their language contains so great a per-centage of Persian words or _vice versâ_, that it is safe to put them both in the same class. This has, accordingly, been done--and a great deal more which is neither safe nor sound has been done besides.

3. _The Mizjeji._--Due east of the mountaineer Irôn come the equally mountaineer Mizjeji, a family numerically small, but falling into divisions and subdivisions. Hence, it has a pre-eminent claim to be considered aboriginal to the fastnesses in which it is found. The parts north of Telav, to the north-east of Tiflis, form the Mizjeji area. It is a small one--the Circassians bound it on the north, and on the east--

4. _The Lesgians_ of Eastern Caucasus or Daghestan, next to the Circassians the most independent family of Caucasus. None falls into more divisions and subdivisions: _e.g._

_a._ The _Marulan_ or _Mountaineers_ (from _Marul_ = _mountain_) speak a language called the Avar, of which the Anzukh, Tshari, Andi, Kabutsh, Dido and Unsoh are dialects.

_b._ _The Kasi-kumuk._

_c._ _The Akush._

_d._ _The Kura of South Daghestan._

The displacements of the Irôn and Mizjeji--and from the limited area of their occupancies, displacement is a legitimate inference--must have been chiefly effected by the Georgians alone; that of the Lesgians seems referable to a triple influence. That the Talish to the north of Ghilan are Lesgians who have changed their native tongue for the Persian, is a probable suggestion of Frazer’s. If correct, it makes the province of Shirvan a likely part of the original Lesgian area--encroachment having been effected by the Armenians, Persians, and Georgians.

5. _The Circassians_ occupy the northern Caucasus from Daghestan to the Kuban; coming in contact with the Slavonians and Tartars, for the parts between the Sea of Azov and the Caspian. As both these are pre-eminent for encroachment, the earlier contact was, probably, that of the most northern members of the Circassian family, and the southern Ugrians. The divisions and subdivisions of the Circassian family are both numerous and strongly marked.

_The Armenians._--Except amongst the mountaineer Irôn and Mizjeji, there are Armenians over the whole of Russian Caucasus--mixed, for the most part, with Georgians. They are sojourners rather than natives. In Shirvan, Karabagh, and Karadagh they are similarly mixed with Persians and Turks. In this case, however, the Armenian population is probably the older; so that we are approaching the original nucleus of the family. In Erivan there are more Armenians than aught else; and in Kars and Erzerúm they attain their _maximum_. In Diarbekr the frontier changes, and the tribes which now indent the Armenian area are the Semitic Arabs and Chaldani of Mesopotamia, and the Persian Kurds of Kurdistan.

A great deal has been said about the extent to which the Armenian language differs from the Georgian, considering the geographical contact between the two. True it is that the tongues are in contact _now_, and so they probably were 2000 years ago. Yet it by no means follows that they were always so. The Georgian has encroached, the Irôn retreated; a fact which makes it likely that, at a time when there was no Georgian east of Imiritia, the Osetic of Tshildir and the Armenian of Kars met on the Upper Kur. The inference drawn from the relations between the Môn, Khô, and Tʻhay tongues is repeated here, inasmuch as the Irôn and Armenian are more alike than the Armenian and Georgian. As a rough measure of the likeness, I may state the existence of the belief that both are Indo-European.

_Asia Minor._--From Armenia the transition is to Asia Minor. One of the circumstances which give a pre-eminent interest and importance to the ethnology of Asia Minor is the certainty of the original stock being, at the present moment, either wholly extinct, or so modified and changed as to have become a _problem_ rather than a _fact_. There is neither doubt nor shadow of doubt as to this--since it is within the historical period that this transformation has taken place. It is within the historical period that the Osmanli Turks, spreading, more immediately from the present country of Turkestan, but remotely from the chain of the Altaic Mountains, founded the kingdom of Roum under the Seljukian kings, and as a preliminary to the invasion and partial occupation of Europe, made themselves masters of the whole country limited by Georgia, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Syria on the east and south, and by the Euxine, the Bosporus, the Propontis, the Hellespont, and the Ægean Sea westwards. Since then, whatever may be the _blood_, the language has been Turk. This is, of course, _primâ facie_ evidence of the stock being Turk also. Nor are there any _very_ cogent reasons on the other side. The physiognomy is generally described as Turk, and the habits and customs as well.

