Chapter XXXII: Book IX: CALLIOPE.--Defeat of the Persians at Platæa--defeat at the (5)

That the _arenaria_ were considered as burying places in the time of Nero is evident from his exclamations of horror at the idea of being taken there alive for the purpose of concealment. The sand-pits are also mentioned by Cicero in his Oration for Cluentius, where he says that the young Asinius, a citizen of noble family, was inveigled into one of them and murdered.

This shows they were in use before the Christian era, and there is every reason to believe that they have been in use ever since lime-mortar came into use, which is believed to have been many centuries before that period. The celebrated Pozzolana sand makes the best mortar in the world, from its gritty nature. This valuable sand is found to any extent nearly all over the Campagna of Rome, in horizontal beds or layers between the beds of tufa; some of the tufa itself, which is sandstone, may be scraped into this sand, but it is easier to take it as ready provided by nature. People once accustomed to the use of this sand can not do without it, and hundreds of carts filled with it may be seen daily traversing the Campagna, conveying it either to Rome, or to Ostia, or to Porto, for exportation. The horizontal layers or beds of this sand are not usually more than six feet thick, although they extend at a certain level over the whole surface of the country. It is therefore excavated in horizontal corridors, with various branches, extending for many miles, undermining the whole surface of the soil, but not in large or deep pits, so that the name of sand-pit is rather deceitful to American people, who commonly imagine it to be always a large and deep pit to which these roads lead only; this is not always the case, the roads themselves being excavated in the layer of sand, and frequently themselves the sand-pits. Sometimes there are different layers of sand at different levels, and in some cases there may be two sand-pit roads one over the other, with the bed of hard tufa between them.

We are told in the _Acta Sanctorum_ that one of the punishments inflicted on the Christians by the Emperor Maximinus in the sixth persecution, A.D. 35, was digging sand and stone. The martyrs, Ciriacus and Sisinnus are especially mentioned as ordered to be strictly guarded, and compelled to dig sand and to carry it on their own shoulders.

Some of the catacombs were evidently made under tombs by the side of the road, and in that of S. Calixtus there are remains of the tomb on the surface of the ground. The burial-chapels of the fourth century commonly found over a catacomb probably replace earlier tombs. The church of S. Urban is now considered to have been a family tomb of the first century, made into a church long afterwards.

Many inscriptions are preserved relating to the preservation of a tomb with the land belonging to it in perpetuity, and they frequently mention the number of feet along the road and in the field. Their size varies enormously. Horace mentions one that was 1,000 feet by 300 feet. The inscription of one dug up in the Via Labicana gives 1,800 feet by 500 feet; another was only twenty-four feet by fifteen feet, and another sixteen feet square. In the case of one of the larger tombs belonging to a family that became Christian, it was easy for them to make a catacomb under it and allow their fellow-Christians to be buried there, or to sell portions of the large space for separate vaults. Many vaults of sixteen feet square might be made in the space of 1,800 feet long by 500 feet wide, as the one on the Via Labicana. If the adjoining field belonged to the same family, the catacomb might be extended as far as the family property itself extended. This is the most probable explanation of the _prædium_ of the Lady Lucina and other Christian martyrs. They were heiresses to whom such a tomb and meadow belonged. When the space was limited, three or four stories were excavated in succession, one under the other, as we see in many instances.

The measurements of Michele de Rossi coincide with this in a remarkable manner. He finds the _area_ of each separate catacomb to be respectively 100, 125, 150, 180 and 250 feet. None of these spaces are at all too large for the area commonly left round a tomb of importance, and the family property of this area would extend to any depth. Each cemetery was complete in itself, but sometimes connected with others by subterranean roads.

These tombs were protected by special laws, and the _area_ in which the tomb stood was included with it. The area was often of considerable extent, and was intended for the burial-place of succeeding generations of the family to whom it belonged. The tombs of the period of the early empire were by no means exclusively for the _columbaria_ for cinerary urns. The instances in which there are both places for bodies and urns are perhaps more numerous than those for urns only. The fine sarcophagi now found in museums, or applied to all sorts of uses, as water-troughs, vases for flowers, and various other purposes, were all originally in tombs, and generally in tombs in which there were also _columbaria_ for cinerary urns. Some Pagan tombs on the Via Latina have catacombs for the interment of bodies under them, and often bodies were put in them.

The custom of burning the bodies was never universal, and lasted only for a certain period; the custom of burying bodies came in again soon after the Christian era, and probably was influenced by the strong feeling which sprung up among the Christians on this subject. The sumptuous painted chambers in the upper part of the tombs of the first and second centuries on the Via Latina were evidently imitated by the poor in the catacombs in the fourth and fifth centuries and later; but there is no evidence of any Scriptural or religious subjects for paintings before the time of Constantine. The character of the paintings is almost universally later, and the few that are early are not Christian nor Scriptural.

