Chapter XIV: The Navy, 1485–1558 (2)

During these events France, in a state of scarcely veiled hostility, had maintained a fleet of galleys under Strozzi in her northern waters. The war became regularized when the French began to raid the Sussex coast and to concentrate troops in the neighbourhood of Boulogne in 1549. In consequence of the former operations instructions were given to Thomas Cotton, in May 1549, to patrol the Channel. With the commission of Vice-Admiral he was to take six small craft of the row-barge type and one shallop, and with them to drive the enemy from the Sussex coast, to ‘traverse the seas’ between the Isle of Wight, Portland, and the Channel Islands, to supply the latter with munitions of war, and to keep watch on Brest, where great preparations were said to be in progress. He was particularly enjoined not to molest neutral shipping.[387] Early in August a sharp action was fought in the neighbourhood of the Channel Islands, but whether by Cotton’s squadron or not is not clear. It is vouched for by Fox the Martyrologist and by the writers of chronicles of the time, but has left no trace in official documents, either English or French. The substance of the accounts is that a fleet of French galleys was sent to reduce the Islands and that it was beaten back by an English squadron with the loss of 1,000 men.[388] Boulogne was able to hold out until the spring of 1550. By that time the English Government, hampered by lack of money and by anarchy at home, had come to the conclusion that its retention was not worth the efforts involved. In March they agreed to surrender the fortress for a large money payment, and peace was restored between England and France for the next seven years.

A feature of the naval history of this period was the series of changes in the chief command of the fleet. During Edward’s reign the office of Lord Admiral was successively held by Warwick (formerly Lord Lisle); Seymour, brother of the Protector Somerset (executed March 1549); Warwick again, and Clinton. Mary on her accession appointed Lord William Howard, who held office until 1558, when he was superseded by Clinton. One of the charges against Seymour was his connivance at piracy. In this connexion a letter addressed to him in September 1548, by John Graynfyld, a privateer captain, is of some interest. At the date mentioned war had not been declared with France, and the man was legally a pirate. He describes how his bark and three others had sailed from the Cornish coast to that of Brittany, and had there separated ‘each to seek their adventure, as the manner is of venturers’. Graynfyld himself, being alone within half a league of Pointe de Penmarch, sighted twenty-seven sail of Normans and Bretons. Nothing dismayed by the odds, he gained the wind of them, waited until twelve of them had passed, and then set on the thirteenth, which was armed with six pieces of ordnance. She only escaped him by going ashore in Audierne Bay. He served two others in the same way. While thus engaged, another of the enemy, of 95 tons and with a crew of twenty-six men, got to windward of him. But Graynfyld rose to the occasion, boarded the French ship and took her, after slaying her captain in the fight.[389] A more convincing testimony to the reckless audacity of the sixteenth-century privateers would be hard to find.

Under Mary the navy sensibly decreased in strength and efficiency, and it may safely be said that it had never since the beginning of the Tudor period passed through such a period of discouragement as that of the years 1557–8. Even the paper strength of the fleet was not maintained. The _Henry Grace à Dieu_ was accidentally burned at Woolwich on August 25, 1553. The _Primrose_ was sold in 1555, together with nine smaller craft, some of them fetching such ridiculous prices as £8 and £10 apiece,[390] showing the utter state of decay into which they had been allowed to fall. Other ships disappeared also in the reign with the net result that, although six new craft were acquired, there were at Mary’s death only twenty-six royal ships with a total tonnage of 7,110, a decrease of 36 per cent. from Henry VIII’s total. Mr. Oppenheim does not agree with censures on Mary’s naval administration. He points out that thirteen of the ships left by Henry VIII were row-barges of 20 tons, and that it was mainly this class of vessel which was disposed of. But the fact remains that England lost command of the sea in the winter of 1557–8, at a time when the French had no overwhelming force afloat, and that the failure to relieve Calais was due to the fact that not one of the ‘great ships’ officially borne on the strength of the fleet was in condition to put to sea at the time of need.

War with France opened in the summer of 1557. In that year Lord William Howard cruised in the Channel with a fleet including six ships of 200 tons and over, the largest being the _Jesus of Lubeck_, described as of 700 tons.[391] His proceedings were uneventful, and all the large vessels were laid up at the beginning of winter. At the end of the year disquieting news began to arrive with startling suddenness in England. On December 22 Lord Grey of Wilton reported from Guisnes that French preparations were on foot, although their object was not ascertainable. On the 26th Lord Wentworth, the commander at Calais, wrote that five French warships, with forty other sail and large numbers of troops, were gathering at Boulogne and Abbeville. On the last day of 1557 Calais, with its garrison of 800, was invested by 30,000 men.

The Government had taken the alarm by the 29th of December and, if the Narrow Seas had been held by such a force as Henry VIII had been accustomed to keep there in the winter, would have been in time to relieve Calais, which held out until January 8. But such force was lacking: a paper of December 29 shows that the ‘Ships and Barks already in the Narrow Seas’ were five in number, their combined crews numbering only 400 men.[392] It is true that instructions were given for the immediate preparation of eight other vessels with crews amounting to 1,000 men,[393] but it was too late. The unready ships could not be rigged and manned in time, and their commander, Sir William Woodhouse, only received his final sailing orders on the very day the French entered Calais.[394] In the meantime the Earl of Rutland had collected a few hoys and fishing boats at Dover, and in them had attempted to transport reinforcements to the beleaguered town. But the French covering fleet beat them off, and he was obliged to leave Calais to its fate.[396]

Calais had been lost by default of those responsible for the naval and military administration of the country. A fortnight after its fall the queen sent orders to Lord Howard to put the navy into an effective state, equipping the regular ships and forcibly borrowing the services of as many merchantmen as he should require. Howard was superseded by Clinton early in 1558, and by mid-summer the latter was at sea. He made the usual raid on the Brittany coast in July, burning Le Conquêt and effecting nothing against Brest. At the beginning of August he was back at Portsmouth. On July 13 a squadron detached from his fleet had interfered with decisive effect in a battle fought on the shore at Gravelines between the French and some of Philip’s Netherland troops. The ships stood in and played with their heavy guns upon the French until the latter gave way. But this was the only event to lighten the gloom of the close of Mary’s reign, and was a trifling exploit as compared with the fall of Calais. Fortunately the depression of English affairs proved to be only temporary, and with a new sovereign and a wiser government misfortunes were retrieved, and the nation was able in the years to come to make triumphant progress along the path mapped out for it by the first two Tudors.