Such is what we get from the general traveller--and a more minute ethnology than this has not yet been applied. What will be the result, when a severer test is applied, is another question. It is most probable that points of physiognomy, fragmentary traditions and superstitions, old customs, and peculiar idiotisms in the way of dialect, will point to a remnant of the older stock immediately preceding it. In such a case, the ethnological question becomes complicated--since the present Turks will be then supposed to have _mixed_ with the older natives, rather than to have replaced them _in toto_: so that the phænomena will rather be those exhibited in England (where the proportion of the _older_ Celtic and the _newer_ Anglo-Saxon is an open question) than those of the United States of America, where the blood is purely European, and where the intermixture of the aboriginal Indian--if any--goes for nothing.

Of the occupants of Asia Minor previous to the Osmanli Turks we can ascertain the elements, but not the proportions which they bore to each other.

1. There was an element supplied by the Byzantine Greek population--itself pre-eminently mixed and heterogeneous.

2. There was an element supplied by the purer Greek population of Greece Proper and the Islands.

3. There were, perhaps, traces of the old Greek populations of Æolia, Doris, and Ionia.

4. There was an extension of the Armenian population from the east.

5. Of the Georgian from the north-east.

6. Of the Semitic from the south-east.

7. There was also Arab and Syriac intermixture consequent on the propagation of Mahometanism.

8. There were also remnants of a Proper Roman population introduced during the time of the Republic and Western Empire, _e.g._ of the sort that the Consulate of Cicero would introduce into Cilicia.

9. There were also remnants of the _Persian_ supremacy, _e.g._ of a sort which would be introduced when it was a Satrapy of Tissaphernes or Pharnabazus.

10. Lastly, there would be traces of the _Macedonian_ Greeks; whose impress would be stamped upon it during the period which elapsed between the fall of Darius and that of Antiochus.

All this suggests numerous questions--but they are questions of minute rather than general ethnology. The latter takes us to the consideration of the populations of the frontier. Here we find--

1. Georgians.
2. Armenians.
3. Semites of Mesopotamia and Syria.
4. Greeks of the Ægean Islands.
5. Bulgarians, and Turks of Thrace.

Of these, the last are recent intruders; so that the real ethnology to be considered is that of _ancient_ Thrace. Unfortunately this is as obscure as that of Asia Minor itself.

The Greeks of the Ægean are _probably_ intrusive; the other three are ancient occupants of their present areas.

Now, in arguing upon the conditions afforded by this frontier, it is legitimate to suppose that each of the populations belonging to it had some extension beyond their present limits, in which case the _à-priori_ probabilities would be that--

1. On the north-west there was an extension of the Thracian population.

2. On the north-east, of the Georgian.

3. On the east, of the Armenian.

4. On the south, of the Syrian and Mesopotamian.

Now, the population of Asia Minor _may_ have been a mere extension of the populations of the frontiers--one or all.

But it also may have been separate and distinct from any of them.

In this case, we are again supplied with an alternative.

1. The population may have been _one_--just as that of Germany is _one_.

2. The population may have fallen in several--nay, numerous divisions--so that the so-called races may have been _one_, _two_, _three_, _four_, or even more.

Dealing with these questions, we first ask what are the reasons for supposing the population--whether single or subdivided--of Asia to have been _peculiar_, _i.e._ different from that of the frontier areas--Georgia, Thrace, Armenia, Mesopotamia and Syria?

This is answered at once by the evidence of the Lycian Inscriptions, which prove the _Lycian_, at least, to have been distinct from all or any of the tongues enumerated.

The following extracts, however, from Herodotus carry us farther:--

“The Lycians were originally out of Crete; since, in the old times, it was the Barbarians who held the whole of Crete. When, however, there was a difference in Crete, in respect to the kingdom, between the sons of Europa, Minos and Sarpedon, and when Minos got the best in the disturbance, he (Minos) expelled both Sarpedon himself and his faction; and these, on their expulsion, went to that part of Asia which is the _Milyadic_ land. For that country which the Lycians now inhabit was in the old times _Milyas_; and the _Milyæ_ were then called _Solymi_. For a time Sarpedon ruled over them. They called themselves by the name which they brought with them; and even now, the Lycians are called by the nations that dwell around them, _Termilæ_. But when Lycus, the son of Pandion, driven away from Athens, and like Sarpedon, by his brother (Ægeus), came to the Termilæ under Sarpedon, they, thence, in the course of time, were called, after the name of Lycus, Lycians. The usages are partly Cretan, partly Carian. One point, however, they have peculiar to themselves, and one in which they agree with no other men. They name themselves after their mothers, and not from their fathers: so that if any one be asked by another _who he is_, he will designate himself as the son of his mother, and number up his mother’s mothers. Again, if a free woman marry a slave, the children are deemed free; whereas, if a man be even in the first rank of citizens, and take either a strange wife or a concubine, the children are dishonoured.”