It might very well happen that some members of the family were Christians and others were not, and this would account for the mixture of Pagan tombs with Christian ones in the same catacombs. The subterranean sand-pit roads frequently run parallel to the high roads at a little distance from them, and such a road passing at the back of the subterranean cemetery or catacomb would be very convenient to Christians in time of persecution. The part of these roads which came within the limits of the cemetery would naturally be used for burial places, also, as we see that they were distinctly in the case of S. Hermes, and nearly with equal certainty in other cases. In ordinary times, there was no necessity for secrecy. The bodies of Christian martyrs were given up for the purpose of burial to those who applied for them.

The catacombs of SS. Saturnius and Thraso, the entrance to which is in the gardens of the Villa Gangalani, about a mile from Rome, on the Via Salaria, are stated to have formed part of the great catacomb of S. Priscilla, the entrance to which is about a quarter of a mile farther from Rome, on the same road. On descending into that of S. Saturninus by a steep flight of steps of modern appearance, but perhaps restored only, we soon pass under the road and hear carriages passing overhead; we then continue to descend to the depth of about fifty feet, divided into five corridors, only four of which can at present be seen; but we pass the entrance to the fifth on one of the stair-cases, and see the opening to it. The two lower corridors of this catacomb have tombs or _cubicula_ on the sides; a few of these are painted, and the vault of the corridor in front of them, also.

The sandstone in which this catacomb is made is more than usually hard, for which reason apparently there are only three of the side chapels for family burying places, and few of the arched tombs; most of the recesses for graves are merely parallelograms just large enough to contain the body, or two bodies side by side, one behind the other, the recess being excavated to a sufficient depth for that purpose, and some of these have the slabs covering the openings left in their places. The skeletons are allowed to remain in several of the tombs where the slab has been removed and left open. One of the chapels has remains of paintings of the fourth century in a very decayed state. The other two chapels are connected by a short passage; they have evidently been family burying places, a second added when the first was full. The passage is made through the principal tomb of the first chapel, the body previously interred there was probably removed to the inner chapel when that was made. The painted chapel is in the upper corridor, the double one in the lowest.

In descending from the garden, the two upper corridors have tombs on the sides, and are regular catacombs; the third is an _arenarium_, or sand-pit, without tombs, and large enough for a horse and cart to pass along, as in the ordinary sand-pits. There must have been another entrance to this, and it is said to have been half a mile off, which is not improbable, judging by other sand-pits, both those now in use and others that are closed, some of which are known to be more than a mile long, and with the different branch galleries, the corridors altogether often extend several miles. These galleries are large and wide enough for a horse and cart, but not for two to pass, sidings being made at intervals for that purpose. The passages in the catacombs vary much both in height and in width, but are seldom more than three feet wide. The chapels also vary in size, but none of them would hold more than fifty people; those in the present catacomb are small.

That each of these chapels was the burial-place of a family, and was considered as private property, is evident from the remains of a door at the entrance of several of them, as in the catacomb of S. Priscilla. In one of these, the stone corbel, with the hole for the pivot to work in, remains in its place; the lower stone, with the corresponding hole, has been moved, but is lying on the floor in an adjoining chapel. Another door has been made to slide up and down like a portcullis or a modern sash-window, as we see by the groove remaining on both sides. This is close to a _luminaria_, or well for admitting light and air, and it seems quite possible that it really was a window, or that the upper part was made to slide down to admit the light and air from the _luminaria_. If this was the burial-place of Priscilla, the paintings were probably renewed in the restoration by John I., A.D. 523. The lower part of the wall is faced with stucco paneled with oblong panels, colored in imitation of different kinds of marble; the stucco is about an inch thick, like slabs of marble, and the divisions between the panels are sunk to that depth, as if each panel had been painted before it was placed and fixed to the walls like marble slabs. There are some long narrow slips of white stucco lying about, which seem to have been fitted into the hollow grooves between the slabs. The vaults in this catacomb are in many parts supported by brick arches; in one place, at a crossing, are four small low brick arches, the character of which agrees with the period of the restoration in the sixth century; the mortar between the bricks or tiles is about the same thickness as the tiles themselves, which are rather more than an inch thick, so that there are five tiles to a foot, including the mortar between them. These brick arches are not subsequent repairs, but part of the original construction to carry the vault. The _arenarium_, or sand-pit gallery, through which the present entrance is made, has evidently been used as a subterranean road. A branch of an aqueduct running along the side of this is part of an extensive system of irrigation carried on throughout all this district, the water having been brought from the Aqua Virgo, which passed in this direction. It was probably part of the original line of the Aqueduct, which has been altered in the portion near to Rome; this has not been traced out to any considerable extent, but Signor de Rossi has found many remains and indications of it. The sand-pit roads, or _arenaria_, ran for miles parallel to the high roads, and were probably used by the carters in preference to the open roads in hot weather, as they are always cool.