-----

Footnote 353:

For full details of naval administration under Henry VII, see M.
Oppenheim, _History of the Administration of the Royal Navy_, and
_Naval Accounts and Inventories_.

Footnote 354:

1809 edition, p. 525.

Footnote 355:

_Letters and Papers_, i, p. 344.

Footnote 356:

Hall, p. 534.

Footnote 357:

Another account says that a gunner of the _Cordelière_, desperate at
the approaching surrender, fired the magazine. If the figures as to
survivors are correct they give support to the idea that the French
ship blew up while the _Regent_ burned.

Footnote 358:

_Letters and Papers_, i, p. 409.

Footnote 359:

Hall, p. 536.

Footnote 360:

_Letters and Papers_, i, p. 538.

Footnote 361:

Echyngham’s account. Prégent’s own description of the fight tallies
with the above. The English loss was about 120 killed, number of
wounded unknown.

Footnote 362:

_Cotton MSS._, Aug. I. i. 18.

Footnote 363:

Vol. xx, Preface.

Footnote 364:

The _Great Elizabeth_, 900 tons, bought 1514; the _Katherine
Pleasance_, 100, built 1518; the _Mary Gloria_, 300, bought 1517; the
_Mary and John_, bought 1521; the _Mary Imperial_, 120, built 1515;
the _Trinity Henry_, 250, built 1519.

Footnote 365:

_Letters and Papers_, iii, Preface, p. ccxvi.

Footnote 366:

Ibid., p. ccxix.

Footnote 367:

_Political History of England_, vol. v, pp. 250–1.

Footnote 368:

Froude, _History of England_, iv. 419.

Footnote 369:

_Letters and Papers_, xx, part i, Nos. 987, 1023, 1101.

Footnote 370:

Martin du Bellay, _Mémoires_, ed. Michaud et Poujoulat, 1838, p. 553.

Footnote 371:

_Letters and Papers_, xx, part i, No. 543.

Footnote 372:

Du Bellay says the English had only sixty ships on July 18.

Footnote 373:

Brit. Mus. Maps, 3, Tab. 24, No. 2. The original painting was at
Cowdray House, Midhurst, and was burnt with that building at the end
of the eighteenth century.

Footnote 374:

Froude, iv. 425–6; Van der Delft to Charles V, _Spanish Cal._ viii,
No. 101; Du Bellay, p. 554. Froude’s account is based mainly on Du
Bellay; Van der Delft’s letter was unknown at the time he wrote.

Footnote 375:

_A. P. C._, i. 212.

Footnote 376:

Ibid., p. 215.

Footnote 377:

Du Bellay, pp. 555–6.

Footnote 378:

_Letters and Papers_, xx, part i, No. 1237.

Footnote 379:

_Letters and Papers_, xx, App. No. 27.

Footnote 380:

See J. S. Corbett, _Drake and the Tudor Navy_, for tactical formations
employed in the sixteenth century.

Footnote 381:

Froude, iv. 435–6; Du Bellay, p. 559.

Footnote 382:

_Archaeologia_, vi. 218.

Footnote 383:

_Journal of Edward VI_, p. 61.

Footnote 384:

Strype, _Memorials_, ii. 504.

Footnote 385:

Oppenheim, _Administration of the Royal Navy_, p. 101.

Footnote 386:

The Lord Hertford who had commanded the land forces at Leith and
Edinburgh in 1544.

Footnote 387:

_R. O., S. P. Dom., Ed. VI_, vol. vii, Nos. 9 and 12.

Footnote 388:

Fox, _Acts and Monuments_ (ed. G. Townsend, 1846), v. 741; Holinshed,
iii. 1055.

Footnote 389:

_R. O., S. P. Dom., Ed. VI_, vol. v, No. 3.

Footnote 390:

Oppenheim, p. 109.

Footnote 391:

_R. O., S. P. Dom., Mary_, vol. x, No. 67. This paper is small and
mutilated, but does not look as if any large portion were missing. It
may or may not represent a complete list of the ships employed.

Footnote 392:

Ibid., vol. xi, No. 65.

Footnote 393:

Ibid.

Footnote 394:

Ibid., vol. xii, No. 12.

Footnote 396:

Froude, vi. 500.

INDEX

Abaan, King of Guinea, 301. Adams, Clement, writer, 322, 325. Admiralty Court, the, 44, 366 and note. Alday, James, originator of the Barbary trade, 274. Alexander VI, Bull of, 79, 116, 287, 289, 337. Alexandria, wealth of, 57. Allen, Jeffrey, merchant, forbidden to trade with Guinea, 291–2. Andalusia, English trade with. _See_ Spain. Anglo-Portuguese Syndicate, 104–19; first letters patent to, 1501, 104–6; second letters patent, 1502, 109–10; first voyage of, 1501, 107–8; second voyage, 1502, 108; third voyage, 1503, 110; fourth voyage, 1504, 110; fifth voyage (?), 1505, 110–11; general considerations, 111–19. Annebaut, Claude d’, French admiral, 389–98. Antwerp, English trade with, 19, 20, 185, 189, 193, 195 note. Antwerp, importance of, 149. Artillery, import of, 184; development of, 351–2, 353, 354–5, 360–2. Arundel, Earl of, member of Russia Company, 311. Ashehurst, Thomas, merchant of Bristol, 104, 109. Asia, trade with, 15. Aucher, Sir Anthony, shipowner, 235. Ayala, Pedro de, Spanish ambassador, 69, 79; letter from, describing Cabot’s voyage, 58–9, 67–9, 79.

