Chapter I: Preface

Advantages out of all proportion to the importance of the immediate aim in view are apt to accrue whenever an honest endeavour is made to find an answer to one of those awkward questions which are constantly arising from the natural working of a child's mind. It was an endeavour of this kind which formed the nucleus of the inquiries resulting in the following little essay.

It is true that the effort in this case has not led to complete success in so far as that word denotes the formulation of an exact answer to the original question, which, being one of a number evoked by parental experiments in seaside sand-maze construction, was: "Father, who made mazes first of all?" On the other hand, one hesitates to apply so harsh a term as "failure" when bearing in mind the many delightful excursions, rural as well as literary, which have been involved and the alluring vistas of possible future research that have been opened up from time to time in the course of such excursions.

By no means the least of the adventitious benefits enjoyed by the explorer has been the acquisition of a keener sense of appreciation of the labours of the archaeologist, the anthropologist, and other, more special, types of investigator, any one of whom would naturally be far better qualified to discuss the theme under consideration--at any rate from the standpoint of his particular branch of learning--than the present author can hope to be.

The special thanks of the writer are due to Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie for permission to make use of his diagram of the conjectural restoration of the Labyrinth of Egypt, Fig. 4, and the view of the shrine of Amenemhat III, Fig. 2, also for facilities to sketch the Egyptian plaque in his collection which is shown in Fig. 19 and for drawing the writer's attention thereto; to Sir Arthur Evans for the use of his illustrations of double axes and of the Tomb of the Double Axe which appear as Figs. 9, 10, 11 and 12 respectively (Fig. 8 is also based on one of his drawings); to M. Picard (of the _Librairie A. Picard_) for leave to reproduce the drawing of the Susa mosaic, Fig. 37; to Mr. J. H. Craw, F.S.A. (Scot.), Secretary of the Berwickshire Naturalists' Club, for the use of the illustrations of sculptured rocks, Figs. 128 and 129; to the Rev. E. A. Irons for the photograph of the Wing maze, Fig. 60, and to the Rev. G. Yorke for the figure of the Alkborough "Julian's Bower," Fig. 59.

The many kind-hearted persons who have earned the gratitude of the writer by acceding to his requests for local information, or by bringing useful references to his notice, will perhaps take no offence if he thanks them collectively, though very heartily, in this place. In most cases where they are not mentioned individually in the text they will be found quoted as authorities in the bibliographical appendix. The present is, however, the most fitting place in which to express a cordial acknowledgment of the assistance rendered by the writer's friend, Mr. G. F. Green, whose skill and experience in the photographic art has been of very great value.

Grateful recognition must also be made of the help and courtesy extended to the writer by the officials of several libraries, museums, and other institutions, notably the British Museum, the Society of Antiquaries, Sion College, and the Royal Horticultural Society.

W. H. M.

_Ruislip, Middlesex._
1922.

CONTENTS

PAGES
PREFACE vii-viii

CONTENTS ix-xiv

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv-xviii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The Lure of the Labyrinth--Difficulties of Definition--The
Subject and Object of this Book--The Lore of the Labyrinth--
Some Neglected British Monuments--Destructive Dogmatism: a
Plea for Caution 1-5

CHAPTER II

THE EGYPTIAN LABYRINTH

(i) _Accounts of the Ancient Writers_

Enormous Edifices of Egypt--Herodotus: his Account of the
Labyrinth, its Vastness and Complexity, and its Lake--
Strabo's Description--The Sacred Crocodiles--Accounts of
Diodorus, Pomponius Mela, and Pliny 6-10

CHAPTER III

THE EGYPTIAN LABYRINTH (_continued_)

(ii) _Accounts of Later Explorers_

Decay of the Labyrinth--Travels of Lucas and Pococke--French
and Prussian Expeditions--Researches of Flinders Petrie--
Speculations regarding Original Plan--Purpose and Date of
Construction 11-16

CHAPTER IV

THE CRETAN LABYRINTH

(i) _The Story of Theseus and the Minotaur_

Plutarch's Life of Theseus; the Cretan Exploit--The Athenian
Tribute--The Labyrinth of Daedalus--The Clue of Ariadne--
The Fight with the Minotaur--The Crane Dance--Tragedies
of the Hero's Return--Other Accounts of the Legend--
Speculations concerning Minos and Daedalus 17-22