_Christian Inscriptions_ are all funereal, and are for the most part found in the catacombs, or subterranean cemeteries. The word cemetery is derived from a Greek word, meaning "a sleeping place," hence the frequent formulæ in the Christian epitaphs, "dormit in pace," he sleeps in peace; "dormitio Elpidis," the sleeping place of Elpis; "cubiculum Aureliæ," the sleeping chamber of Aurelia. The term catacomb was applied to these subterranean cemeteries at a much later period. The practice of subterranean burial among the early Christians was evidently derived from the Jewish custom of burying the dead in excavated sepulchres, and thus may have been adopted by the early Jewish converts. The Roman Jews had a very early catacomb of their own, in the Monte Verde, contiguous to their place of abode, in the Trasteverine quarter of Rome. This subterranean mode of sepulture is undoubtedly of Egyptian origin. It is generally supposed that the early Christians used for their burial places the excavations made by the Romans for procuring stone and cement for building purposes. This is an erroneous view. Recent geological observations on the soil of the Agro Romano have shown that the surface of the Campagna consists of volcanic rocks of different natures and ages. The earliest of the series, the tufa lithoide, was constantly employed from the earliest ages in the buildings of the city, as attested by the massive blocks of the Cloaca Maxima, the tabularium of the Capitol, and the walls of Romulus; the second, or tufa granolare, which though it has just consistency enough to retain the form given to it by the excavator, can not be hewn or extracted in blocks; and the pozzolana, which has been extensively used in all ages for mortar or Roman cement. The tufa lithoide and the pozzolana were thus alone used for building purposes by the Romans, and the catacombs are never found excavated in these. The catacombs were hewn only in the tufa granolare, and were consequently excavated expressly for burials by the early Christians. The Christian architects carefully avoided the massive strata of the tufa lithoide, and we believe it is ascertained that all the known catacombs are driven exclusively along the courses of the tufa granolare. With equal care these subterranean engineers avoided the layers of pozzolana, which would have rendered their work insecure, and in which no permanent rock tomb could have been constructed. Thus we arrive at the curious fact, that in making the catacombs the excavators carefully avoided the strata of hard stone and the strata of soft stone, used respectively for building and for mortar, and selected that course of medium hardness which was best adapted to their peculiar purpose. The early Christian tomb inscriptions are characterized by symbols and formulæ peculiar to the Christian creed; the idea of another life, a life beyond the grave, usually prevails in them.

The symbols found in connection with the funereal inscriptions are of three kinds; the larger proportion of these refer to the profession of Christianity, its doctrines and its graces. A second class, of a partly secular description, only indicate the trades of the deceased, and the remainder represent proper names: thus a lion must be read as a proper name, _Leo_; an ass, _Onager_; a dragon, _Dracontius_. Of the first kind the most usually met with is the monogram of Christ. The other symbols generally in use are the ship, the emblem of the church; the fish, the emblem of Christ, the palm, the symbol of martyrdom. The anchor represented hope in immortality; the dove, peace; the stag reminded the faithful of the pious aspiration of the Psalmist; the horse was the emblem of strength in the faith; the hunted hare, of persecution; the peacock and the phoenix stood for signs of the resurrection. Christ, as the good pastor, was also introduced in the epitaph. Even personages of the Pagan mythology were introduced, which the Christians employed in a concealed sense, as Orpheus, enchanting the wild beasts with the music (see page 701) of his lyre, was the secret symbol of Christ as the civilizer of men leading all nations to the faith. Ulysses, fastened to the mast of his ship, was supposed to present some faint resemblance to the crucifixion.

In classifying the Roman inscriptions, M. de Rossi has adopted the following divisions. The first comprises those inscriptions only which contain some express note of time, and are therefore susceptible of exact chronological arrangement. The second comprises the select inscriptions, viz.: first, sacred and historical ones, and next those which, either by testimony, by forms, or by symbols, illustrate the doctrines, the worship, or the morals of the Christians. The third, the purely topographical, assigns each inscription its proper place among the ancient localities of Rome. This comprises also inscriptions of unknown or uncertain locality, as well as inscriptions of spurious origin or doubtful authenticity.

In considering the chronological arrangements of Christian inscriptions, it is important to keep in view that in the earlier centuries the Christians kept note of time either by the years of the bishop, or by some of the civil forms which prevailed in the various countries in which they resided. In Rome the common date was that of the consular year. The common use of the Christian era as a note of time began, as is well known, later than the sixth century, at which M. de Rossi's series terminates. In M. de Rossi's collection one inscription bears date from the year A.D. 107, and another from 111. Of the period from the year 204, in which the next inscription with a date occurs, till the peace of the church in 312, twenty-eight dated inscriptions have been found; after the peace of the church the number of dated inscriptions increases rapidly. Between the accession of Constantine and the close of the fourth century, his collection contains 450 dated inscriptions, and the fifth century presents about the same number; but in the sixth, the number again declines, that century producing little more than 200.

In those cases where no note of time is marked, M. de Rossi has availed himself of other chronological indications and tests, founded on the language, on the style, on the names, and on the material execution of the inscription, in determining the date. Out of the 11,000 extant Roman inscriptions anterior to the seventh century, M. de Rossi finds chronological evidence of the date of no fewer than 1374.

There are also varieties in inflection, such as "spiritu sancta" for "spiritu sancto," "pauperorum," for "pauperum," "vocitus" for "vocatus," "requiescent" for "requiescunt," etc.

