Chapter VIII: Tombs (2)

Such are the only facts we have been able to collect respecting the religious feeling of prehistoric races. They are not sufficient to authorize any final conclusion on the subject. At every turn we are compelled to admit our helplessness. But yesterday this past without a limit was absolutely unknown to us, and to-day we are but beginning to be able to obtain a glimpse into its secrets. We have been the laborers of the first hour, it will be for those who come after us to complete the task we have been able but to begin. May a genuine love of truth be to them, as we may justly claim it has been to us, the only guide.

WORKS BY MARQUIS DE NADAILLAC.

Prehistoric America. By the Marquis de Nadaillac. Translated, with the permission of the Author, by Nancy Bell (N. D'Anvers), author of "History of Art." Edited, with notes, by W. H. Dall. Popular edition. $2 25

CHIEF CONTENTS. -- Man and the Mastodon -- The Kjokkenmoddings and Cave Relics -- Mound-Builders -- Pottery Weapons and Ornaments of the Mound-Builders -- Cliff-Dwellers and Inhabitants of the Pueblos -- People of Central America -- Central American Ruins -- Peru -- Early Race -- Origin of the American Aborigines, etc., etc.

"The best book on this subject that has yet been published, ... for the reason that, as a record of facts, it is unusually full, and because it is the first comprehensive work in which, discarding all the old and worn-out nostrums about the existence on this continent of an extinct civilization, we are brought face to face with conclusions that are based upon a careful comparison of architectural and other prehistoric remains with the arts and industries, the manners and customs, of "the only people, except the whites, who, so far as we know, have ever held the regions in which these remains are found." -- NATION.

The Customs and Monuments of Prehistoric Peoples. By the Marquis de Nadaillac. Translated, with the permission of the Author, by Nancy Bell (N. D'Anvers). Fully illustrated. 8vo. $3 00

CHIEF CONTENTS. -- The Stone Age, its Duration, and its Place in Time -- Food, Cannibalism, Mammals, Fish, Hunting and Fishing, Navigation -- Weapons, Tools, Pottery; Origin of the Use of Fire, Clothing, Ornaments; Early Artistic Efforts -- Caves, Kitchen-Middings, Lake Stations, "Terremares," Crannoges, Burghs, "Nurhags," "Talayoti," and "Truddhi" -- Megalithic Monuments -- Industry, Commerce, Social Organization; Fights, Wounds and Trepanation -- Camps, Fortifications, Vitrified Forts; Santorin; the Towns upon the Hill of Hissarlik -- Tombs -- Index.

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, PUBLISHERS, NEW YORK AND LONDON.

NOTES

[1] -- M. Gaston.

[2] -- Pliny calls them CERAUNIA GEMMA ("Natural History," book ii., ch. 59 book xxxvii., ch. 51).

[3] -- S. Reinach proves clearly enough that the collections of the Emperor Augustus were from Capri.

[4] -- This skeleton was discovered in 1726 by Scheuchzer, a doctor of OEningen, and by him placed in the Leyden Museum, with the pompous inscription HOMO DILUVII TESTIS (PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, vol. xxxiv.). Cuvier, by scraping away the stone, revealed the true nature of the fossil.

[5] -- "Ossium Fossilium Docimasia."

[6] -- "Mem. Acad. des Inscriptions," 1734, vol. x., p. 163.

[7] -- ARCHAEOLOGIA, vol. ii., p. 118.

[8] -- "The Antiquities of Warwickshire," vol. iv., 1656.

[9] -- ARCHAEOLOGIA, vol. xiii., p. 105.

[10] -- Castelfranco: REVUE D'ANTHROPOLOGIE, 1887.

[11] -- ANNALES DES SCIENCES NATURELLES, vol. xvii., p. 607. Cartailhac: MATERIAUX, 1884.

[12] -- "Recherches sur les Ossements Fossiles de la Province de Liege."

[13] -- ATHENAEUM, 16 July, 1859.

[14] -- "Discours sur les Revolutions du Globe," third edition, p. 13, Paris, Didot, 1861.

[15] -- ACAD. DES SCIENCES, 18th and 23d May, 1863.

[16] -- Lubbock: "On the Evidence of the Antiquity of Man Afforded by the Physical Structure of the Somme Valley" (NAT. HIST. REVIEW, vol. ii.). Prestwich: "On the Occurrence of Flint Implements Associated with the Remains of Extinct Species in Beds of a Late Geological Period" (PHIL. TRANS., 1860). Evans: "Flint Implements in the Drift" (ARCH., 1860 -- 62).

[17] -- ACAD. DES SCIENCES, 1859, 1863.

[18] -- Cartailhac: "L'Age de Pierre dans les Souvenirs et les Superstitions Populaires."

[19] -- A short time before his tragic end, the noble and patriotic Gordon sent to Cairo three hatchets or stone wedges found amongst the Niams-Niams, who said they had fallen from Heaven, and who worshipped then with superstitious rites (BULL. INSTITUT EGYPTIEN, 1886, No. 14).

[20] -- "Museo Moscardo," Padova, 1656.

[21] -- According to M. Pitre de Lisle, the Bretons think that these stones vibrate at every clap of thunder.

[22] -- Roulin: ACAD. DES SCIENCES, December 28, 1868.

[23] -- "Congres d'Anthropologie et d'Archeologie Prehistorique," Paris, 1889.

[24] -- Council of Arles in 452, of Tours in 567, of Nantes in 658, of Toledo in 681 and 692, and of Leptis in 743.

[25] -- Baluze: "Capitularia Regum Francorum," vol. i., pp. 518, 1231, 1237.

[26] -- Steenstrup, Forchammer, Thomsen, Worsaae, and Nillsson. The commission appointed by the Copenhagen Academy of Sciences presented six reports on the subject between 1850 and 1856.

[27] -- "Die Anfang des Eisens Cultur," Berlin, 1886.

[28] -- "Archeologie Celtique et Gauloise," p. 46.