CHAPTER V

THE CRETAN LABYRINTH (_continued_)

(ii) _The Caverns of Gortyna_

Statements by Later Classic Writers--Tournefort's Voyage--
Visits of Pococke and Savary--Cockerell's Diary--Travels of
Capt. Spratt--Connection of Gortyna Caverns with Traditional
Labyrinth very improbable 23-28

CHAPTER VI

THE CRETAN LABYRINTH (_continued_)

(iii) _Knossos_

Explorations of Sir Arthur Evans--Momentous Discoveries--
Unearthing of the Palaces--Their Antiquity--Description
of the Great Palace--The Maze on the Wall--The Hall of
the Double Axes--The Cult of the Bull--Schliemann's
Researches--The Sport of Bull-Leaping--Possible Identity of
the Palace with the Labyrinth 29-36

CHAPTER VII

THE ETRUSCAN OR ITALIAN LABYRINTH

Other Labyrinths mentioned by Pliny--Varro's Description of the
Etruscan Labyrinth; the tomb of Lars Porsena--Speculations
regarding it--Travels of Dennis--Labyrinthine Caverns in
Etruria; Volterra and Toscanella--Extended use of the term
"Labyrinth" by Strabo and Pliny--Reference to Mazes formed
in Fields for Amusement 37-41

CHAPTER VIII

THE LABYRINTH IN ANCIENT ART

The Meander and other Rudimentary Forms--Seal-impressions--
Coins of Knossos--"Unicursal" Nature of the Knossian
Design--Graffito of Pompeii--The _Casa del Labirinto_--
Roman Mosaic Pavements--The _Tholos_ of Epidaurus--
Labyrinthine Structure at Tiryns--Greek Pottery--Etruscan
Vase--The Labyrinth on Gems and Robes 42-53

CHAPTER IX

CHURCH LABYRINTHS

Algeria, Orléansville--Italy: Lucca, Pavia, Piacenza, Cremona,
Rome and Ravenna--France: Chartres, St. Quentin, Amiens,
Rheims, Bayeux, Sens, Auxerre, Arras, St. Omer, Poitiers,
Chalons, Pont l'Abbé, Caen and Aix--Modern examples: Lille,
Ely, Bourn and Alkborough--Meaning of Church Labyrinths--
Lack of Support for Accepted Theory 54-70

CHAPTER X

TURF LABYRINTHS

Local Names--The Alkborough "Julian's Bower"--Juxtaposition
to Ancient Ecclesiastical Site--A Fragment of Folk-lore--
De la Pryme's Diary--The Breamore Mizmaze--Romantic
Situation--The Wing Maze--The Boughton Green Shepherd's
Race--Its Literary References--A Victim of the Great War--
Mazes of Ripon and Asenby--The Song of the Fairies--Other
Lincolnshire and Yorkshire Mazes--Stukeley on Julian's
Bowers--Wide Distribution of British Turf Mazes 71-78

CHAPTER XI

TURF LABYRINTHS (_continued_)

The Winchester Mizmaze--The Vanished Mazes of Dorset: Leigh,
Pimperne, Dorchester and Bere Regis--Aubrey's Notes on
Wiltshire and Cotswold Mazes--The Saffron Walden Maze--
The Comberton "Mazles"--The Hilton Maze and its Obelisk--
The Cumberland "Walls of Troy": Burgh and Rockcliffe--
The Nottingham Mazes: Sneinton and Clifton--The Somerton
"Troy-town"--Records of Old Mazes at Guildford, the
Malverns, and in Kent--"Julaber's Barrow" 79-91

CHAPTER XII

THE ORIGIN OF TURF MAZES

An old Welsh Custom--"Troy" or "Turnings"?--Dr. Trollope on
the Ecclesiastical Origin of Turf Mazes--The Welsh Figure--
Criticism of the Ecclesiastical View--"Treading the Maze"
in Tudor Times--Shakespearean References--Alchemy and the
Labyrinth of Solomon--Figure in a Greek Monastery--Heraldic
Labyrinths--The Question of the Roman Origin of Turf Mazes 92-99