There are also new or unusual terms, or new familiar words in new or unusual meanings, such as "pausavit, rested, bisomus, trisomus, quadrisomus," holding two, three, four bodies; compar and conpar (husband and wife); fecit for egit, _passed_; "percepit," received, _scil._ baptism, as also "consecutus est," in the same sense, etc.

Sometimes Latin is written in Greek characters and sometimes Greek in Latin.

The age is expressed by "vixit," or "vixit in sæculo," "annos" (or "annis") "menses," "dies" (or "diebus") ----, with the number of hours sometimes stated. Sometimes "qui fuit" stands for "vixit;" sometimes neither is expressed, and we have the form in the genitive, "sal. annorum," etc.

Frequently the time passed in married life is mentioned, and we find such phrases as "vixit mecum, duravit mecum, vixit in conjugio, fecit mecum, fecit in conjugio, fecit cum compare," with a precise statement of the number of years, etc., and often with some expression marking the happiness of the couple's married life.

The epithets applied to the deceased indicate strong affection, and the eulogies are sometimes extravagant.

The occupation or position in life is stated, with the proper titles, in many dated Christian epitaphs. But they are all, it is supposed, later than the time of Constantine.

The same designations of the place of burial and of the tomb are found in both Christian and Pagan epitaphs.

Acclamations or expressions of good wishes or prayers to or for the deceased frequently occur in the inscriptions.

The letters also of these inscriptions are usually very irregular. They are from half an inch to four inches in height, colored in the incision with a pigment resembling Venetian red. The sense, too, of the inscriptions is not always very obvious. An extreme simplicity of language and sentiment is the prevailing characteristic of the earlier inscriptions. But, on the other hand, exaggerated examples of the opposite style are occasionally met with.

Another peculiarity in these Christian inscriptions is the disuse of the three names usually assumed by the Romans. M. de Rossi has given twenty inscriptions with the names complete, prior to Constantine. Of these, no fewer than seventeen have prænomina, whereas after Constantine prænomina may be said entirely to disappear.

The year is usually indicated by the names of the consuls. The abbreviation COS for "consulibus" was in use up to the middle of the third century, when COSS, CONS, and CONSS began to be adopted; COS is very seldom found during the fourth century, and almost never in the fifth or sixth; COSS fell into disuse about the first quarter of the fifth century, and after that CONS was used; in the time of Diocletian with S for one consul and SS for two. At the same time CC. SS. CS were introduced, but they were very rarely used in the fifth, and there is scarcely an example of them in the sixth. From about the middle of the fourth century CONS began to be placed before instead of after the names, and this usage became the prevalent custom in the fifth and sixth.

At the date of the discovery of the Roman catacombs, the whole body of known Christian inscriptions collected from all parts of Italy fell far short of a thousand in number. Of these, too, not a single one was of subterranean origin, and not dated earlier than A.D. 553. At present the Christian inscriptions of Rome on catacombs alone, and anterior to the sixth century, considerably exceed 11,000. They have been carefully removed from the cemeteries, and are now systematically arranged by M. de Rossi, on the walls of the Christian museum, recently formed by order of Pius IX., in the Lateran Palace. A large number of these inscriptions are also inserted in the walls of the Galleria Lapidaria in the Vatican.

EARLY INSCRIPTIONS.

VG. VESPASIANO III COS
IAN A.D. 71.

This fragment has been received as a part of a Christian epitaph by Reggi, Marini and de Rossi. It is the most ancient of all such as bear dates.

SERVILIA. ANNORVM. XIII
PIS. ET BOL. COSS.

Servilia, aged thirteen, died in the consulate of Piso and
Bolanus. A.D. 111.

TEMPORE. ADRIANI. IMPERATORIS. MARVIS. ADOLESCENS DVX.
MILITVM QVI SATIS. VIXIT DVM VITAM PRO CHO CVM. SANGVINE
CONSVNSIT. IN. PACE. TANDEM QUIEVIT. BENE MERENTES CVM.
LACRIMIS. ET. METV. POSVERVNT. I.D. VI.

"In the time of the Emperor Adrian, Marius, a young military
officer who had lived long enough, when with blood he gave up
his life for Christ. At length he rested in peace. The
well-deserving set up this with tears and in fear, on the 6th
before the ides." A.D. 130.

ALEXANDER MORTVVS NON EST SED VIVIT SVPER ASTRA ET CORPVS
IN HOC TVMVLO QVIESCIT VITAM EXPLEVIT SVS ANTONINO IMP^o
QVIVBI MVLTVM BENE FITII ANTEVENIRE PRAEVIDERET PROGRATIA
ODIVM REDDIDIT GENVA ENIM FLECTENS VERO DEO SACRIFICATVRVS
AD SVPPLICIA DVCITVRO TEMPORA INFAVSTA QVIBVS INTER SACRA
ET VOTA NE IN CAVERNIS QVIDEM SALVARI POSSIMVS QVID MISERIVS
VITA SED QVID MISERIVS IN MORTE CVM AB AMICIS ET PARENTIBVS
SEPELIRI NEQVEANT TANDEM IN COELO CORVSCANT PARVM VIXIT
QVI
VIXIT IV. X. TEM.