[29] -- Dr. Much: "L'Age de Cuivre en Europe et son Rapport avec la Civilisation des Indo-Germains," Vienna, 1886. Pulsky: "Die Kupfer Zeit im Ungarn," Budapest, 1884. Cartailhac: "Ages Prehistoriques de l'Espagne et du Portugal," p. 211. E. Chantre: MAT., June, 1887; and Berthelot: JOURNAL DES SAVANTS, September, 1889.

[30] -- Irenee Cochut: "These presentee a la Faculte de Theologie Protestante de Montauban."

[31] -- See my translation of the author's admirable and exhaustive work on "Prehistoric America," chapters i. and iv. -- Nancy Bell.

[32] -- ACADEMIE DES SCIENCES, May 23, 1881; "Antiquites du Musee de Minoussink," Tomsk, 1886 -- 7.

[33] -- "Les Ages Prehistoriques en Espagne et en Portugal."

[34] -- "Stone Implements from the Northwestern Provinces of India," JOURNAL OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL, Calcutta, 1883.

[35] -- LITERARY JOURNAL OF MADRAS, vol. xiv.

[36] -- "L'Age de Pierre et la Classification Prehistorique d'apres les Sources Egyptiennes," Paris, 1879.

[37] -- Pitt Rivers: "On the Discovery of Chert Implements in the Nile Valley," British Association, York, 1881.

[38] -- Belluci: "L'Eta della Pietra in Tunisia," Roma, 1876, BOL. DELLA SOC. GEOG. ITALIANA, 1876.

[39] -- "The Stone Age of South Africa," JOURN. ANTH. INSTITUTE, 1881.

[40] -- REVUE DES DEUX-MONDES, march 1, 1878.

[41] -- De Quatrefages: REV. D'ETHNOGRAPHIE, 1883, p. 97, etc.

[42] -- Sir J. Lubbock: "Prehistoric Times," pp. 483, 549.

[43] -- ASS. FRANCAISE, le Havre, 1877. DISCOURS D'OUVERTURE.

[44] -- "Prehistoric America," Paris, New York, and London.

[45] -- See my translation of "L'Amerique Prehistorique," chap. i., "Man and the Mastodon." -- Nancy Bell.

[46] -- Many interesting details respecting the Cliff Dwellers are given in De Nadaillac's "L'Amerique Prehistorique," chap. v. -- Nancy Bell.

[47] -- CONGRES DES NATURALISTES ALLEMANDS, Innsbruck, Sept., 1869,

[48] -- "Quaternary man is always man in every acceptation of the word. In every case in which the bones collected have enabled us to judge, he has ever been found to have the hand and foot proper to our species, and that double curvature of the spinal column has been made out, so characteristic that Serres made it the distinctive attribute of his human kingdom. In every case with him, as with us, the skull is more fully developed than the face. In the Neanderthal skull so often quoted as bestial, the cranial capacity is more than double that ever found in the largest gorilla." De Quatrefages: "Hommes Fossiles et Hommes Sauvages," p. 60.

[49] -- In this cave were found the bones of 45 bears. In the Goyet Cave (which bears the number 3), were found complete sets of the bones of 12 mammoths, 8 rhinoceroses, 57 bears, 57 horses, 24 hyaenas, 35 reindeer, 6 uruses, 2 lions, with the bones of a great number of goats, chamois, and boars. Dupont: "L'Homme pendant l'Age de la Pierre," p. 86.

[50] -- These birds belonged to the rapaces, passeres, gallinaceous, wading, and web-footed groups. Every order is represented, and nearly all the bones were those of edible species, which had certainly served as food to man.

[51] -- Richard Andree: "Die Anthropophagie eine Ethnographische Studie," Leipzig, 1887.

[52] -- "Les Hommes de Chavaux et d'Engis" BUL. ACAD. ROY. DE BELGIQUE, vol. xx., 1853; vol. xviii. (new series), 1863; vol. xxii., 1866; MATERIAUX, 1872. p, 517.

[53] -- "L'Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre," p. 225.

[54] -- "Compte Rendu," p. 363.

[55] -- "Hist. Nat.," book vii., sec. 2.

[56] -- Belgrand: "Le Bassin Parisien," vol. i., p. 232.

[57] -- BULL. SOC. ANTH., 1869, p. 476. -- AC. DES SCIENCES, 1870, first week, p. 167.

[58] -- ARCHIVES DU MUSEE NATIONAL DE RIO DE JANEIRO, vol. i., 1876.

[59] -- See my translation of De Nadaillac's "Prehistoric America," pp. 53, 58, and 59." -- N. D'Anvers.

[60] -- "Geography," book iv.

[61] -- "Opera," vol. ii., Migne edition, p. 335. Richard, of Cirencester, says that the Attacotes lived on the shores of the Clyde, beyond the great wall of Hadrian.

[62] -- Schweden's "Urgeschichte," p. 341.

[63] -- The felidae were very numerous in Europe in Quaternary times. We may mention two species of lions, LEO NOBILIS and LEO SPELAEUS, the latter often confounded with the DELIS SPELAEUS of such frequent occurrence in French caves, two species of tigers, TIGRIS EDWARDSIANA and TIGRIS EUROPAEA, the largest of the Quaternary felidae, which was some twelve feet long. We also know of seven species of leopards, six species of cats, from the Serval to a little felis smaller than our domestic cat; two species of lynx, and lastly the MACHAIRODUS, a beast of prey of considerable size, characterized by having exceptionally long upper canines serrated like a saw. Probably these beasts of prey were not all contemporaries, but succeeded each other. (Bourguignat: "Histoire des Felidae Fossiles en France dans les Depots de la Periode Quaternaire," Paris, 1879.)

[64] -- "Testimony of the Rocks," p. 127, Edinburgh and Boston, 1857.

[65] -- OSSEMENTS FOSSILES TROUVES A ODESSA. The cave-hyena resembles that now living at the Cape.

[66] -- Ducrost and Arcelin: "Stratigraphie de l'Eboulis de Solutre," MAT., 1876, p. 403. ARCHIVES DIE MUSEUM D'HIST. NAT. DE LYON, vol. 1.

[67] -- M. de Baye found a great many similar arrow-heads in the Petit-Morin caves.

[68] -- Nilsson: "The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia."