Baccalaos. _See_ Newfoundland Fishery. Baker, Matthew, 238. Baltic, trade with the, 15, 16, 44, 129, 179, 196–8. _See also_ Danzig. Barbary, English voyages to, 274–7; commodities obtained from, 276. Barnes, Sir George, merchant, investor in Guinea expedition, 284; member of Russia Company, 311; consul of same, 326. Barton, Andrew, pirate, defeated and killed by the Howards, 1511, 374–5. Bedford, Earl of, member of Russia Company, 311. Bellay, Martin du, 356, 391. Benin, Wyndham at, 1553, 281–3, 290. Blondel, Denis, French captain trading to Guinea, 297–301. Bodenham, Roger, voyage of, to the Mediterranean, 1551, 235–8. Bordeaux, trade with, 19, 129, 145–6, 208–15. Borey, Thomas, merchant of Southampton, makes voyages to Brazil, _c._ 1540, 267. Borough, Stephen, master of the _Edward Bonaventure_, 1553–4, 314; commands the _Serchthrift_ in search of a North-East Passage, 1556, 329–32; in 1557, 332. Borough, William, seaman and navigator, 314, 319, 330, 364. Bostoke, Henry, merchant, letter from, 204–5. Boston, port of, 367, 371. Boulogne, capture of, 1544, 389; siege of, by the French, 1545–6:, 399; renewed by the French, 1549–50, 402–3; surrender, 403. Bounties to shipowners, 114, 124. Bourbourg, Diet at, 1532, 187. Bradley, Thomas, adventurer in 1498 voyage, 61. Brandan, Saint, island of, 74. Brandon, Charles, Duke of Suffolk, engaged in Mediterranean trade, 232; commands against the French, 1523, 388. Brasil, island of, 58, 59, 74. Brazil, English voyages to, 265–70; French, 269. Brest, battle off, 1512, 376–8; blockade of, 1513, 379–83. Brighton, burnt by the French, 1514, 384–5. Bristol, 73–4, 139, 148, 199, 203; visit of Henry VII to, 74; John Cabot sails from, 1497, 56, 74; 1498, 81; Anglo-Portuguese voyages from, 1501–5, 104–19; other expeditions from, 58, 68, 74; promises ships for 1521 project, 245; Act relating to, 1543, 148, 370; mercantile corporations at, 370–1; status of as a port, 367, 369–70. Brooke, John, agent of Russia Company at Vardo, 327. Bruges, English trade with, 185. Buckland, John, seaman, 314, 334. Buil, Friar, 58, 68–9. Butts, Thomas, participator in 1536 expedition, 263–4.

Cabot, John, 51–85, 91–2, 91 (erroneously for Sebastian Cabot);
at Mecca, 57, 72–3;
at Seville and Lisbon, 58, 67–8;
obtains letters patent from Henry VII, 53, 72, 74, 78, 105, 106, 109;
1497 voyage, 54–8, 60, 63–4, 65–7, 70, 74–7;
his landfall, 1497, 63–4, 75–6;
gratuity to, 60, 77;
pension granted to, 60, 61, 77, 82;
1498 voyage, 58–60, 60–3, 68–9, 69–70, 78–85, 98;
date of his death, 82, 85, 88, 94;
his wife, 55, 73;
his ship, 75, 81;
his crew, 1497, 56, 57–8, 74, 78;
chart made by, 56, 59, 69, 77;
his theory of geography, 57, 73, 75, 77, 77–8, 80–1, 84;
his nationality, 72, 73.
Cabot, Ludovicus, 53.
Cabot, Sanctus, 53, 64.
Cabot, Sebastian, 52–3, 62 (erroneously for John Cabot), 63 64 65 84 85
86–103, 114 241–5, 246–9, 265 307–13, 315 323 326 329–30;
first voyage of discovery, 1499 (?), 86–103;
summary of accounts of, 95–7;
question of date of, 99–100, 101, 103 note;
alleged North-West voyage in 1516–17, 241–5;
his career in Spain, 242–3, 307–8;
proposal for him to command an English expedition, 1521, 246, 247–8,
248;
his visit to England, _c._ 1521, 248–9;
his voyage to the River Plate, 1526, 89, 93, 96, 251 note;
Wyatt’s memorandum on, 308;
arrangements for his transfer to England, 1547, 308;
his flight to England, 1548, 308–9;
pension granted by Edward VI, 1549, 308–9, 309 note;
his return demanded by Charles V, 309;
his position in England, 309–10, 312–13;
his letter to Charles V
betraying a project of Northumberland’s, _c._ 1552, 310;
draws up ordinances for Willoughby’s voyage, 1553, 311–12, 315–16;
made Governor of Russia Company, 312, 326;
visits Stephen Borough on board the _Serchthrift_, 1556, 329;
death, 1557 (?), 330;
character, 52, 53, 70–1, 94, 101–3, 307–8;
geographical knowledge of, 98–9, 101, 307–8;
map attributed to, 63, 70;
age of, 64, 330;
his birthplace, 73, 309.
Cabots, the, works on, 102 note.
Calais, head-quarters of Merchant Adventurers, 1493–6, 19;
head-quarters of Staplers, _see_ Staple;
fall of, 1558, 405–6.
Canary Islands, English trade with, 226, 260.
Candia, English trade with, 24–25, 229, 230, 231, 235–6, 238;
English factor at, 230 note;
English consul at, 231.
Cantino map, the, 116–17.
Carew, Sir George, captain of the _Mary Rose_, 1545, 394.
Carew, Sir John, killed at Brest, 1512, 377–8.
Carter, John, adventurer in 1498 voyage, 61.
Carter, William, captain in Guinea expeditions, 293.
Castlyn, Edward, merchant, factors of, at Grand Canary, 226;
investor in Guinea expedition, 284;
forbidden to trade with Guinea, 291–2.
Castlyn, William, member of Merchant Adventurers, 188;
Governor, 1542, 190.
Câteau Cambrésis, Treaty of, 180.
Cathay, search for route to, 71–3, 77, 84–5, 86–103, 106, 118–19, 328,
337.
_See also_ North-East Passage, North-West Passage, and Russia
Company.
Cavo de Ynglaterra, 83.
Cecil, Sir William, 180;
member of Russia Company, 311.
_Centième_, the, tax in the Low Countries, 190–1.
Centurioni, Paolo, Genoese navigator, project for a voyage of
discovery, 1525, 249.
Chamberlain, Sir Thomas, Governor of Merchant Adventurers, 193, 195.
Chancellor, Richard, 238, 313–333;
sails with Willoughby, 1553, 317;
captain of the _Edward Bonaventure_, 314;
separated from Willoughby, 318;
reaches Vardo, 322;
discovers Archangel, 323–4;
visits Moscow, 324–5;
returns to England, 1554, 326;
second voyage to White Sea, 1555, 327–9;
second visit to the Czar, 328;
obtains grant of privileges, 328;
remains in Russia, 1555–6, 329;
sails for England, 1556, 332;
wrecked and drowned, 333.
Channel Islands, naval action near, 1549, 402.
Chapuys, Eustace, Imperial ambassador, 131, 132, 143, 268;
letters from, 130, 265, 269.
Charles V, Emperor, 125, 126, 130, 131, 132, 170, 185, 186, 187, 191,
195, 220, 224, 389;
diplomatic struggle with, 130–2, 223;
in England, 1522, 386.
Charran, Alfonso, Spanish captain, 381–2.
Chaucer’s Shipman, 211.
Chester, Thomas, merchant, forbidden to trade with Guinea, 296.
Chilton, Leonard, English captain trading with Mexico, 226.
Chios, English trade with, 229, 230, 231, 232, 235–8;
English factors at, 230 note;
English consul at, 231.
Chronicle, anonymous (Cotton MSS. Vit. A. xvi), 61, 69–70.
Cipango (Japan), 57, 77–8, 80, 84.
Clermont, René de, French admiral, 376–7.
Clinton, Lord, Lord Admiral, 401, 403, 406.
Cloth export, 33–6, 40, 42, 126–7, 129–30, 135, 145, 147, 171–3, 192;
laws relating to, 152–4, 157;
suspension of laws, 145, 162, 170–1.
_See also_ Merchant Adventurers.
Cloth manufacture, English, 16, 36, 134–5, 147, 152–3;
Netherland, 20, 32, 33, 36.
Cockeram, Martin, mariner, 266.
Coinage, debasement of, 163.
Coke, John, Secretary of Merchant Adventurers, 188.
Columbus, Bartholomew, 71.
Columbus, Christopher, 71, 73.
Commerce, general development of, 13–50, 120–51;
Acts relating to, 124, 124–5, 134–5.
Cooper, Richard, Governor of English merchants in Spain, 218.
_Cordelière_, French warship, burning of, 376–8.
Corte Real, Gaspar and Miguel, Portuguese explorers, 106, 116.
Cortes, Martin, writer on navigation, 348.
Cosa, Juan de la, map of, 82–3.
Cotton, Thomas, vice-admiral, 402.
Crespi, treaty of, 224.
Crisis, international, 1538–9, 125–6.
Cromwell, Thomas, 125, 128, 262, 268;
policy of, 127 note, 140.
Customs duties, tonnage and poundage, subsidies, wool duties, 22, 33,
36–40, 46–7, 123, 136;
schedules of, 37, 40;
Acts relating to, 38, 123, 150–1, 161;
proclamation relating to, 1539, 126–7, 128, 130–2;
frauds on, 162;
receipts, 131, 367–71.