"In Christ. Alexander is not dead, but lives beyond the stars,
and his body rests in this tomb. He lived under the Emperor
Antoninus, who, foreseeing that great benefit would result from
his services, returned evil for good. For, while on his knees,
and about to sacrifice to the true God, he was led away to
execution. O, sad times! in which sacred rites and prayers,
even in caverns, afford no protection to us. What can be more
wretched than such a life? and what than such a death? when
they could not be buried by their friends and relations. At
length they sparkle in heaven. He has scarcely lived who has
lived in Christian times." A.D. 160.

_From the Cemetery of St. Callisto._

AVRELIA DULCISSIMA FILIA QVAE
DE. SAECVLO RECESSIT VIXIT ANN. XV. M. IIII.
SEVERO ET QVINTIN COSS.

"Aurelia; our sweetest daughter, who departed from the world.
She lived fifteen years and four months. Severus and Quintinus
being consuls." A.D. 325.

Consule Claudio et Paterno, nonis Novembribus, die Veneris,
luna XXIV, Leuces filiæ Severæ carissimæ posuit et spiritui
sancto tuo. Mortua annorum LV et mensium XI dierum X.

"In the consulship of Claudius and Paternus, on the nones of
November, on Friday, the 24th day of the moon, Leuce erected
(this memorial) to her very dear daughter, and to thy holy
spirit. She (died at the age) of fifty-five years, and eleven
months, (and) ten days." A.D. 269.

D. M.
P. LIBERIO VICXIT
ANN N. V MENSES N. III
DIES N. VIII R. ANICIO
FAVSTO ET VIRIO GALLO
COSS

"Publius Liberio lived five years, three months, and eight
days. He retired (from this world) in the consulship of Anicius
Faustus and Virius Gallus." A.D. 298.

B.M.
CVBICVLVM. AVRELIAE. MARTINAE. CASTISSIMAE ADQVE. PVDI.
CISSIMAE FEMINAE QVE FECIT. IN. COIVGIO. ANN. XXIII. D. XIIII.
BENE MERENTI. QVE VIXIT. ANN. XL. M. XI. D. XIII. DEPOSITIO EIS
DIE. III. NONAS. OCT. NEPOTIANO. ET FACVNDO. CONNS. IN PACE

"To the well-deserving.

The chamber of Aurelia Martina, my wife, most chaste and
modest, who lived in wedlock twenty-three years and fourteen
days. To the well-deserving one, who lived forty years, eleven
months, and thirteen days. Her burial was on the third nones of
October. Nepotianus and Facundus being consuls." In peace. A.D.
336.
_Galleria Lapidaria. Vatican._

Another in Greek characters:

"Here lies Euterpe, the companion of the Muses, having lived
simply and piously, and irreproachably for fifteen years,
twenty-two days, and three months. She died on the fifth day
before the calends of December, in consulship of our lords, for
the tenth time, and for the third time (_i.e._, in the
Consulship of Constantine, for the tenth time, and Julian for
the third time)." A.D. 360.

ROMANO. NEOFITO
BENEMERENTI QVI VI
XIT. ANNOS. VIII. DXV.
REQVIESCIT IN PACE DN
FL. GRATIANO. AVG. II. ET.
PETRONIO PROBO. CS.

"To Romanus, the neophyte, the well-deserving, who lived eight
years, fifteen days. He rests in the peace of the Lord. Flavius
and Gratianus and Petronius Probus being consuls."

HIC QVIESCIT ANCILLA DEI QVE DE
SVA OMNIO POSSIDIT DOMVM ISTA
QVEM AMICE DEFLEN SOLACIVMQ REQVIRVNT.
PRO HVNC VNVM ORA SVBOLEM QVEM SVPERIS.
TITEM REQVISTI ETERNA REQVIEM FELICITA.
S. CAVSA MANBIS IIIIX. KALENDAS OTOBRIS
CVCVRBITINVS ET ABVMDANTIVS HIC SIMVL QVIESCIT
DD. NN. GRATIANO V. ET TEODOSIO. AAGG.

Hic quiescit ancilla Dei, quæ de suis omnibus possidet domum
istam, quam amicæ deflent solaciumque requirunt. Pro hac una
ora subole, quam superstitem reliquisti. Æterna in requie
felicitatis causa manebis, XIV. kalendis Octobris, Cucurbitinus
et Abumdantius hic simul quiescunti. DDNN Gratiano v et
Theodosio Augustis (Consulibus).

"Here rests a handmaid of God, who out of all her riches now
possesses but this one house, whom her friends bewail, and seek
in vain for consolation. Oh pray for this one remaining
daughter, whom thou hast left behind! Thou wilt remain in the
eternal repose of happiness. On the 14 of the Calends of
October. Curcurbitinus and Abumdantius rest here together. In
the consulship of our Lords Gratian (V.) and Theodosius
Emperors." A.D. 380.