Whilst Asia Minor was being conquered for Persia, under the reign of Cyrus, by Harpagus, the _Carians_ made no great display of valour; with the exception of the citizens of Pedasus. These gave Harpagus considerable trouble; but, in time, were vanquished. Not so the Lycians.--“The Lycians, as Harpagus marched his army towards the Xanthian plain, retreated before him by degrees, and fighting few against many, showed noble deeds: but being worsted and driven back upon the town, they collected within the citadel their wives, and children, and goods, and servants. They then set light to the citadel to burn it down. This being done, they took a solemn oath, and making a sally died to a man, sword in hand. But of those Lycians who now called themselves Xanthians, the majority are, except eighty hearths, strangers (ἐπήλυδες). These eighty hearths (families) were then away from the country. And so they escaped. Thus it was that Harpagus took Xanthus. In like manner he took Caunus. _For the Caunians resemble the Lycians in most things._”

And now we have a _second_ fact, the following, viz.--_that what the Lycians were the Caunians were also_.

1. _The Caunians._--According to the special evidence of Herodotus, the Caunians had two peculiar customs--one, to make no distinction between age and sex at feasts, but to drink and junket promiscuously--the other, to show their contempt of all strange foreign gods by marching in armour to the Calyndian mountains, and beating the air with spears, in order to expel them from the boundaries of the Caunian land. Still the _Caunians were Lycian_.

Were any other nations thus Lycian? Caunian? Lyco-Caunian? or Cauno-Lycian? since the particular designation is unimportant.

_The Carians._--The language of the Carians and the Caunians was the same; since Herodotus writes--_The Caunian nation has either adapted itself to the Carian tongue, or the Carian to Caunian._

2. On the other hand, the worship of the national Eponymus was different. _The Lydians and Mysians share in the worship of the Carian Jove. These do so. As many, however, of different nations (ἔθνος) as have become identical in language with the Carians do not do so._

And here comes a difficulty--one part of the facts connects, the other disconnects the Carians from the Lycians. The language goes one way, the customs another.

But this is not the only complication introduced by the _Carian_ family. The whole question of their origin is difficult, and that of their affinities is equally so. It was from the islands to the continent, rather than from the continent to the islands, that the Carians spread themselves; and they did this as subjects of Minos, and under the name of Leleges. As long as the system of Minos lasted, these Carian Leleges paid no tribute; but furnished, when occasion required, ships and sailors instead. And this they did effectually, inasmuch as the Carian was one of the most powerful nations of its day, and, besides that, ingenious in warlike contrivances. Of such contrivances three were adopted by the Greeks, and recognised as the original invention of the Carians. The first of these was the crest for the helmet; the second, the _device_ for the shield; the third, the _handle_ for the shield. Before the Carians introduced this last improvement, the fighting-man hung his buckler by a leathern thong, either on his neck or his left shoulder. Such was the first stage in the history of Carian Leleges, who were insular rather than continental, and Lelegian rather than Carian. It lasted for many years after the death of Minos; but ended in their being wholly ejected from the islands, and exclusively limited to the continent, by the Dorians and Ionians of Greece.

This would connect the--

1. Carians with the aboriginal islanders of the Ægean--these being _Leleges_.

2. Also with the Caunians.

3. Also with the Lycians. Unfortunately, the evidence is not unqualified. It is complicated by--

_The native tradition._--The Carian race is not insular, but aboriginal to the continent; bearing from the earliest times the name it bears at the present time. As a proof of this, the worship of the Carian Jupiter is common to two other, unequivocally continental nations--the _Lydians_ and the _Mysians_. All three have a share in a temple at Mylasa, and each of the three is descended from one of three brothers--Car, Lydus, or Mysus--the respective eponymi of Caria, Lydia, and Mysia.

All this is not written for the sake of any inference; but to illustrate the difficulties of the subject. A new series of facts must now be added--or rather two new ones.