Danzig, English merchants at, 44, 129, 158, 178, 197–8.
Dawbeny, Oliver, participator in 1536 expedition, 263.
Denmark, trade with, 41, 129, 197.
Dorset, Marquis of, 120–1, 378–9.
Dudley, John, Viscount Lisle, Earl of Warwick, Duke of Northumberland,
146, 162, 164, 403;
commands fleet against French and Scots, 1544–6, 389–99;
sacks Leith and Edinburgh, 1544, 389;
action at Portsmouth, 1545, 392–7;
action off Shoreham, 1545, 397–8;
raids French coast, 398–9;
policy of, 162, 163, 165;
project for a voyage to Peru, _c._ 1552, 310.
Durforth, Cornelius, master of the _Bona Confidentia_, 314.

Easterlings. _See_ Hansa. Eden, Richard, historian, 52, 90, 241–2, 245, 278, 279, 283, 284, 285. Edward VI, general character of his reign, 146–7; naval administration under, 400–1; death of, 170. Elephant-hunting, 298. Elizabeth, Queen, letter from, to the Council of Lubeck, 180–1. Elyot, Hugh, merchant and explorer, 109, 113, 114, 370. Evil May Day, the, 1517, 141. Exeter and Dartmouth, port of, 371.

Fabyan, Robert, chronicler, 62, 69–70. Ferdinand, King of Spain, 23, 27, 121; letters from, 53–4, 67; letters to, 22–3, 58–9, 59; death, 1516, 243. Feria, Count of, Spanish ambassador, 303. Fernandes, Francisco, Portuguese explorer, 104, 109; pension granted to, 108. Fernandes, João, Portuguese explorer, 104, 106, 108, 109. Ferrers, Lord, naval captain, 1513, 382, 383. Field, John, English merchant in Spain, 226, 227. FitzWilliam, Sir William, vice-admiral, 1522, 358, 386. Flanders galleys, the. _See_ Venice. Flanders, trade with. _See_ Netherlands. Foodstuffs, supply of, 147; export of, forbidden, 147–8; import of, 147. Fox, Rowland, merchant, forbidden to trade with Guinea, 291–2. France, trade with, 17, 208–15. _See also_ Bordeaux. France, wars with, 1512–14, 120–1, 375–86; 1522–3, 386–8; 1544–6, 159–60, 388–99; 1549–1550, 402–3; 1557–9, 179, 404–6. Francis I, King of France, 125, 130. _Fust MS._, the, 75.

Gabriel, Russian skipper, 330–1. Galvano, Antonio, explorer and historian, 91, 95; quotation from, 91. Gardiner, Stephen, Bishop of Winchester, 132. Gerard, Sir William, merchant, investor in Barbary voyage, 275. Gold, amounts of, obtained by Guinea expeditions, 280, 281, 285, 287, 294–5, 302, 304, 306. Gold Coast. _See_ Guinea. Gomara, Lopes de, historian, 87, 92–3; quotation from, 87–8. Gonsalves, João, Portuguese explorer, 104, 109; pension granted to, 108. Gonson, Richard, 234. Gonson, William, merchant, 234. Grain Coast. _See_ Guinea. Grand Cham, the, 54, 77, 256, 257. Gravelines, battle of, 1558, 406. Gray, Richard, in the Mediterranean, 234; agent of Russia Company, 327. Graynfyld, John, privateer, exploit of, 403–4. Greenland, in early maps, 115, 116; confused with Labrador, 93, 116 note. Gresham, Sir John, 230 note; member of Russia Company, 311, 326. Gresham, Sir Richard, 190. Gresham, Sir Thomas, 146, 163, 165, 170, 194; financial services to Government, 194–5; member of Russia Company, 311. Guinea, English voyages to, 277–306; commodities obtained from, 277, 279, 285–6, 287; voyages prohibited by the Privy Council, 287, 291–3, 295–6, 297; defence of the English merchants, 289–91; Wyndham’s voyage, 1553, 277–84, 290 note; Locke’s voyage, 1554–5, 284–7, 288, 290 note; Towerson’s first voyage, 1555–6, 293–5; Towerson’s second voyage, 1556–7, 296–302; Towerson’s third voyage, 1558, 302–6; other English expeditions, 295, 298–9; French voyages, 297–301, 303, 304; the Portuguese in Guinea, 280. Guldeford, Sir Edward, 232.