[69] -- Captain Edward Johnson, who travelled about in New England from 1628 to 1632, relates that the children there spent their days in shooting at the fish that appeared on the surface of the water, succeeding in catching them with marvellous skill. "A History of New England," London, 1654.

[70] -- Reiss and Steubel: "The Necropolis of Ancon in Peru," London and Berlin.

[71] -- MATERIAUX, 1870, p, 348.

[72] -- WIADOMOSEI ARCHEOLOGIZNE, No. iv., Warsaw, 1882.

[73] -- Ch. Rau: "Prehistoric Fishing in Europe and America."

[74] -- Horace: "Odes," book i., ode iii.

[75] -- Friedel: "Fuhrer durch die Fischerei Abtheilung."

[76] -- "A Catalogue of the Antiquities in the Museum of the Royal Academy."

[77] -- PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCOTLAND, vol. iii. Dr. R. Munro "Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings or Crannoges," Edinburgh, 1882.

[78] -- Geikie, EDINBURGH NEW PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL, vol. xv. De Lapparent "Traite de Geologie," first edition, p. 518.

[79] -- "Discoveries in the more Recent Deposits of the Bovey Basin," TRANS. DEVONSHIRE ASS., 1883.

[80] -- "Nordische Oldsager i der kongelige Museum i Kjobenhawn."

[81] -- "Les Proto-Helvetes," NATURE, 1880, 1st week, p. 151.

[82] -- "Mem. Soc. d'Emulation d'Abbeville," 1867.

[83] -- Indra, the all-seer, to whom it is given to pierce the cloud, personified by Vritra, and "to open the receptacles of the waters with his far-reaching thunder-bolts," is of course the sun, the worship of which was one of the earliest and most natural instincts of humanity; whilst Vritra was in the first instance merely the symbol of the cloud, intervening between heaven and earth, shutting out from men the light of the sun, and keeping back the refreshing rain. The gradual conversion of these natural phenomena into a good and a malignant power, ever struggling for the mastery, is a forcible illustration of the way in which myths are evolved. -- Trans.

[84] -- De Mortillet: "Le Prehistorique," Paris, 1883, p. 133.

[85] -- "Limon du Plateau du Nord de la France," Paris, 1878. Acheuleen et Mousterien: REVUE DES QUESTIONS SCIENTIFIQUES, October, 1880. BUL. SOC. ANTH., 1884, 1887.

[86] -- CHELLEEN, so called from their having been found at Chelles (Seine-et-Marne), where the remains of the ELEPHAS ANTIQUUS, the most ancient of the pachyderms now known in Europe, was associated with these tools.

[87] -- De Mortillet: "Musee Prehistorique," pl. xvi. to xix.

[88] -- M. de Mortillet enumerates 127 polishers found at various points in thirty departments of France. "Le Prehistorique," first edition, p. 534.

[89] -- Piette: ASS. FRANC. POUR L'AVANCEMENT DES SCIENCES, Nantes, 1875, p. 909.

[90] -- De Mortillet: "Le Prehistorique," p. 544; "Musee Prehistorique," figs. 431 to 434.

[91] -- "Musee Prehistorique," fig. 410.

[92] -- Lagneau: "De l'Uusage des Fleches empoisonnees chez les Anciens Peuples l'Europe," Ac. des Insc., 2d November, 1877.

[93] -- "Les Temps Prehistoriques en Belgique," p. 151.

[94] -- "Reliquiae Aquitanicae," p. 127.

[95] -- NATURE, 1876, second week, p. 5.

[96] -- In this cave, in the second ossiferous deposit, were found four fragments of pottery. De Puydt and Lohest: "L'Homme Contemporain du mammouth."

[97] -- "La poterie en Belgique a l' age du mammouth," REVUE D'ANTHROPOLOGIE, 1887.

[98] -- AC. DES SCIENCES, Nov. 9, 1885. We must add that at a later seance M. Cartailhac contested, if not the facts, the conclusions deducted from them.

[99] -- But what is the value of categorical assertions of this kind in presence of the fragments of pottery found at different levels in Kent's Hole? One of these fragments was so rotten that when placed in water it formed a black liquid mud as it decomposed.

[100] -- I have not space to speak here of the curious pottery found in America. The most ancient specimens, moreover, are of much later date than the Quaternary epoch. I can only refer those interested in the subject to my book on "Prehistoric America," published in French by M. Masson of Paris, and in English in America by Messrs. G. P. Putnam's Sons.

[101] -- "De Architectura," book ii., c. i.

[102] -- On the subject of tatooing an excellent work may be consulted by Dr Magitot ("Ass. Franc. pour l'Avancement des Sciences," Alger, 1881).

[103] -- CYPRAEA RUFA, CYPRAEA LURIDA (COMPTES RENDUS ACAD. DES SCIENCES, vol. lxxxiv., p. 1060).

[104] -- On this point an excellent work may be consulted by S. Reinach: "Le Musee de Saint Germain,'' p. 232.

[105] -- Vaudry: ACAD. DES SCIENCES, August 25, 1890.

[106] -- A. Bertrand: ACAD. DES INSCRIPTIONS, April 29 and May 6, 1887.

[107] -- Reinach in his "Catalogue of the Saint-Germain museum" gives the best description I know of this now celebrated reindeer.

[108] -- A. Milne Edwards: ACAD. DES SCIENCES, May 8, 1888.

[109] -- "De Natura Rerum," book v., v. 951, etc.

[110] -- "El hombre seguramente habitaba las corazas de los Glyptodon Pero no siempre las colocaba en la posicion que acabo de indicar." -- "La Antiguedad del Hombre en el Plata," vol. ii., p. 532.

[111] -- "On Some Recent Researches in Cone-Caves in Wales," PROC. GEOL., ASSO., vol. ix. "On the Flynnon, Benno, and Gwyu Caves," GEOL. MAG., Dec., 1886.

[112] -- REVUE DES QUESTIONS SCIENTIFIQUES, April, 1887.

[113] -- "Odyssey," book ix., v. 105 -- 124.

[114] -- AEschylus: "Prometheus Bound."