1. There are special statements in the classics that the Phrygian, Armenian, and Thracian languages were the same.

2. One of the three languages of the arrow-headed inscriptions has yet to be identified with any existing tongue.

The reader is in possession of a fair amount of complications. They can easily be increased.

Instead of enlarging on them, I suggest the following doctrine:--

1. That, notwithstanding certain conflicting statements, the populations of Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and part of Lycia, were closely allied.

2. That a language akin to the Armenian was spoken as far westwards as eastern Phrygia.

3. That some third population, either subject to Persia or in alliance with it, spoke the language of the Lycian inscriptions--properly distinguished by Mr. Forbes and others from the ancient Lycian of the Milyans--which last _may_ have been Semitic.

4. That the third language of arrow-headed inscriptions, supposing its locality to have been Media, may have indented the north-eastern frontier.

5. That, besides the Greek, two intrusive languages may have been spoken in the north-west and south-western parts respectively, viz.--

_a._ The Thracian of the opposite coast of the Bosporus.
_b._ The Lelegian of the islands.

Of these, the former was, perhaps, Sarmatian, whilst the latter may have borne the same relation to the Carian as the Malay of Sumatra does to that of the Orang Binúa of the Malayan Peninsula.

It may be added, that the similarity of the name _Thekhes_, the _mountain_ from which the 10,000 Greeks saw the sea, to the Turk _Tagh_, suggests the likelihood of Turk encroachments having existed as early as the time of Artaxerxes.

_Lastly_--The termination _-der_, in _Scaman-der_ (a bilingual appellation) and _Mæan-der_, indicates Persian intrusion of an equally early date.

Of the glosses collected by Jablonsky, none are illustrated by any modern language, except the following:--

_English_ axe.
Lydian _labr-ys._
Armenian _dabar._
Persian _tawar._
Kurd _teper._

_English_ fire.
Phrygian _pyr._
Armenian _pur._
Afghan _wur, or._
Kurd _ûr._
Greek, &c. πῦρ, _fire, &c._

_English_ dog.
Phrygian _kyn._
Armenian _shun._
Sanskrit _shune._
Lettish _suns._

_English_ bread.
Phrygian _bekos._
Armenian _khaz._
Akush _kaz._

_English_ water.
Phrygian _hydôr._
Armenian _tshur._
Greek, &c. ὕδωρ, _water, &c._

There is no denying that these affinities are Indo-European rather than aught else, and that they are Armenian as well--an objection to several of the views laid down in the preceding pages which I have no wish to conceal. However, all questions of this kind are a balance of conflicting difficulties. As a set-off to this, take the following table, where the Armenian affinities are Turk, Dioscurian, and Siberian also.

_English_ man.
Scythian _oior._
Uigur _er._
Kasan _ir._
Baskir _ir._
Nogay _ir._
Tobolsk _ir._
Yeneseian _eri._
Teleut _eri._
Kasach _erin._
Casikumuk _ioori._
Armenian _air._

_The watershed of the Oxus and Indus._--We are in the north-eastern corner of Persia. The Púshta-Khur mountain, like many other hills of less magnitude, contains the sources of two rivers, different in their directions--of the Oxus that falls into the Sea of Aral; and of the right branch of the Kúner, a feeder of the Cabúl river--itself a member of the great water-system of the Indus. Its south-western prolongation gives us the corresponding watershed. This is a convenient point for the study of a difficult but interesting class of mountaineers, who may conveniently be called _Paropamisans_ from the ancient name of the Hindu-kúsh. Their northern limits are the heights in question. Southwards they reach the Afghan frontier in the Kohistan of Cabúl. Eastward they come in contact with India. There is no better way of taking them in detail than that of following the water-courses, and remembering the watersheds of the rivers.

I. _The Oxus._--At the very head-waters of the Oxus, and in contact with the Kirghiz Turks of Pamer, comes the small population of Wokhan, speaking a language neither Turk nor Persian--at least not exactly Persian; and, next to Wokhan, Shughnan, where the dialect (possibly the language) seems to change. Roshan, next (along the Oxus) to Shughnan, seems to be in the same category. Durwaz, however, is simply Tajik. All are independent, and all Mahometan.