Hakluyt, Richard, 62, 63, 264.
Hamburg, cloth mart at, 172, 173, 175.
Hansa, Hanseatic League, 15, 16, 35, 39–44, 129, 133, 152–82;
policy of Henry VII towards, 41–4;
of Henry VIII, 132–3, 152, 155, 156–7, 158, 159, 160, 161;
of Somerset, 161–2;
of Northumberland, 162;
of Mary, 170–1, 176, 178;
of King Philip, 173–4, 176, 179;
of Elizabeth, 180–1;
privileges of, 38, 39–40, 123, 152, 161, 167, 170, 172, 178;
first revocation of privileges, 1552, 139, 163–9;
restoration, 1553, 151, 170;
second revocation, 1555, 174, 176;
treaties with England, 39, 176, 181;
grievances of, 42–4, 154–6, 157–8, 159;
diets with, 1491, 42;
1497, 43;
1499, 44;
1520, 155–6;
1542 (proposed), 159;
1555–7 (proposed), 174, 176, 177–8;
negotiations with, 1558–1560, 180–1;
charges against, 162, 164–5, 166, 171–3, 177, 180;
embassies from, 165, 168–9, 174–6, 178, 179;
proclaims cessation of intercourse with England, 1557, 178–9;
banishes Englishmen, 178, 181;
final expulsion from England, 1598, 182;
suspected of heresy, 1526, 143;
temporary restraint of, 1535, 157;
furnishes ships for the English fleet, 160;
trade with Antwerp, 160, 167–8, 172–7;
threatened coalition of, with Denmark and France against England,
1557–8, 179;
dépôt of at Hull, 162, 168;
two Hanse ships captured by Towerson, 303, 350;
the Steelyard, 39;
attack on, 1493, 43.
Hawkins, Sir John, 225.
Hawkins, William, 241;
makes voyages to Brazil, 1530, 265–7;
commercial enterprises, 268–9;
letter from, to Cromwell, 268;
privateering exploits, 271;
further career, 270–1.
Henry VII, 54, 55, 57, 59, 78;
and Columbus, 71;
visits Bristol, 74;
grants letters patent to the Cabots, 53, 56, 59–60, 64–5, 74, 78;
to the Bristol syndicates, 104, 109;
policy of, 14, 17, 19, 20–7, 37, 41–7, 54, 65, 79, 106;
naval administration of, 372–4.
Henry VIII, character of, 120, 121, 128;
court of, 133;
policy of, 120, 121, 123–4, 126–8, 130–3, 142, 144, 161, 183–4, 186,
214;
his interest in discovery, 240, 245–8, 249;
exhorted by Robert Thorne, 250–1;
anecdote of, 264;
and William Hawkins, 271;
naval policy, 374, 399–400;
conduct of war, 1545, 397.
Hewster, John, Governor of Merchant Adventurers, 155.
Hickman, Anthony, merchant, factors of at Grand Canary, 226;
investor in Guinea expedition, 284.
Hojeda, Alonzo de, explorer, 99–100;
encounters English explorers (?), 1499, 100, 101.
Holstocke, William, Controller of the Navy, 234.
Holy League, the, 120–1.
Hore, Master, voyage of to Newfoundland, 1536, 262–4.
Howard, Sir Edward, Lord Admiral, engaged in Mediterranean trade, 232;
action with Barton, 1511, 374–5;
commands fleet against French, 1512–13, 376;
battle off Brest, 1512, 376–8;
blockades Brest, 379–83;
killed, 1513, 381–3;
character, 376, 378, 380, 383.
Howard, Thomas, Lord Admiral and Duke of Norfolk, 141;
engaged in Mediterranean trade, 232;
action with Andrew Barton, 1511, 374–5;
succeeds his brother as Admiral, 383–4;
commands in 1522–3, 386, 387–8.
Howard, Lord William, Lord Admiral, 403, 404–5, 406;
assists Guinea adventurers, 303;
member of Russia Company, 311.
Hull, port of, 371.
Hussey, Anthony, Governor of Merchant Adventurers, 296;
Consul of Russia Company, 326.
Hussey, Dr. Lawrence, 333–4.
Hutton, John, Governor of Merchant Adventurers, 188.

Iceland, fishery at and trade with, 41, 74, 199–203;
fighting in, 199–200;
conduct of the English in, 200–1;
number of ships going to, 201–2;
decline of the fishery, 202–3.
Ipswich, port of, 371.
Isabella, Queen of Castile, 20, 23.
Italy, trade with, overland, 16, 28, 29, 32, 150, 229;
by sea, 17, 28, 32, 48, 149, 230–1.
Ivan the Terrible, Czar, 324–6;
letter from to Edward VI, 325–326;
anecdote of, 327–8;
grants privileges to the English, 328;
letter to from Philip and Mary, 336.
Ivory Coast. _See_ Guinea.

James IV of Scotland, 375. Jenkinson, Anthony, in the Mediterranean, 238; goes to Russia, 1557, 336; his explorations, 337. John, Don, native chief in Guinea, 286, 294. Johnson, John, merchant of the Staple, 204. Johnson, Richard, description of the Samoyedes, 331–2. Judde, Sir Andrew, merchant, member of Russia Company, 326.

Katherine of Aragon, 22, 23, 24; divorce of, 186–7. Killingworth, George, agent of Russia Company, 327–8. Knotting, John, election of as Governor of Merchant Adventurers annulled, 189–90. Knyvet, Sir Thomas, 232; killed at Brest, 1512, 377–8.