CHAPTER XIII

THE FLORAL LABYRINTH AND THE DWARF-SHRUB MAZE

The Dwarf Box--Its use by Tudor and Roman Gardeners--Floral
Labyrinths by De Vries--Some Quaint Horticultural Books:
Parkinson, Estienne, Hill, and Lawson--Designs of Islip and
Commelyn--"Queen Mary's Bower" 100-109

CHAPTER XIV

THE TOPIARY LABYRINTH, OR HEDGE MAZE

Topiary work of the Romans--Pliny's "Hippodromus"--Dubious
Mediaeval References--Rosamond's Bower--Early French
"Daedales"--Mazes painted by Holbein and Tintoretto--
Du Cerceau's Sketches--Elizabethan Mazes: Theobalds and
Hatfield--Versailles and other Famous Labyrinths of France--
Some German Designs--Belgian, Spanish, Italian and Dutch
Mazes--William III and his Gardeners 110-127

CHAPTER XV

THE TOPIARY LABYRINTH, OR HEDGE MAZE (_continued_)

Hampton Court: the Maze and the Little Maze--Other English
Mazes of the Period--Batty Langley and Stephen Switzer--
Allegorical Labyrinth of Anhalt--A Wimbledon Maze--The
Mazes of Westminster and Southwark 128-136

CHAPTER XVI

THE TOPIARY LABYRINTH, OR HEDGE MAZE (_continued_)

_Latter-day Developments_

Decline of the Hedge-Maze Vogue--Mazes in "Pleasure Gardens":
North London, South London--Modern Mazes in Essex, Suffolk,
Cheshire, Lincolnshire, and Gloucestershire--Some Modern
Continental Mazes--The Case For and Against the Hedge Maze
137-146

CHAPTER XVII

STONE LABYRINTHS AND ROCK ENGRAVINGS

The Stone Labyrinths of Finland--Their Local Traditions and
Nomenclature--Their Antiquity--Aubrey's Acute Observation--
Some Maze-like Rock Engravings in England, Ireland, and
Brittany--A Curious Discovery in Arizona and a Spanish
Manuscript--American Indians and the Cretan Labyrinth--
Another Indian Pictograph--Zulu Mazes--Distribution of
Labyrinth Cult 147-155

CHAPTER XVIII

THE DANCE OR GAME OF TROY

"Troy" in Labyrinth Names--An old French Reference--The Vase
of Tragliatella--Virgil's Account of the Troy Game--The
Delian Crane Dance--Knossos and Troy--Ariadne's Dance--
Spring-Rites--"Sympathetic Magic"--Sword and Morris
Dances--Troy-dances in Mediaeval Germany and in Modern
Serbia--Preservation of the English Traditions 156-163

CHAPTER XIX

THE BOWER OF "FAIR ROSAMOND"

"Fair Rosamond," Henry, and Eleanor--The Dagger or the Bowl--
History of the Legend--Accounts of Brompton and Higden--
Delone's Ballad--Rosamond in Verse and Prose--Her Epitaph--
A Question of Taste--Late Remains of the Bower--A Modern
Play--Rosamond's Alleged Portrait 164-169

CHAPTER XX

MAZE ETYMOLOGY

The Question of Definition again--Bowers and Julian-Bowers--
What was a Bower and who was Julian?--The Labyrinth and the
Double Axe--Chaucer and the Maze--Metaphorical Labyrinths--
The Labyrinth in Scientific Nomenclature--The Meanings of
"Maze"--Troy-towns and the New Troy 170-181

CHAPTER XXI

LABYRINTH DESIGN AND THE SOLUTION OF MAZES

The Need of a Definition--Practical Limitations--Classification
of Mazes and Labyrinths--Unicursal and Multicursal, Compact
and Diffuse Types--Modes of Branching--Straight-line
Diagrams--Speculations on the Knossian Figure--Hints
on Maze Design--Principles of Maze Solution--A Word on
Mnemonics--Harris at Hampton Court 182-192

CHAPTER XXII

THE LABYRINTH IN LITERATURE

Romance, Mystery, and Allegory--Labyrinthine Book Titles--
Some Literary Monstrosities--Spiritual and Theological
Labyrinths--Love, Labyrinths, and Anonymity--The Labyrinth
in Modern Book Titles--Emblems--Melancholy Meditations in
the Maze 193-200