HIC POSITA EST ANIMA DVLCES
INNOCA SAPIENS ET PVLCHRA NOMINE
QUIRIACE QVE VIXIT. ANNOS. III. M III. DVIII.
DP IN PACE IIII. ID IAN. CONSS. DN. TEVDOSIO.
AVG. II ET MEROBAVDE. VC. III

Hic posita est anima dulces (dulcis) innoca (innocua), sapiens
et pulchra, nomine Quiriace, quæ vixit annos III., menses III.,
dies VIII. Deposita in pace, IV. Idus Januarias, Consulibus
Domino nostro Teudosio (Theodoric) Augusto II. et Merobaude
Vire Clarissimo III.

"Here has been laid a sweet spirit, guileless, wise and
beautiful, by name Quiriace, who lived three years, three
months, and eight days. Buried in peace, in the fourth day
before the Ides of January, in the consulship of our Lord
Theodorius Augustus, for the second time, and Merobaudes, a
most distinguished man, for the third time." A.D. 388.

PERPETVAM SEDEM NVTRITOR POSSIDES IPSE
HIC MERITVS FINEM MAGNIS DEFVNCTE PERICLIS
HIC REQVIEM FELIX SVMIS COGENTIBVS ANNIS
HIC POSITVS PAPAS ANTIMIOO VIXIT ANNIS LXX
DEPOSITVS DOMINO NOSTRO ARCADIO II ET FL. RVFINO VVCCSS NONAS
NOBEMB.

"You, our nursing father, occupy a perpetual seat, being dead,
and deserving an end of your great dangers. Here happy, you
find rest, bowed down with years. Here lies the tutor, Antimio,
who lived seventy years. Buried on the nones of November; our
Lords Arcadius for the second time, and Flavius Rufinus being
consuls." A.D. 392.
_Galleria Lapidaria._

HIC REQVIESCET IN SOMNO PACIS
MALA QVI VIXIT ANNOS XXXVIII. M. V. DV.
ACCEPTA APVT DE IV. IDVS IVNIAS AETIO CONL.

Hic requiescet (requiescit) in somno pacis, Mala qui (quæ)
vixit annos XXXVIII. menses V. dies V. Accepta aput (apud)
De(um) IV idus Junias. Aetio Consule.

"Here rests in the sleep of peace Mala, who lived thirty-eight
years, five months, five days. Received before God, on the
fourth day before the Ides of June, in the consulship of
Aetius." A.D. 432.

LEVIVAE CONIVNX PETRONIA FORMA PVDORIS
HIS MEA DEPONENS SEDISVS OSSA LOCO
PARCITE VOS LACRIMIS DVLCES CVM CONIVGE NATAE
VIVENTEMQVE DEO CREDITE FLERE NEFAS
DP IN PACE III NON OCTOBRIS FESTO VC. CONSS.

"Petronia, a priest's wife, the type of modesty. In this place
I lay my bones; spare your tears, dear husband and daughters,
and believe that it is forbidden to weep for one who lives in
God. Buried in peace on the 3d nones of October, in the
consulate of Festus." A.D. 472.

IN PACE
AVRELIO. FELICI QVI BIXIT CVM COIVCE
ANNOS X. VIII DVLCIS. IN COIVGIO
BONE MEMORIE BIXIT. ANNOS. L. V
RAPTVS ETERNE DOMVS. XII KAL. IENVARIAS.

"In peace
To Aurelius Felix, who lived with his wife eighteen years in
sweetest wedlock. Of good memory. He lived fifty-five years.
Snatched away eternally on the twelfth kalend of January."

IRENE IN PACE. ARETVSA IN DEO

"Irene sleeps in peace." "Aretusa sleeps in God."

ZOTICVS HIC AD DORMIEN DVM.
"Zoticus laid here to sleep."

DOMITIANUS ANIMA SIMPLEX
DORMIT IN PACE.

"Domitianus, a simple soul, sleeps in peace."

NICEFORVS ANIMA
DVLCIS IN REFRIGERIO.

"Nicephorus, a sweet soul, in a place of refreshment."

PRIMITIVS IN PACE QVI POST
MVLTAS. ANGVSTIAS FORTISSIMVS MARTYR
ET. VIXIT. ANNOS P.M. XXXVIII CONIVG. SVO
PERDVLCISSIMO BENEMERENTI FECIT.

"Primitius in peace: a most valiant martyr after many torments.
Aged 38. His wife raised this to her dearest well-deserving
husband."

LANNVS XPI. MARTIR HIC REQVIESCIT.
SVB DIOCLIZIANO PASSVS.

"Lannus, a martyr of Christ, rests here. He suffered under
Diocletian."

NABIRA IN PACE ANIMA DVLCIS
QVI BIXIT ANNOS XVI. M. V
ANIMA MELEIEA
TITVLV FACTV
A PARENTES

"Navira in peace; a sweet soul who lived sixteen years and five
months; a soul sweet as honey: this epitaph was made by her
parents."

SEVERO FILIO DVL
CISSIMO LAVRENTIVS
PATER BENEMERENTI QVI BI
XIT ANN. IIII. ME. VIII. DIES V.
ACCERSITVS AB ANGELIS VII. IDVS. IANVA.

"Laurence to his sweetest son Severus, borne away by angels on
the 7th ides of January."