Labrador, 88, 91, 93, 115–16, 117–19, 203–4; origin of name, 91–2, 104 note; confused with Greenland, 93, 116 note. Lambert, Francis, merchant, investor in Barbary voyage, 275. Lambert, Nicholas, merchant, 281; abandoned in Benin, 282–3. Lancerota, fight between Wyndham and Spaniards at, 276. Lane, Henry, agent of Russia Company, 321, 327, 337. Lee, Dr., English ambassador in Spain, 251, 260. Letters of Marque. _See_ Privateering. Levant, trade with. _See_ Mediterranean. Lisle, Lord. _See_ Dudley. Livery Companies, the, invited to set forth a voyage of discovery, 1521, 245–8. Locke, John, merchant, commands Guinea expedition, 1554, 284–7, 288. Locke, Thomas, merchant, 284. London, port of, 131; growth of, 367–8, 371. Low Countries. _See_ Netherlands. Lutterell, Sir John, merchant, 274.

Magellan, Ferdinand, voyage round the world, 1519–21, 246.
‘Mantuan Gentleman,’ relation of the, 88–9, 93–4, 97.
Marco Polo, 72;
quotation from, 77 note.
Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy, 19, 21.
Martyr, Peter, historian, 86, 92;
quotation from, 86–7.
Mary, Queen, policy of, 150–1, 170–1, 176, 288, 291, 292, 303;
letter from to the Czar, 1557, 336;
naval administration of, 404.
Medina del Campo, treaty of, 22.
Medina Sidonia, Duke of, 216;
grants privileges to English merchants, 216–17, 218.
Mediterranean, commodities obtained from, 230;
English trade with, 15, 17, 46, 129–30, 228–39;
Acts relating to, 228 note;
decay of, 148–9, 238–9.
Merchant Adventurers, the, 16, 19, 31, 33–6, 127, 138, 140, 145, 146,
161, 163, 168, 183–96;
constitution of, 34, 35, 187, 194 note;
Act relating to, 35;
head-quarters transferred to Calais, 1493, 19;
treatment of, in the Netherlands, 184–6, 195;
threatened transference of head-quarters to Calais, 1527, 187;
threatened arrest of, in Netherlands, 1527, 187;
relations with English Government, 187–8, 194 note;
pay a benevolence in lieu of taxes, 191;
arrest of at Antwerp, 1545, 191–2;
suffer from Hanse competition, 191–2;
loans to Government, 163, 194 note;
attack privileges of the Hansa, 163, 164–5, 171–4;
petition the Council, 1554, 173;
disputes among, 35, 139, 189–190, 193–4;
indiscipline of, 189, 193, 195;
wealth of, 140–1;
members fined, 188–9, 194;
religion of, 195–6;
relative decline of, 196.
Merchant Adventurers for the discovery of new lands, &c. _See_ Russia
Company.
Merchants, social position of. _See_ Social Changes.
Merchants, foreign, in England;
Flemish, 127, 141;
French, 141, 212;
German, _see_ Hansa;
Italian, 26, 44, 46–8, 141, 150;
Spanish, 44–6.
Merchants of the Staple. _See_ Staple.
Merchant Venturers of Bristol, 370–1.
Michiel, Giovanni, Venetian ambassador, 150, 321, 327 note, 329 note.
Milan, Duke of, 55.
Mina, or El Mina, Portuguese head-quarters in Guinea, 280, 285.
Mordeyne, Miles, merchant, forbidden to trade with Guinea, 296;
member of Russia Company, 326.
More, Sir Thomas, 155.
Muscovy Company. _See_ Russia Company.

Navigation Acts, 1485 and 1489, 19, 45, 128, 209–10, 212–13;
repeal of, 145–6, 214–15;
1540, 128–30, 158, 213, 223;
licences to infringe, 19, 212;
Spanish Acts, 24, 27, 131, 219.
Navigation, Science of. _See_ Ships.
Netherlands, trade with, 19, 20, 129, 130, 131–2, 147, 184–7, 190–2,
196.
Newcastle, port of, 367, 371.
Newfoundland, in Thorne’s map, 115, 116;
Hore’s voyage to, 1536, 262–4;
fishery at, 56, 64, 87, 106–7, 118, 203–4;
Acts relating to, 203.
_New Interlude of the Four Elements, The_, 111, 114;
quotation from, 111–13.
Norfolk, Duke of. _See_ Howard.
North-East Passage, search for, 310–32, 337;
causes leading to, 310–11;
voyage of Willoughby, 1553–4, 314–22;
of Chancellor, 1553–4, 322–4;
of Stephen Borough, 1556, 329–32.
_See also_ Russia Company.
North-West Passage, search for, 88, 89–90, 91, 94, 96, 98, 101, 103,
118, 119;
alleged voyage, 1516–17, 241–5;
projected voyage, 1521, 245–8;
Rut’s voyage, 1527, 252–8;
Hore’s voyage, 1536, 262–4;
projected voyage, 1541, 265.
Northumberland, Duke of. _See_ Dudley.
Novaia Zemlia, discovered by Sir Hugh Willoughby, 318–19.

Olaus Magnus, historian, quotation from, 200. Orkneys and Shetlands, proposed raid on, 1542, 201. Osep Nepea, Russian ambassador, sails with Chancellor, 1556, 332–3; reception in London, 334; negotiates a treaty, 334–5; description of, 335–6; departure, 336. Ostrich, Henry, merchant, 308. Ostrich, William, Governor of English merchants in Spain, 220, 222.