II. _The Indus._--1. _The Indus._--The Gilghit[42] river feeds the Indus--two other feeders that join it from the east being called the Hunz and the Burshala, Nil, or Nagar. The population of each of these rivers is agricultural, and is, accordingly, called _Dunghar_, a Hindu, but no native term. Their Rajah is independent; their religion a very indifferent Mahometanism. On the Gilghit and the parts below its junction with the Hunz and Nagar rivers, the dialect (perhaps the language) seems to change, and the people are known as _Dardoh_ (or Dards) and _Chilass Dardoh_--the Daradæ of the Greek and the Daradas of the Sanskrit writers. These, too, are imperfect Mahometans. The Dards and Dunghers carry us as far as Little Tibet (Bultistan) and the Cashmírian frontiers.

2. _The Jhelum._--This is the river of the famous valley of Cashmír--the population whereof (with some hesitation) I consider Paropamisan.

3. _The Cabul River._--1. _The Kúner._--The eastern watershed of the Upper Kúner is common to the Gilghit river. The population is closely akin to the Dardoh and Dungher; its area being Upper and Lower Chitral, its language the Chitrali, its religion Shia Mahometanism.

South of the Chitral, on the _middle_ Kúner, the creed changes, and we have the best known of the Paropamisans, the _Kaffres_ of Kafferistan, reaching as far westwards and northwards as Kunduz and Badukshan--the Kaffres, or Infidels, so called by their Mahometan neighbours, because they still retain their primitive paganism.

Now when we approach the Cabúl river itself, the direction of which, from west to east, is nearly at right angles with the Kúner, the characteristics of the Dardoh, Chitrali, and Kaffre populations decrease--in other words, the area is irregular, and the populations themselves either partially isolated or intermixed. Thus, along the foot of the mountains north of the Cabúl river and west of the Kúner comes the Lughmani country; the language being by no means identical with the Kafir, and the Kafir paganism being reduced to an imperfect Mahometan--_némchú Mussulman_, or _half Mussulman_, being the term applied to the speakers of the Lughmani tongue of the valley of the Nijrow and the parts about it.

The Der, Tirhye, and Pashai vocabularies of Leach all represent Paropamisan forms of speech spoken by small and, more or less, fragmentary populations.

The valley of the Lundye has, almost certainly, been within a recent period, Paropamisan. Thus is it that Elphinstone writes of its chief occupants:--“The Swatís, who are also called Deggauns, appear to be of Indian origin. They formerly possessed a kingdom extending from the western branch of the Hydaspes to near Jellabahad. They were gradually confined to narrower limits by the Afghan tribes; and Swaut and Búnér, their last seats, were reduced by the Eusofzyis in the end of the fifteenth century. They are still very numerous in those countries.” By _Indian_ I believe a population akin to that of Cashmeer is _denoted_--I do not say _intended_. Another extract carries us further still:--“The Shulmauni formerly inhabited Shulmaun, on the banks of the Korrum. They afterwards moved to Tíra, and in the end of the fifteenth century they were in Hustnugger, from which they were expelled by the Eusofzyes. The old Afghan writers reckon them Deggauns, but they appear to have used this word loosely. There are still a few Shulmauni in the Eusofzye country who have some remains of a peculiar language.”

Hence, the Paropamisans may safely be considered as a population of a receding frontier, the encroachment upon their area having been Afghan. With these the Asiatic populations end.

* * * * *

If we now look back upon the ground that has been gone over, we shall find that the evidence of the human family having originated in one particular spot, and having diffused itself from thence to the very extremities of the earth, is by no means absolute and conclusive. Still less is it certain that that particular spot has been ascertained. The present writer _believes_ that it was somewhere in intratropical Asia, and that it was _the single locality of a single pair_--without, however, professing to have proved it. Even this centre is only _hypothetical_--near, indeed, to the point which he looks upon as the starting-place of the human migration, but by no means identical with it. The Basks and Albanians he does not pretend to have affiliated; but he does not, for this reason, absolutely isolate them. They have too many _miscellaneous_ affinities to allow them to stand wholly alone.

In the way of physical conformation, the Hottentot presents the _maximum_ of peculiarities. The speech, however, of the latter is simply African; whilst, in form and colour, the Basks and Albanians are European. A fly is a fly even when we wonder how it came into the amber; and men belong to humanity even when their origin is a mystery. This gives us a composition of difficulties, and it is by taking this and similar phænomena into account, that the higher problems in ethnology must be worked. Nothing short of a clear and comprehensive view of the extent to which points of difference in one department are compensated by points of likeness in another, will give us even a philosophical hypothesis; all _partial_ argument from partial points of disagreement being as unscientific as a similar overvaluation of resemblances.