MACVS PVER INNOCENS
ESSE IAMINTER INNOCENTIS COEPISTI.
QVAM STAVILES TIVI HAEC VITA EST
QVAM TELETVM EXCIP ET MATER ECLESIAE DEOC
MVNDO REVERTENTEM COMPREMATVR PECTORVM
GEMITVS STRVATVR FLETVS OCVLORVM.

"Macus (or Marcus) an innocent boy. You have already begun to
be among the innocent ones. How enduring is such a life to
you! How gladly will your mother, the church of God, receive
you, returning to this world! Let us restrain our sighs and
cease from weeping."
_Galleria Lapidaria._

PAX
HIC MIHI SEMPER DOLOR ERIT IN AEVO
ET TVVM BENERABILEM BVLTVM LICEAT VIDERE SOPORE
CONIVNX ALBANAQVE MIHI SEMPER CASTA PVDICA
RELICTVM ME TVO GREMIO QVEROR.
QYOD MIHI SANCTVM TE DEDERAT DIVINITVS AVTOR
RELICTIS TVIS IACES IN PACE SOPORE
MERITA RESVRGIS TEMPORALIS TIBI DATA REQVETIO
QVE VIXIT ANNIS XLV. MENV. DIES XIII
DEPOSITA IN PACE FECIT PLACVS MARITVS

Peace.
"This grief will always weigh upon me: may it be granted me to
behold in sleep your revered countenance. My wife, Albana,
always chaste and modest, I grieve, deprived of your support,
for our Divine Author gave you to me as a sacred (boon). You,
well-deserving one, having left your (relations), lie in
peace--in sleep--you will arise--a temporary rest is granted
you. She lived forty-five years, five months, and thirteen
days. Buried in peace. Placus, her husband, made this."
_Galleria Lapidaria._

CHURCH OF S. SEBASTIAN "IN CATACUMBIS."

I. INSCRIPTION OF POPE DAMASUS IN HONOR OF S. EUTYCHIUS, THE MARTYR, IN TWELVE VERSES (on the left hand on entering the church). These inscriptions are very numerous in the catacombs, and all of this beautiful calligraphy, and usually in Latin verse, not without elegance of style, though the construction of the sentences is sometimes not clear. Damasus restored all the catacombs, after they had been damaged during the persecution under Julian the Apostate.

EVTYCHIVS. MARTYR. CRVDELIA. IVSSA. TYRANNI
CARNIFICVMQ. VIAS. PARITER. TVNC. MILLE. NOCENDI
VINCERE. QVOD. POTVIT. MONSTRAVIT. GLORIA. CHRISTV
CARCERIS. INLVVIEM. SEQVITVR. NOVA. POENA. PER. ARTVS
TESTARVM. FRAGMENTA. PARANT. NE. SOMNVS. ADIRET
BISSENI. TRANSIERE. DIES. ALIMENTA. NEGANTVR
MITTITVR. IN. BARATHRUM. SANCTVS. LAVAT. OMNIA. SANGVIS
VVLNERA. QVAE. INTVLERAT. MORTIS. METVENDA. TOTESTAS
NOCTE. SOPORIFERA. TVRBANT. INSOMNIA. MENTEM
OSTENDIT. LATEBRA. INSONTIS. QVAE. MEMBRA. TENERET
QVAERITVR. INVENTVS. COLITVR. FOVET. OMNIA. PRESTANS
EXPRESSIT. DAMASVS. MERITVM. VENERARE. SEPVLCHQVM F

"That Eutychius, the Martyr, was able to overcome the cruel
orders of the tyrant, and equally at that time the
executioners' thousand ways of torment, the glory of Christ
shewed. A new punishment follows the filth of the prison. They
provide breaking of tiles on his limbs, to prevent sleep
approaching. Twice six days passed, food is refused. The saint
is thrown into a pit, blood bedews all the wounds which the
dread power of death had caused. In night, which usually brings
sleep, sleeplessness troubles his mind. The place of
concealment which held the limbs of the innocent, manifested
them(?). He is sought for, being found he is reverenced, he
benefits all things. Damasus shewed forth his exceeding merit;
venerate his tomb."

2. ANOTHER INSCRIPTION IN THE SAME CATACOMB CHURCH (over a door on the right-hand side, looking towards the altar).

VISITET. HIC. PIA. MENS. SCTORVM. BVSTA. FREQVENTER
IN. CRISTO. QVORVM. GLORIA. PERPES. ERIT

HIC. EST. CEMETERI[=V]. BEATI. CHALIXTI. PAPE. ET. MARTIRIS INCLITI. QVIC[=V]QVE. ILLVD. C[=O]TRICTVS. ET. C[=O]FESSVS. INGRESSVS FVERIT. PLENAM. REMISSIO[=N]E. OMNI[=V]. PE[=C]TOR[=V]. SVOR[=V]. OBTINEBIT PER. MERITA. GLORIOSA. CENT[=V]. SEPTVAGINTA. QVATVOR. MILI[=V] S[=C]TOR[=V]. MARTIR[=V]. QVOR[=V]. IBI. CORPORA. IN. PACE. SEPVLTA. S[=V][=T] VNA. C[=V]. QVADRAGINTA. SEX. PONTIFICIBVS. BEATIS. QVI. OMNES EX MAGNA. TRIBVLATIONE. VENER[=V]T. ET. VT. HEREDES. IN. DOMO DOMINI. FIER[=E]T. MORTIS. SVPPLICIVM. PRO. CRISTI. NOMINE PERTVLERVNT

"Here let the pious mind often visit the tombs of the saints,
Whose glory will be everlasting in Christ."