Packer, the, duties of, 135. Paris Map, the. _See_ Sebastian Cabot. Pasqualigo, Lorenzo, letter from, describing Cabot’s voyage, 54–55, 66. Pembroke, Earl of, member of Russia Company, 311. Pery, Thomas, imprisoned and tortured in Spain, 222–3, 224. Pet, Arthur, 314, 332. Petre, Sir William, 175. Philip, Archduke and King of Castile, 20–1, 30. Philip, King, consort of Mary, influence of in England, 174, 287–8; policy of towards Hansa, 173–4, 176; towards Guinea adventurers, 287–8, 291–3, 295–296, 302; towards Russia Company, 337. Phillips, John, voyage of to Brazil and West Indies, 1540, 267–8. Pilotage, 30. Pinteado, Antonio Anes, Portuguese pilot and renegade, 277–84. Piracy, 28–9, 365–7; Act concerning, 1536, 366. Pisa, proposed wool-staple at, 25, 229. Plantagenet, Arthur, son of Edward IV, 380. Plymouth and Fowey, port of, 371. Pole, Cardinal, 126. Poole, port of, 371. Popenruyter, Hans, gunfounder, 184, 361–2. Portsmouth, fighting at, 1545, 392–7. Portuguese, discoveries of the, 49–50, 72; in America, 106–7, 116–17; offence taken by at English voyages to Africa, 276–277, 279, 287; negotiations with, 287–93; fighting with on Gold Coast, 294, 299–300, 304. Porzmoguer, Hervé de, French captain, 377–8. Poynings, Sir Edward, 373. Prato, Albert de, Canon of St. Paul’s and explorer, 252, 255, 258; letter from to Wolsey, 255; death of (?), 256. Prégent de Bidoux, French captain, commands squadron of galleys, 1512–14, 379; forces blockade of Brest, 353, 380–1; beats off English attack, 381–3; burns Brighton, 384–5. Prices, rise of, 135, 146–7; of sugar, 135; of wines, 24, 213; of wool, 146–7; of corn, 148. Prima Vista, land named, 64. Privateering, 29, 138, 214, 224, 225, 270–1, 272, 367, 390–1, 403–4. Proclamation abolishing protection for seven years, 1539, 126–127, 130, 132. Prussia, trade with, 42. _See also_ Danzig. Pudsey, —, merchant of Southampton, voyage of to Brazil, 1542, 267. Puebla, Dr. Ruy Gonsales de, Spanish ambassador, 27; character, 45–6; letter to, 53–4; letter from, describing Cabot’s voyage, 59, 79. Purchas, Samuel, historian, 253, 255, 321. Purchas, William, Lord Mayor, 62.

Ralph, John, captain in Guinea expeditions, 293.
Ramusio, Giovanni Battista, historian, 88, 93–4, 97, 114;
quotations from, 88–9, 89–90.
Ransoms, raising of, for prisoners of the Turks, 233–4.
Reformation, effects of, on maritime expansion, 141–4.
Reneger, John, son of Robert Reneger, 272.
Reneger, Robert, merchant of Southampton, makes voyages to Brazil, _c._
1540, 267;
career of, 272–3;
captures Spanish treasure-ship, 1545, 272;
lends ships to the king, 1545, 391.
Ribault, Jean, French explorer, 90.
Rotz, John, his _Book of Hydrography_, 345.
Russia Company, 311–37;
formation of, 1552–3, 311;
incorporated by Edward VI, 312;
Sebastian Cabot Governor of, 312, 326;
capital of, 312;
distinguished from Merchant Adventurers, 312–13;
first expedition, 1553–4, 314–26;
obtains fresh charter, 1555, 326–7;
second expedition, 1555, 327–9;
obtains privileges from the Czar, 328;
third expedition, 1556, 329–33;
disasters at sea, 332–3;
fourth expedition, 1557, 336;
factories in Russia, 337.
Rut, John, commander of North-West voyage, 1527, 252–8;
letter from to Henry VIII, 253–4;
in the West Indies, 255–6, 257 note.
Rutter, John, gunmaker, 361.

Salt, Isle of, Towerson at, 305.
San Lucar, English merchants at, 216–17, 218, 220, 222, 225.
Santa Cruz, Alonzo de, geographer, 91, 94;
quotations from, 91–2.
Savages brought from America, 1502, 62, 63, 110, 117.
Scandinavia, trade with, 15.
Schleswig, Duke of, letter from to Queen Mary, 179, 198.
Scotland, wars with, 1490, 373;
1497, 373–4;
1513, 384;
1522–4, 387;
1543–5, 388–9, 390;
1547–8, 401–2.
Searcher, duties of the, 135–6.
Senjen, island of, Willoughby at, 318.
Seven Cities, the, 58, 74.
Seymour, Thomas, Lord Admiral, 366, 391, 403.
Ships: development of ship-building, 232, 338–41, 346;
the mediaeval round ship, 339;
the galley, 339, 359–60, 380–1, 386, 393, 397–8;
English sailing ships called galleys, 355–6;
the carrack, 345, 350;
the caravel, 349–50;
the hulk, 350–1;
row-barges, 356, 393;
English ships, late fifteenth century, 341–2;
a merchantman of 1519, 344;
of 1527, 345;
warships, development of, 340–1, 351–2, 355, 356–7;
size of ships, 342–3, 345, 400;
cost of ships, 343–4;
sails and rigging, 346–8, 356–7;
ships’ boats, 346;
navigation, improvement of, 30, 240–1, 348–9;
seamen, health of, 362–3, 397, 399;
wages, 363;
victualling, 363;
private trading, 363;
officers, 363–4;
discipline, 364–5.
Ships: English (those marked * belonged to the Navy), the _Anne_, 336;
_Barbara_, 267–8;
_Barke Aucher_, 235–8;
_Bartholomew_, 284;
_Bona Confidentia_, 314–22, 328, 332;
_Bona Esperanza_, 314–22, 328, 332–3;
_Botolph_, 275;
_Christ_,* 233;
_Christopher_, 302–6;
_Edward Bonaventure_, 314–18, 322–6, 327–9, 329–30, 332–3, 363;
_Galley Subtile_,* 360;
_Grace Dieu_,* 372;
_Great Elizabeth_,* 386 note;
_Hart_, 293–5, 297–301;
_Henry Grace à Dieu_,* 243, 244, 343, 344, 347, 350, 353, 354–5,
357–9, 379, 393, 394, 404;
_Hind_, 293–5;
_Holy Cross_, 234;
_Jennet Purwyn_,* 374–5;
_Jesus of Lubeck_,* 233, 405;
_John Evangelist_, 284, 286, 336;
_Katherine Pleasance_,* 386 note;
_Lion_, 274, 275–7, 279, 283 note;
_Lion_ * (captured from Barton), 374–5;
_Mary and John_,* 232, 386 note;
_Mary Figge_, 271;
_Mary Fortune_,* 343, 373;
_Mary Gilford_,* 253, 256, 257 note;
_Mary Gloria_,* 386 note;
_Mary Gonson_,* 233;
_Mary Imperial_,* 386 note;
_Mary James_,* 377;
_Mary Rose_,* 243, 343, 353, 358, 361, 365, 377, 393, 394;
_Mary Spert_, 245;
_Matthew_, 75;
_Matthew Gonson_, 234, 255, 346, 362, 364;
_Minion_, 302–6;
_Moon_,* 279;
_Paul_, 266;
_Peter Pomegranate_,* 343, 353;
_Philip and Mary_, 327–9, 329–30, 332;
_Primrose_,* 279, 283 note, 336, 404;
_Regent_,* 233, 352, 353, 373, 377–8;
_Samson_, 254, 256, 257 note;
_Saviour_, 262;
_Serchthrift_, 329–32;
_Sovereign_,* 352, 357, 373, 377;
_Sweepstake_,* 343, 373;
_Tiger_, 297–302, 302–305;
_Tiger_,* 355;
_Trinity_, 284, 286, 336;
_Trinity Henry_,* 386 note;
_Unicorn_, 302.
Sigismund Augustus, King of Poland, letter from, 169.
Sluys, expedition against, 1492, 373.
Social changes, 133–4, 139–41.
Somerset, Duke of, 145;
sacks Leith and Edinburgh, 1544, 389;
invades Scotland, 1547, 401;
policy of, 161–2;
execution of, 164.
Soncino, Raimondo de, letters from, describing Cabot’s voyage, 55,
56–8, 66–7.
Sousa, Lopez de, Portuguese ambassador, 288.
Southampton, 367;
voyages to Brazil from, _c._ 1540, 267–8;
decay of, 368–9;
Act relating to, 1530, 368;
privileges of, 369.
Spain, trade with, 17, 22–4, 27, 129, 139, 215–28;
Company of English merchants in, 217;
incorporated, 1530, 218;
complaint of, 1548, 225;
persecution of English in, 143, 220–4;
arrest of English merchants, 1545, 224–5;
rise of enmity between Spain and England, 143–4.
Spert, Sir Thomas, alleged voyage of, 1516–17, 241–5;
career of, 243–5.
St. John, island of, 64, 70, 75.
St. Thomé, Towerson at, 305.
Staple, Merchants of the, 16, 31–33, 135, 136, 138, 139, 204–7;
wealth of, 141;
decline of, 206–207;
Acts concerning Calais, 205–6;
licences to infringe Staple monopoly, 231–2.
Steelyard. _See_ Hansa.
Stockbridge, Richard, merchant, forbidden to trade with Guinea, 291–2.
Stow, John, historian, 62–3.