As for the detail of the chief difficulties, the writer believes that he, unwillingly and with great deference, differs from the best authorities, in making so little of the transition from America to Asia, and so much of that between Europe and Asia. The conviction that the Semitic tongues are simply African, and that all the theories suggested by the term _Indo-European_ must be either abandoned or modified, is the chief element of his reasoning upon this point--reasoning far too elaborate for a small work like the present. He also believes that the languages of Kafferistan, the Dardoh country, and north-eastern Afghanistan, are transitional to the monosyllabic tongues and those of Persia--in other words, that the modern Persian is much more monosyllabic than is generally supposed. Yet even this leaves a break. How far the most _western_ tongue of this class can be connected with those of Europe, and how far the most _south_-western one has Semitic affinities are questions yet to examine--questions beset with difficulties. However, as the skeleton of system he believes the present work to be true as far as it goes, and at the same time convenient for the investigator. That there is much in all existing classifications which requires to be unlearnt is certain. Lest any one think this a presumptuous saying, let him consider the new and unsettled state of the science, and the small number of the labourers as compared with the extent of the field.

THE END.

FOOTNOTES

[27] Since this chapter was written, the news of the premature death of the most influential supporter of the double doctrine of (a.) _the unity of the American families amongst each other_, and (b.) _the difference of the American race from all others_--Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia,--has reached me. It is unnecessary to say, that the second of these positions is, in the mind of the present writer, as exceptionable as the first is correct. Nor is it likely to be otherwise as long as the _eastern_ side of the Rocky Mountains is so exclusively studied as it is by both the American and the English school. I have little fear of the Russians falling into this error. With this remark the objections against the very valuable labours of Dr. Morton begin and end. His _Crania Americana_ is by far the most valuable book of its kind. His _Crania Ægyptiaca_ and other minor works, especially his researches on _Hybridism_, are all definite additions to ethnological science. The impulse which he, personally, gave to the very active study of the Human Species, which so honourably characterises his countrymen, is more than an Englishman can exactly value. Perhaps, it is second only to that given by Gallatin: perhaps, it is scarcely second.

[28] Mr. Norris, for instance, of the Asiatic Society, has given reasons for connecting the Australian tongues with those of the Dekhan.

[29] Taken, with much besides, from Mr. Brown’s Tables, in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

[31] Considering the Burampúter and Ganges as separate rivers.

[32] Conveniently thrown into a single class, and called _Hyperboreans_.

[33] The great family of which the _Mantshús_ are the best-known members.

[34] Not necessarily with _many_ syllables, but with _more than one_--_hyper-mono-syllabic_.

[35] Observe--_not_ of the island of Ceylon.

[36] Of Orissa.

[37] The Cashmírian of Cashmír is in this predicament. It is not safe to say that it is Hindu rather than Persian, or Paropamisan--a term which will soon find its explanation.

[38] From the town of _Dioscurias_, in which Pliny says business was carried on through 130 interpreters--so numerous were the languages and dialects.

[39] The Phasis, Tshorok, &c.

[40] The Kur and Aras.

[41] The _Irôn_ and _Mizjeji_.

[42] From Moorcroft’s Travels in the Himalayan Provinces, and Vigne’s Cashmír.

PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

=London, January 1863.=

Catalogue of Books

PUBLISHED BY MR. VAN VOORST.

INDEX.