[115] -- A. Maury: "La Vieille Civilisation Scandinave," REVUE DES DEUX MONDES, September, 1880.

[116] -- F. de Olivera: "As Racas dos Kjoekkenmoeddings de Mugem," Lisbon, 1881.

[117] -- REPORT PEABODY MUSEUM, 1882.

[118] -- REPORT PEABODY MUSEUM, 1882 and 1885.

[119] -- Brinton: "Notes on the Floridian Peninsula," Philadelphia, 1849.

[120] -- We take many of these details from Dr. Gross' excellent work on the "Pile Dwellings of Switzerland."

[121] -- Virchow: "Drei Schadel aus der Schweiz."

[122] -- REVUE D'ANTHROPOLOGIE, 1887, p. 607.

[123] -- G. Cotteau: NATURE, 1877, first week, p. 161.

[124] -- Rutimeyer: "Fauna der Pfahlbauten in der Schweiz."

[125] -- ANZEIGER FUR SCHWEIZERISCHE ALTERTHUMS KUNDE, April, 1884.

[126] -- Comte Conestabile: "Sur les Anciennes Immigrations en Italie." Heilbig: "Beitrage zur Altitalischen Kultur and Kund Geschichte," i. Band. G. Boissier: REVUE DES DEUX-MONDES, October, 1879.

[127] -- BUL. DI PALETHNOLOGIA ITAL., 1879. The TERPENS of Holland, though of much more modern date, greatly resemble the TERREMARES.

[128] -- "Ricerce di Archeologia Preistorica nella Valle della Vibrata."

[129] -- Wylie, ARCH. BRIT., vol. xxxviii. Wylde, PROC. ROYAL IRISH ACAD., vol. i., p. 420.

[130] -- ARCH. BRIT., vol. xxvi., p. 361. PROC. ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY, vol. vii., p. 155.

[131] -- "Habitations Lacustres des Temps Anciens et Modernes," p. 170.

[132] -- R. Munro: "Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings or Crannoges, with a Supplementary Chapter on Remains of Lake Dwellings in England," Edinburgh, 1882.

[133] -- "Prehistoric Times." Wilson: "Prehistoric Scotland."

[134] -- Nicolucci: "Scelse Lavorate, Bronzi e Monumenti di Terra d'Otranto." Lenormant, REVUE D'ETHNOGRAPHIE, February, 1882 (BUL. SOC. ANTH., 1882 and 1884). S. Reinach: "Esquises Archeologiques."

[135] -- "Les Premiers Ages du Metal dans le Sud-Est de l'Espagne," Brussels, 1887.

[136] -- Bateman: "Ten Years' Diggings," Preface, p. 11.

[137] -- W. MacAdams: "The Great Mound of Cahokia." Am. Ass., Minneapolis, 1883.

[138] -- Pelagaud: "Prehistoire en Syrie."

[139] -- Moore, POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, New York, March, 1880; ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ETHNOLOGIE: Berlin, 1887.

[140] -- "Monuments de Roknia," p. 18.

[141] -- Haxthausen: "Mem. sur la Russie," vol. ii., p. 204; A. Bogdanow: "Mat. pour Servir a l'Histoire des Kourganes," Moscow, 1879; Margaret Stokes: "La Disposition des Principaux Dolmens de l'Irlande," REV. ARCH., July, 1882.

[142] -- Sir A. de Capell Brooke: "Sketches in Spain and Morocco."

[143] -- Tissot: "Recherches sur la Geographie Comparee de la Mauritanie Tinigitane."

[144] -- Margaret Stokes: "La Distribution des Principaux Dolmens de l'Irlande." REVUE ARCH., July, 1882.

[145] -- Sir W. Wilde: "Ireland, Past and Present." Miss Buckland: "Cornish and Irish Prehistoric Monuments." ANTH. INST., NOV., 1879. O'Curry: "Lectures on the Manuscript Materials of Irish History."

[146] -- BUL. SOC. POL. DU MORBIHAN, April, 1885.

[147] -- S. Reinach, REV. ARCH., 1888. Wilson: "Megalithic Monuments of Brittany." Cartailhac: "La France Prehistorique," in which the measurements are given of the principal monuments of Brittany.

[148] -- A. Bertrand: "Archeologie Celtique et Gauloise," p. 105.

[149] -- Iliad, book xxiii., v. 380.

[150] -- Joshua, chap. iv., v. 13 ET SEQ.

[151] -- P. du Chatellier, MEM. SOC. D'EMULATION DES COTES-DU-NORD, vol. xix.

[152] -- Cartailhac: "Les Ages Prehistoriques en Espagne et en Portugal."

[153] -- Verreaux, L'ANTHROPOLOGIE, 1890, p. 157.

[154] -- Haxthausen: "Mem. sur la Russie Mer., Vol. ii., p. 204. "Fouilles des Kourganes," par M. Sarnokoasof, REVUE ARCH., 1879. Much: MITTHEILUNGEN DER ANTH. GESELL. IN WIEN, 1878.

[155] -- On this point see the excellent work by Maury, "Les Monuments de la Russie et les Tumulus Tchoudes," and Meynier and Eichtal's "Tumulus des Anciens Habitants de la Siberie."

[156] -- REVUE D' ANTH., 1880, p. 655.

[157] -- MEM. DE LA SOC. ARCH. DE LA PROVINCE DE CONSTANTINE, 1863.

[158] -- "Monuments Megalithiques de la Tunisie," ANT. AFRIC., July, 1884. Dr. Rouire: "Les Dolmens de l'Enfida," BULL. GEOG. HIST., 1886.

[159] -- "Heth and Noah," pp. 191 and 192.

[160] -- "Heth and Moab," p. 249.

[161] -- "Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh," Calcutta, 1881.

[162] -- MATERIAUX, 1887, p. 458. M. Pallart ("Mon. Meg. de Mascaro"), thinks that this dolmen was not erected by man, but that a long slab of stone has slipped down the slopes of the mountain and rested on two natural supports. It is not easy to accept this view.

[163] -- Dr. de Closmadeuc, agreeing, I think, with Henry Martin, derives the name of DOL VARCHANT from DOL MARCH'-HENT, the table of the horse of the avenue.