Tanais, country of, 56.
Thevet, André, historian, 90.
Thirkill, Launcelot, companion of John Cabot, 60, 61, 82.
Thomas, James, relation of Barbary voyage by, 275–7.
Thomas, John, merchant of Bristol, 104, 109.
Thorne, Nicholas, son of Robert Thorne the elder, 260, 262, 261 note.
Thorne, Robert, the elder, voyage of to America, 113–14, 117, 252;
royal grant to, 114;
date of death, 116 note, 259;
career of, 258–9.
Thorne, Robert, the younger, 113, 114;
map made by, 114–116;
_Declaration of the Indies_, 250–1;
_Book made by_, 251–2;
sends agents to South America, 251 and note;
connexion between his projects and Rut’s voyage, 257–8;
career of, 260–261, 261 note.
Thorne, William, 114.
Tison, Thomas, first English merchant in West Indies, 260.
Tomson, Robert, voyage of to Mexico, 1555, 225–8.
Tonnage and Poundage. _See_ Customs.
Tordesillas, Treaty of, 79, 116.
Towerson, William, merchant, first voyage of to Guinea, 1555–6, 293–5;
second voyage, 1556–7, 296–302;
fights a Portuguese squadron, 299–300;
fights a French pirate, 301–2;
third voyage, 1558, 302–6;
captures a French ship, 304.
Trade, mediaeval, 15–16, 19, 31, 49–50.
Trade routes, 15, 16–17, 148–9, 154–5;
effect of discoveries on, 49–50, 149.
Treaties, commercial, with Denmark, 41;
with the Hansa, 39, 176, 181;
with the Netherlands, 1496, 20, 21, 185;
1497, 20;
1499, 20;
1506, 21, 131, 185–6;
1520, 185–6;
1542, 132;
with Spain, 1489, 22;
1515, 216.
Tregonwell, Sir James, 178.
Trenchard, Sir Thomas, 20.
Trinity, Guild of the Holy, 30.
Turkey Company, the, 231, 239.

Vardo, 318;
Chancellor at, 322–323;
trading post of the Russia Company, 327, 329.
Venice, commerce and policy of, 17–18, 47–8, 148–50;
Flanders galleys of, 18, 26, 28, 48–9, 149;
English trade with, 24–5;
decline of, 148–9.
Vineland, 74.

Wade, or Ward, Armigil, explorer, 263. Walker, Humphrey, gunmaker, 361. Wallop, Sir John, naval commander, 382, 385. Ward, Richard, merchant of Bristol, 104, 109. Warwick, Earl of. _See_ Dudley. West Indies, English trade with, 217, 228, 260. White, Giles, merchant, forbidden to trade with Guinea, 296. Williamson, John, relation by, 234. Willoughby, Gabriel, 314, 321. Willoughby, Sir Hugh, Captain-General of the North-East Expedition, 1553, 313–22; preparations, 314–17; voyage, 317–322; discovers Novaia Zemlia, 318–19; death, 321–22; bodies discovered, 328. Willoughby, Lord, commander against the Scots, 1497, 373–4. Winchester, Marquis of, member of Russia Company, 311. Wines, import of. _See_ Bordeaux, Spain, Levant, &c. Withipole, Paul, merchant, 261. Woad, Toulouse, import of, 209, 215. Wolsey, Cardinal, 142–3, 155; policy of, 121–2, 186; negotiations with Sebastian Cabot, 1521, 249; letter from, 377–8. Woodhouse, Sir William, vice-admiral, 405–6. Wool, export of. _See_ Staple. Wroth, Sir Thomas, merchant, investor in Barbary voyage, 275. Wyatt, Sir Thomas, ambassador in Spain, 221, 308. Wyndham, Thomas, 274–284; voyages to Barbary, 1551–2, 274, 275–7; to Guinea and Benin, 1553, 277–84, 290 note; career of, 274–5; death, 282.

Yorke, Sir John, merchant, investor in Barbary and Guinea expeditions,
275, 284.

Oxford: Horace Hart M.A., Printer to the University

------------------------------------------------------------------------

Transcriber’s Note

Errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have been corrected, and are noted here. The references are to the page and line in the original.

136.23 the right to ship 6000[,] broadcloths Removed.
319.32 such a serious error in latitude[.] Added.