Accentuated List of Lepidoptera _p._ 6
Adams & Baikie’s Manual Nat. Hist. 11
Adams’s Genera of Mollusca 5
Aikin’s Arts and Manufactures 13
Anatomical Manipulation 12
Ansted’s Ancient World 9
---- Elementary Course of Geology 9
---- Geologist’s Text-Book 9
---- Gold-Seeker’s Manual 9
---- Scenery, Science, and Art 13
Babington’s Flora of Cambridgeshire 7
---- Manual of British Botany 7
Baptismal Fonts 13
Bate and Westwood’s British Crustacea 4
Beale on Sperm Whale 3
Bell’s British Quadrupeds 3
---- British Reptiles 4
---- British Stalk-eyed Crustacea 4
Bennett’s Naturalist in Australasia 10
Bloomfield’s Farmer’s Boy 14
Boccius on Production of Fish 4
Bonaparte’s List of Birds 3
Brightwell’s Life of Linnæus 13
Burton’s Falconry on the Indus 3
Church and Northcote’s Chem. Analysis 8
Clark’s Testaceous Mollusca 5
Clermont’s Quadrupeds & R. of Europe 3
Couch’s Illustrations of Instinct 11
Cumming’s Isle of Man 12
Cups and their Customs 13
Currency 15
Dallas’s Elements of Entomology 5
Dawson’s Geodephaga Britannica 6
Domestic Scenes in Greenland & Iceland 13
Douglas’s World of Insects 6
Dowden’s Walks after Wild Flowers 8
Drew’s Practical Meteorology 10
Drummond’s First Steps to Anatomy 11
Economy of Human Life 15
Elements of Practical Knowledge 13
England before the Norman Conquest 13
Entomologist’s Annual 5
Fly Fishing in Salt and Fresh Water 4
Forbes’s British Star-fishes 5
Forbes’s Malacologia Monensis 5
---- and Hanley’s British Mollusca 5
---- and Spratt’s Travels in Lycia 12
Garner’s Nat. Hist. of Staffordshire 12
Gosse’s Aquarium 12
---- Birds of Jamaica 3
---- British Sea-Anemones, &c. 12
---- Canadian Naturalist 12
---- Handbook to Marine Aquarium 12
---- Manual of Marine Zoology 12
---- Naturalist’s Rambles on Dev. Coast 12
---- Omphalos 9
---- Tenby 12
Gray’s Bard and Elegy 14
Greg and Lettsom’s British Mineralogy 9
Griffith & Henfrey’s Micrographic Dict. 10
Harvey’s British Marine Algæ 7
---- Thesaurus Capensis 7
---- Flora Capensis 7
---- Index Generum Algarum 7
---- Nereis Boreali-Americana 8
---- Sea-side Book 12
Henfrey’s Botanical Diagrams 7
---- Elementary Course of Botany 7
---- Rudiments of Botany 7
---- Translation of Mohl 7
---- Vegetation of Europe 7
---- & Griffith’s Micrographic Dict. 10
---- & Tulk’s Anatomical Manipulation 11
Henslow, Memoir of 10
Hewitson’s Birds’ Eggs 3
---- Exotic Butterflies 6
Hunter’s Essays, by Owen 10
Instrumenta Ecclesiastica 13
Jeffreys’s British Conchology 5
Jenyns’s Memoir of Henslow 10
---- Observations in Meteorology 10
---- Observations in Natural History 10
---- White’s Selborne 12
Jesse’s Angler’s Rambles 4
Johnston’s British Zoophytes 5
---- Introduction to Conchology 5
---- Terra Lindisfarnensis 8
Jones’s Aquarian Naturalist 10
Jones’s Animal Kingdom 11
---- Natural History of Animals 11
Knox’s (A. E.) Rambles in Sussex 3
Knox (Dr.), Great Artists & Great Anat. 11
Latham’s Descriptive Ethnology 11
---- Ethnology of British Colonies 11
---- Ethnology of British Islands 11
---- Ethnology of Europe 11
---- Man and his Migrations 11
---- Varieties of Man 11
Leach’s Synopsis of British Mollusca 5
Letters of Rusticus 12
Lettsom and Greg’s British Mineralogy 9
Lowe’s Faunæ et Floræ Maderæ 8
---- Manual Flora of Madeira 8
Malan’s Catalogue of Eggs 3
Martin’s Cat. of Privately Printed Books 15
Melville and Strickland on the Dodo 3
Meyrick on Dogs 13
Micrographic Dictionary 10
Mohl on the Vegetable Cell 7
Moule’s Heraldry of Fish 4
Newman’s British Ferns 8
---- History of Insects 5
---- Letters of Rusticus 12
Northcote & Church’s Chem. Analysis 8
Owen’s British Fossil Mammals 9
---- on Skeleton of Extinct Sloth 9
Paley’s Gothic Moldings 14
---- Manual of Gothic Architecture 14
Poor Artist 13
Prescott on Tobacco 13
Prestwich’s Geological Inquiry 9
---- Ground beneath us 9
Samuelson’s Earthworm and Housefly 10
---- Honey-Bee 10
Sclater’s Tanagers 3
Seemann’s British Ferns at One View 7
Selby’s British Forest Trees 8
Shakspeare’s Seven Ages of Man 14
Sharpe’s Decorated Windows 14
Shield’s Hints on Moths and Butterflies 6
Siebold on True Parthenogenesis 6
Smith’s British Diatomaceæ 8
Sowerby’s British Wild Flowers 6
---- Poisonous Plants 6
Spratt and Forbes’s Travels in Lycia 12
Stainton’s Butterflies and Moths 6
---- History of the Tineina 6
Strickland’s Ornithological Synonyms 4
---- Memoirs 9
---- and Melville on the Dodo 3
Sunday Book for the Young 13
Tugwell’s Sea-Anemones 5
Tulk and Henfrey’s Anat. Manipulation 11
Vicar of Wakefield, Illustr. by Mulready 14
Wallich’s North-Atlantic Sea-Bed 10
Watts’s Songs, Illustrated by Cope 14
Ward (Dr.) on Healthy Respiration 12
Westwood and Bate’s British Crustacea 4
White’s Selborne 12
Wilkinson’s Weeds and Wild Flowers 7
Williams’s Chemical Manipulation 8
Wollaston’s Insecta Maderensia 6
---- on Variation of Species 11
Yarrell’s British Birds 3
---- British Fishes 4
---- on the Salmon 4