[164] -- COMPTE RENDU, p. 421.

[165] -- MAT., 1877, p. 470.

[166] -- ASS. FRANCAISE, Bordeaux, 1872, p. 725.

[167] -- REV. D'ANTH., 1881, p. 283.

[168] -- By permission of the author, the translator adds the following quotation from Taylor's "Origin of the Aryans," p. 17, which is referred to by Professor Huxley in his paper on the Aryan question in the NINETEENTH CENTURY for November, 1890. Taylor says: "It is now contended that there is no such thing as an Aryan race in the same sense that there is an Aryan language, and the question of late so frequently discussed as to the origin of the Aryans can only mean, if it means anything, a discussion of the ethnic affinities of those numerous races which have acquired Aryan speech; with the further question, which is perhaps insoluble, among which of these races did Aryan speech arise and where was the cradle of that race?"

[169] -- This poet is one of those whose work is to be found in the so-called "Black Book of Caermarthen." See also "The Four Ancient Books of Wales, Containing the Cymric Poems Attributed to the Bards of the Sixth Century." Edinburgh, 1868.

[170] -- Foureau, BUL. SOC. GEOG., June 1, 1883.

[171] -- Munck has just discovered a similar station at Oburg (Hainault), where similar implements, produced by similar processes as those at Spiennes, were discovered.

[172] -- Briart, Cornet, and Houzeau: RAPPORT SUR LES DECOUVERTES FAITES A SPIENNES EN 1867. Malise: BUL. ACAD. ROYALE DE BELGIQUE.

[173] -- JOURNAL, ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, 1818, p. 419.

[174] -- ACADEMIE DES SCIENCES, Nov., 1883. MAT. Jan., 1884. Nature, June 18, 1887.

[175] -- NATURE, June 16, 1887.

[176] -- Heilbig: "Osservazioni sopra il Commercio del l'Ambra" (ACAD. DEI LINCEI). We must not confound the yellow amber of the Baltic with the red amber found in Italy, in the mountains of Lebanon, and even in some lignites in the south of France. Sadowski: "Le Commerce de l'Ambre chez les Anciens."

[177] -- Nephrite is found in Turkestan, in Siberia, and in New Zealand. Deposits of jadeite are known in Burmah, Jeannetay, and Michel -- "Note stir la Nephrite ou jade de Siberie" (BUL. SOC. MINERALOGIQUE DE FRANCE, 1881). Meyer: "Die Nephritfrage kein ethnologische Problem," Berlin, 1882.

[178] -- Objects made of chloromelanite have been picked up in thirty-eight of the departments of France. No deposit of it is known now. -- Fischer and Damour: REV. ARCH., 1877.

[179] -- Obsidian is chiefly found in the mines and quarries of Terro de las Navajas (Mexico), known in the time of the Aztecs. Deposits have also lately been discovered in Hungary and the island of Melos.

[180] -- Calaite differs from the turquoise by an equivalent of aluminium; it was described by M. Damour in 1864. It is said that traces of it have been found in the tin mines of Montebras, which appear to have been worked from prehistoric times. -- MAT., 1881, p. 166, etc. Cartailhac: BUL. SOC. ANTH., 1881, p. 295.

[181] -- Broca: "Les Ossements des Eyzies," Paris, 1868.

[182] -- Lartet and Chaplain-Duparc: "Une Sepulture des Anciens Troglodytes des Pyrenees."

[183] -- BULL. SOC. ANTH., 1878, p. 215. The Baumes-Chaudes caves are the most complete charnel houses of Neolithic times yet discovered. Dr. Prunieres collected in them as many as three hundred skeletons.

[184] -- "In a large proportion of the long barrows I have opened, the skulls exhumed have been found to be cleft apparently with a blunt weapon, such as a club or stone axe." -- ARCHAEOLOGIA, vol. xlii., p. 161, etc.

[185] -- Wilson: "Prehistoric Annals of Scotland," 2d ed., vol. i., p. 187.

[186] -- Keller: "Pfahlbauten," SIEBENTER BERICHT, P. 27, Zurich, 1876.

[187] -- "Habitants Primitifs de la Scandinavie," pp. 212 and 213.

[188] -- "On the Occurrence of Fossil Bones in South America."

[189] -- JOURNAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY, May, 1882.

[190] -- Wyman: REPORT PEABODY MUSEUM, 1874, p, 40.

[191] -- This skill was not always shown, for Dr. Topinard speaks of a femur found at Feigneux which had been so clumsily set that one part greatly overlapped the other. -- Bul. Soc. ANTH., P. 534.

[192] -- BUL. SOC. ANTH., 1883, pp. 258 -- 301; 1885, p. 412. BUL. SOC. POLYMATIQUE DU MORBIHAN, 1883, p. 12.

[193] -- NATURE, January 2, 1886.

[194] -- BUL. SOC. ANTH. DE LYON, 1883 -- 1884.

[195] -- Belucci: CONGRES PREHISTORIQUE DE LISBONNE, 1880, p. 471.

[196] -- "Uber trepanirte Schadel won Giebiechenstein" (VERH. DER BERLINER GESELLSCHAFT FUR ANTH., 1879, p. 64).

[197] -- MATERIAUX POUR L'HISTOIRE DE L'HOMME, Aout, 1886.

[198] -- American Ass., Detroit, 1875, Nashville, 1877; "Ancient Men of the Great Lakes" "Additional Facts Concerning Artificial Perforation of the Cranium in Ancient Mounds in Michigan." See also on this question generally Fletcher "On Prehistoric Trepanning and Cranial Amulets," Washington, 1882.

[199] -- BUL. SOC. ANTH., February 17, 1881.

[200] -- Jehan Taxil: "Traite de l'Epilepsie, Maladie Appalee Vulgairement la Gouttete aux Petits Enfants."

[201] -- BUL. SOC. ANTH., 1887, p. 527.

[202] -- De Baye: "Trepanations Prehistoriques," p. 28, fig. 11.

[203] -- BUL. SOC. ANTH., 1877, p. 42. Broca constantly dwells on this idea. "This funeral rite," he said, addressing the Anthropological Society, "implies belief in another life."

[204] -- ASS. FRANCAISE, Lille, 1874, p. 631.

[205] -- BUL. SOC. ANTH., 1864, p. 199.

[206] -- BUL. SOC. ANTH., 1882, pp. 143, 535.

[207] -- ASS. FRANCAISE, Blois, 1884, p. 417.

[208] -- Boulogne: MEM. DE MEDECINE ET DE CHIRURGIE MILITAIRES, 3d series, Paris, 1868. Vedrenes: "Le Trepanation du Crane" (REV. ANTH., October, 1886).

[209] -- On this point an admirable book should be consulted, by De la Noe: "Enceintes Prehistoriques," MAT., 1888, p. 324, in which the author says that positions protected by escarpments bordering the greater party of the circumference of the ENCEINTE were at all times chosen for the erection of fortifications. The absence of water, however, often makes him hesitate in coming to a decision, and leads him to think that the remains where it is absent must have been temples for the worship of deities.

[210] -- CONGRES PREHISTORIQUES, Brussels, 1872, p. 318.

[211] -- "De Bello Gallico," book vii., chap. xxiii.

[212] -- Dupont: "Les Temps Prehistoriques en Belgique," p. 235.

[213] -- H. Bauduin: BUL. SOC. BELGE DE GEOGRAPHIE, 1879.

[214] -- RECUEIL DES TRAVAUX DE LA SOCIETE DE L'EURE, Evreux, 1879.

[215] -- REV. D'ANTH., 1880, p. 469.

[216] -- "Notice sur Quelques Monuments Trouves sur le Sommet des Vosges" (SOC. DES MONUMENTS HISTORIQUES DE L'ALSACE, vol. i.).

[217] -- REV. D'ANTH., 1880, p. 295.

[218] -- We may also mention the Pen Richard in Charente Inferieure, so well described by Cartailhac in his "France Prehistorique," p. 131.

[219] -- Arcelin: "L'Age de Pierre et la Classification Prehistorique," Paris, 1873. Flouest: "Notice sur le Camp de Chassey." Perrault: "Un Foyer de l'Age de la Pierre Polie au Camp de Chassey" (MAT., 1870). Coynart: "Fouilles au Camp de Chassey" (REV. ARCH., 1866 and 1867).

[220] -- Ponthieux, "Le Camp de Catenoy" (Oise).

[221] -- "Hist. Francorum," book i., chap. xxxii.

[222] -- De Rosemont: "Etude sur les Antiquites anterieures aux Romains." Desjardins: "Les Camps Retranches des Environs de Nice." Riviere: ASS. FRANCAISE, Rheims, 1880, p. 628.

[223] -- Pigorini: "Terramara dell'Eta del Bronzo Situata in Castione de' Marchesi."

[224] -- NATURE, 1887, second week, p. 62.

[225] -- Memoranda read to the Royal Society of Antiquaries in London (ARCHAEOLOGIA, vol. xlii., pp. 27 -- 76). Lane Fox: BRITISH ASSOCIATION, Bristol, 1875. Evans: "Stone Age."

[226] -- "Solent et subterraneos specus aperire, eosque multo insuper fimo onerant, suffugium hiemi et receptaculum frugibus" ("De Moribus Germanorum," chap. xvi.).

[227] -- AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY.

[228] -- ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ANTHROPOLOGIE, 1874, p. 115; 1875, p. 127.

[229] -- Zaborowski: "Monuments Prehistoriques de la Basse Vistule."

[230] -- Ribeiro: "Notice sur Quelques Monuments Prehistoriques du Portugal," Lisbon, 1878.

[231] -- "Noticia de Algunas Estarves e Monumentos Prehistoricos."

[232] -- H. and L. Siret: "Les Premiers Ages du Metal dans le Sud-est de l'Espagne."

[233] -- CONGRES PREHISTORIQUE DE COPENHAGUE, p. 118.

[234] -- Putnam: "Report Peabody Museum," vol. iii., p. 348.

[235] -- "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley."

[236] -- See Dr. Hibbert in the TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, vol. iv., Appendix, p. 181.

[237] -- ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ETHNOGRAPHIE, 1870, p. 270.

[238] -- Pomerol: "Murailles Vitrifiees de Chateauneuf," ASS. FRANC., Blois, 1884.

[239] -- CONGRES SOC. SAV., Sorbonne, 1882.

[240] -- J. Marion: BUL. DES SOC. SAVANTES, 4th series, vol. iv. Daubree: REV. ARCH., July, 1881.

[241] -- Sir J. Lubbock compares the ruins of Aztalan, in America, with the vitrified forts of Scotland; but we think this is a mistake, for the walls of Aztalan consisted of irregularly shaped masses of hard, reddish clay, full of hollows, retaining the impression of the straw or dried grass with which the clay was mixed before it was subjected to the action of heat, whether the application of that heat was intentional or accidental. There is nothing about this at all resembling the melted granite of the vitrified forts.

[242] -- De Cassac: "Notes sur les Forts Vitrifies de la Creuse." Thuot: "La Forteresse Vitrifiee du Pay de Gaudy," p. 102.

[243] -- We take most of these details from a note by M. A. de Montaiglon published in the BULLETIN DES SOCIETES SAVANTES.

[244] -- MAT., 1881, p. 371.

[245] -- BUL. SOC. ANTH., 1884, p. 816, etc.

[246] -- Fouque, NATURE, 1876, second week, p. 65.

[247] -- Book vi., chap. xvi. and xx. -- Pliny the Elder, uncle and father by adoption of Pliny the Younger, lost his life in this catastrophe, which took place in 79 A. D.

[248] -- Cigalla: ACAD. DES SCIENCES, November 12, 1866. Fouque: ACAD. DES SCIENCES, March 25, 1867. "Un Pompei Prehistorique," REVUE DES DEUX-MONDES, October 15, 1869.

[249] -- Schliemann: "Troy and its Remains," translated by Philip Smith, London, Murray, 1875; "Ilios Ville et Pays des Troyens," translated by Mme. E. Egger, Paris, Hachette, 1885; E. Burnouf: REVUE DES DEUX-MONDES, January 1, 1874; Virchow: "Alt Trojanische Graber and Schadel."