Students’ Class-Books.

MANUAL OF CHEMICAL QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS. By =A. B. Northcote=,
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HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL MANIPULATION. By =C. Greville Williams=. 15_s._

ELEMENTARY COURSE OF GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. By
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ELEMENTARY COURSE OF BOTANY: Structural, Physiological, and
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MANUAL OF BRITISH BOTANY. By Professor =Babington=, M.A., &c. Fifth
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GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE ORGANIZATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. By
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ZOOLOGY.

MAMMALIA.

A GUIDE TO THE QUADRUPEDS AND REPTILES OF EUROPE, with Descriptions
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HISTORY OF BRITISH QUADRUPEDS, INCLUDING THE CETACEA. By THOMAS BELL,
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NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPERM WHALE, and a Sketch of a South Sea
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BIRDS.

HISTORY OF BRITISH BIRDS. By WILLIAM YARRELL, V.P.L.S., F.Z.S., &c.
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COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS, with
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and descriptions of the Eggs in this edition are from different
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SYSTEMATIC CATALOGUE OF THE EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS, arranged with a
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ORNITHOLOGICAL RAMBLES IN SUSSEX. By A. E. KNOX, M.A., F.L.S. Third
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FALCONRY IN THE VALLEY OF THE INDUS. By R. F. BURTON, Author
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MONOGRAPH OF THE BIRDS FORMING THE TANAGRINE GENUS CALLISTE;
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BIRDS OF JAMAICA. By P. H. GOSSE, F.R.S., Author of the ‘Canadian
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GEOGRAPHICAL AND COMPARATIVE LIST OF THE BIRDS OF EUROPE AND NORTH
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THE DODO AND ITS KINDRED; or, The History, Affinities and Osteology
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Mauritius, Rodriguez, and Bourbon. By H. E. STRICKLAND, M.A.,
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ORNITHOLOGICAL SYNONYMS. By the late HUGH EDWIN STRICKLAND, M.A.,
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REPTILES.

HISTORY OF BRITISH REPTILES. By THOMAS BELL, F.R.S., President of
the Linnean Society, V.P.Z.S., &c., Professor of Zoology in King’s
College, London. Second Edition, with 50 Illustrations, 12_s._

FISHES.

PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF FISH IN FRESH WATERS, by Artificial
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HISTORY OF BRITISH FISHES. By WILLIAM YARRELL, V.P.L.S., F.Z.S., &c.
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YARRELL.--GROWTH OF THE SALMON IN FRESH WATER. With Six Coloured
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HERALDRY OF FISH. By THOMAS MOULE. Nearly six hundred families are
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shell-fish. Nearly seventy ancient seals are described, and upwards
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AN ANGLER’S RAMBLES. By EDWARD JESSE, F.L.S., Author of ‘Gleanings
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INVERTEBRATA.

HISTORY OF BRITISH SESSILE-EYED CRUSTACEA (Sand-hoppers, &c.). By
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HISTORY OF BRITISH STALK-EYED CRUSTACEA (Lobsters, Crabs, Prawns,
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volume is illustrated by 174 Engravings of Species and tail-pieces.
8vo, £1 5_s._; royal 8vo, £2 10_s._

BRITISH CONCHOLOGY; or, an Account of the Mollusca which now inhabit
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