[250] -- Iliad, canto v., v., 692.

[251] -- Egyptologists tell us that in the fourth year of the reign of Ramses II., or about 1406 B.C., the Hittites placed themselves at the head of a coalition against the Egyptian Pharaoh. With these Hittites, or Khittas, whose descendants still dwell in the north of Syria, were the Mysians, the Lycians, the Dardanians, and other tribes.

[252] -- "Amerique Prehistorique" (Masson), translated by Nancy Bell (N. D'Anvers), and published by Murray, London; Putnam, New York.

[253] -- "Troy and its Remains," plate ix. See also excellent essay on the same subject by S. Reinach, which appeared in the REVUE ARCHEOLOGIQUE in 1885. Later investigations by Dr. Schliemann also brought to light a remarkable resemblance between the buildings at Hissarlik and those of Tiryns.

[254] -- The British Museum contains a manuscript of the fourteenth century, in which is a letter from Julian, written when he was emperor, between 361 and 363 A.D., and relating to his visit to Ilium.

[255] -- The potter's wheel was, however, in use at a very remote antiquity. In China its invention is attributed to the legendary Emperor Hwang-Ti, who is supposed to have lived about 2697 B.C. The wheel was also known from the very earliest times in Egypt, and Homer (Iliad, c. xviii., v. 599) compares the light motions of the dancers represented on the shield of Achilles to the rapid rotation of the potter's wheel.

[256] -- Rivett-Carnac: "Memorandum on Clay Discs Called Spindle Whorls and Votive Seals Found at Sankisa" (Behar), JOURNAL ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL, vol. xlix., p. 1.

[257] -- "De Sacris AEdificiis," ch. ix., p. 128.

[258] -- It is interesting to note the discovery of urns closely resembling those of Troy, and containing human remains, in Persia (Sir W. Ouseley: "Travels in Persia"), and at Travancore, in the south of Malabar, where, according to tradition, they were intended to receive the remains of young virgins sacrificed in honor of the gods. -- "Some Vestiges of Girl Sacrifices," JOURN. ANTH. INST., May, 1882.

[259] -- The vulva was sometimes represented by a large triangle. The same peculiarity occurs on some black marble statuettes, found in the tombs of the Cyclades and Attica. Three such statuettes from the island of Paros are in the Louvre, and the British Museum owns a rich collection. Dr. Schliemann also mentions a female idol made in lead of very coarse workmanship, in which the sexual organs are represented by a double cross.

[260] -- The PHALLUS was, as we have already stated, the symbol of generative force. Its worship extended throughout India and Syria; a gigantic Phallus adorned the temple of the mother of the gods at Hierapolis, and it was carried in triumph in processions through Egypt and Greece. It is still worshipped in some places at the present day. Near Niombo, in Africa, there is a temple containing several phallic statues; at Stanley-Pool the fete of the PHALLUS is celebrated with obscene rites. The Kroomen observe similar ceremonies at the time of the new moon, and in Japan on certain fete clays young girls flourish gigantic PHALLI at the end of long poles. The PHALLUS is also often represented on the monuments of Central America -- on the stones of the temples of Izamal and the island of Zapatero, for instance. Possibly the worship of the productive and generative forces of nature was the earliest religion of many primitive peoples, but all that is said on the subject must be sifted with considerable care.

[261] -- Similar hatchets of pure copper (Fig. 2) have been found in Hungary, and Butler ("Prehistoric Wisconsin") speaks of them also as being found in North America.

[262] -- The tin used is making bronze probably came from Spain or Cornwall, perhaps also from the Caucasus, where small quantities of it are still found. It was doubtless imported by the Phoenicians, the great navigators of antiquity. See Rudolf Virchow's "Das Gruberfeld Von Koban im Laude der Osseten," Berlin, 1883.

[263] -- This idea gains probability from the fact that the remains of a key were picked up near the treasure, which we have reason to suppose belonged to Priam.

[264] -- The gold may have come from the mines of Astyra, not far from Troy.

[265] -- Electrum was the ancient name for amber, but was also given to an alloy of gold and silver, the yellow color of which resembles that of amber.

[266] -- Dr. Schliemann gives a very careful description of all these objects. See "Troy and its Remains," Figs. 174 to 497, pp. 260 to 353.

[267] -- The qr'hdemnon or diadem of the wife of Menelaus is a narrow fillet from which hang several little chains formed of links alternating with small leaves, and ending in rather larger leaves, these leaves all representing the woman with the owl's head, so characteristic of Trojan art. The golden objects are all soldered with the same metals, which modern goldsmiths seem unable to do. At Tiryns, which we believe to have been contemporary with Troy, the art of soldering was unknown, and ornaments were merely screwed together.

[268] -- Bastian, ZEITSCHRIFT DER BERLINER GESELLSCHAFT FUR ERDKUNDE, vol. xiii., plates 1 and 2.

[269] -- If we accept 1200 B.C. as the date of the Trojan war and the eighth century as that of the foundation of Ilium, the towns that succeeded each other on the hill of Hissarlik only lasted four centuries altogether.

[270] -- In the Vedas the word SWASTI is often used in the sense of happiness or good-fortune.

[271] -- Comte Goblet d'Auriella, BUL. ACAD. ROYALE DE BELGIQUE, 1889.

[272] -- G. Atkinson, CONGRES PREHISTORIQUE, Lisbon, 1880, p. 466.

[273] -- "Ages Prehistoriques en Espagne et Portugal," figs 410, 411, 412, p. 286.

[274] -- Aussland, 1883. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR MUSEOLOGIE AND ANTEQUATEN KUNDE, 1884. Musoeon, 1888 and 1889.

[275] -- Virchow, who visited the remains at Hissarlik, treats this idea as FURCHTBAREN UNSINN (ridiculous nonsense).

[276] -- The true name of this cave is the BETCHE AUX ROCHES. A very excellent essay on the subject was read by the explorers, MM. de Puydt and Lohest, in August, 1886, to the Historic Society of Belgium, and "Les Fouilles de Spy," by Dr. Collignon, published in the REVUE D'ANTHROPOLOGIE, 1887, may also be consulted. Excavations were also carried on in the same cave in 1879 by M. Bucquoy (BUL. SOC. ANTH. DE BELGIQUE, 1887). He distinguished five ossiferous levels and picked up some flints of the Mousterien type, and even some Chelleen hatchets, to which he gave the name of coups DE POING. -- Fraipont and Lohest; "Recherches sur les Ossements Humains Decouvertes dans les Depots Quaternaires d'un grotte a Spy."

[277] -- We borrow these details from a valuable work by Cartailhac (MAL., 1886, p. 441; REV. D'ANTH., 1886, p. 448). The conclusions of our learned colleague are that we really know nothing of the funeral rites of the men of Chelles and Moustier, and that it is to the Solutreen period that we must assign the first really authenticated tombs. Cartailhac's admirable book, "La France Prehistorique," p. 302, should also be consulted.

[278] -- "Ipui Antichi Sepolcri dell Italia."

[279] -- ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL, vol. xxii.

[280] -- MATERIAUX, 1885, p. 299.

[281] -- This dolmen was carefully excavated by MM. Hahn and Millescamps, BUL. SOC. ANTH., 1883, p. 312.

[282] -- Riviere; CONGRES DES SCIENCES GEOGRAPHIQUES, Paris, 1878.

[283] -- ATTI DELLA R. ACAD. DEI LINCEI, 1879 -- 1880. Pigorini: BUL. DE PAL. ITALIANA, 1880, p. 33.

[284] -- SOC. ANTH. DE MUNICH, 1886.

[285] -- SOC. ANTH. DE LYON, 1889.

[286] -- "Histoire du Travail en Gaule," p. 24.

[287] -- Troyon: "De l' Attitude Repliee dans la Sepulture Antique," REVUE ARCH., 1864.

[288] -- MATERIAUX, 1875, p. 327.

[289] -- A. Nicaise: MATERIAUX, 1880, p. 186.

[290] -- ARCH. PREHISTORIQUE, p. 178.

[291] -- CONGRES PREHISTORIQUE DE BRUXELLES, p. 299.

[292] -- BUL. SOC. ANTH., 1876, p. 191. Grad: NATURE, 1877, 1st week, p. 314.

[293] -- MEMORIE SULLE SCOPERTE PALEOETHNOLOGICHE DELLA CAMPAGNA ROMANA. Pigorini adds in his turn: "I CADAVERI ERANO ABITUALMENTE ADAGIATI SUL FIANCO SINISTRO, COL CRANIO APPOGIATO SULLA MANO SINISTRE E LE GINOCCHIA ALQUANTO PIEGATE IN GUISA CHE TAVOLTA SI TROVARONO LE TIBIE ASSAI PROSSIME ALLA CASSA TORACICA."

[294] -- Pallery: "Mon. Megalithiques de Mascara," BUL. SOC. ETHN., 1887.

[295] -- Bancroft: "The Native Races of the Pacific," vol. i., pp. 365, etc. Moreno: "Les Paraderos de la Patagonie," REV. D'ANTH., 1874.

[296] -- "Necropole de Colonna, prov. de Grosseto," R. ACAD. DEI LINCEI, Roma, 1885.

[297] -- BUL. SOC. ANTH., 1880, p. 895.

[298] -- Abbe Baudry et Ballereau: "Les Puits Funeraires du Bernard," La Roche-sur-Yon, 1873.

[299] -- "Renseignements sur une Ancienne Necropole Manzabotta, pres de Bologna," Bologna, 1871.

[300] -- Gross: "Les Proto-Helvetes." Morel-Fatio: "Sepultures des Populations Lacustres de Chamblandes." As at Auvernier, a great many bears' tusks were found lying near the dead, which may possibly also have had something to do with a funeral rite.

[301] -- D. Charnay: NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW, January, 1881.

[302] -- Stuart: "The Early Modes of Burial."

[303] -- Vidal Seneze; BUL. SOC. ANTH., 1877, p. 561.

[304] -- "Histoire des Incas," Paris, 1744, chap. xviii.

[305] -- Conestabile: "De l'incineration chez les Etrusques."

[306] -- A. Bertrand: "Arch. Celtique et Gauloise," Introduction.

[307] -- ASS. FRANCAISE, Nantes, 1875; Havre, 1877.

[308] -- Luco: "Exposition de Trois Monuments Quadrilateres par feu James Miln," Vannes, 1883.

[309] -- P. du Chatellier: "Mem. Soc. d'Emulation des Cotes-du-Nord," Saint Brieuc, 1883.

[310] -- PROCEEDINGS SOC. ANTH. OF SCOTLAND, January 11, 1886.

[311] -- "On the Ancient Modes of Sepulchre in the Orkneys" (BRITISH ASSOCIATION, 1877).

[312] -- Kohn and Mehlis: "Zur Vorgeschichte des Menschen im Ostlichen Europa," Iena, 1879.

[313] -- Hochstetter: "Die neueste Graber Funde von Watsch. und S. Margarethen und der Kultur Kreiss der Hallstadter Period," Wien, 1883. Siebenter: "Bericht der Prehistorischen Commission," Wien, 1884.

[314] -- In these tombs were found 61 gold objects, 5,574 bronze, 593 iron, 270 amber, 73 glass, and 1,813 terra-cotta. A. Bertrand: REV. D ETHNOGRAPHIE, 1883.

[315] -- SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1881.

[316] -- Putnam, xii. and XX. REPORTS OF THE PEABODY MUSEUM.

[317] -- "De Bello Gallico," book vi., cap. xix. Consult also Pomponius Mela: "De Situ Orbis," book iii., cap. ii.

[318] -- In his fruitful excavations of Gallic, Gallo-Roman, and Merovingian tombs, Moreau collected no less than 31,515 flint celts or hatchets, which had evidently been votive offerings. See Album de Caranda: "Fouilles de Sainte Restitute, de Trugny, d'Armentiere, d'Arcy, de Brenny," etc.