"Here is the cemetery of the blessed Calixtus, renowned Pope
and Martyr. Whoever shall have entered it contrite and after
confession, shall obtain full remission of all his sins,
through the glorious merits of 174,000 martyr saints, whose
bodies are buried here in peace, together with forty-six
blessed pontiffs, who all came out of great tribulation, and
suffered the punishment of death for Christ's name, that they
might become heirs in the Lord's house."

PAINTINGS.

If the tombs of the early martyrs, before "the peace of the church," were commonly decorated with paintings at all, which is not probable, it is almost certain that some of those paintings have been renewed at various subsequent periods. The best monuments of the first three centuries are the tomb stones with inscriptions and small simple emblems incised upon them.

It is difficult to decide by the art of drawing only between the end of the third and the beginning of the fourth century. But this art was in the height of perfection in the first century, in the second it was still very good, in the third it had begun to decline, but not so rapidly as to justify the assumption that the very bad drawings in the catacombs belong to that period, with the exception of those already mentioned as not Christian. The drawing of the figures in the mosaic pictures in the vault of S. Constantia, which are of the first half of the fourth century, are decidedly better than any of the Scriptural subjects in the catacombs. The mosaic pictures of the fifth century on the sides of the nave of S. Maria Maggiore, published by Ciampini, are much more like them.

S. Paulinus, bishop of Nola, writing in the fifth century, says that he had painted a catacomb, _for the pilgrims_, and gives his reasons for doing so. He thought good to enliven the whole _temple_ of S. Felix, in order that these colored representations might arrest the attention of the rustics, and prevent their drinking too much at the feasts. The _temple_ here evidently means the tomb or crypt in which the commemorative feasts were held, and were represented by paintings. His expressions imply that such paintings were not then a received custom.

That the painted vaults in the catacombs were used for feasts on various occasions in the same manner as the painted chambers in the Pagan tombs, is evident from the manner in which several writers of the fourth and fifth centuries mention them; in addition to the letters of Paulinus of Nola and S. Augustine, and the hymns of Prudentius, there is also a remarkable passage in a sermon of Theodoret on the Martyrs (written about A.D. 450):

"Our Lord God leads His own even after death into the temples for your Gods, and renders them vain and empty; but to these [Martyrs] He renders the honors previously paid to them. For your daily food and your sacred and other feasts of Peter, Paul, and Thomas, and Sergius and Marcellinus, and Leontius, and Antoninus, and Mauricius, and other martyrs, the solemnities are performed; and in place of the old base pomp and obscene words and acts, their modest festivities are celebrated, not with drunkenness and obscene and ludicrous exhibitions, but with hearing divine songs and holy sermons, and prayers and praises adorned with tears. When, therefore, you would dilate on the honor of the martyrs, what use is there in sifting them? Fly, my friends, the error of demons, and under their guidance seize upon the road that leads to God, and welcome their presence with holy songs, as the way is to eternal life."

Bosio enumerates six _cubicula_ or family burial-chapels in the cemetery or catacomb of Priscilla, and thirteen arched tombs with paintings. These pictures, of which he gives engravings, were far more perfect in his time than they are now. His engravings are good for the period when they were executed; but it was a time when all drawing was bad, slovenly, and incorrect, so that the general idea only of the picture is all we can expect. The costume and ornaments do not indicate any very early period of art, but rather a time when it had declined considerably. Costume in Rome, as in the East generally, was far more stationary and less subject to changes than in the West, and these _may_ be as early as the fourth or fifth century, but can hardly be earlier. Several of the martyrs buried in the Via Salaria suffered in the tenth persecution under Diocletian, called the great persecution, about the year 300: the decorations of their tombs, therefore, can not be earlier than the fourth century, and many of them have been restored or renewed at subsequent times. John I., A.D. 523, is recorded to have renewed the cemetery of Priscilla, and this probably means that he renewed the paintings in the style of his own time, as the greater part of the paintings now remaining are of the character of that period.

On comparing the costumes of the figures in this catacomb with those in the illuminations of the celebrated manuscript of Terence, usually attributed to the seventh or eighth century, and which can hardly be earlier than the fifth, we see at once that the long flowing robe was the ordinary costume of the period, and that the narrow scarf of black ribbon hanging over the shoulders, with the ends reaching nearly to the ground, was the usual badge of a servant. This seems to have been adopted as part of the costume of a Christian going to pray to God, whether in a church or chapel or any other place, emblematical of the yoke of Christ, as Durandus says. The surplice and stole of the priest of the Anglican Church is a more close copy of this ancient costume than any now worn in the Roman church. The rich cope, cape, or cloak was the dress of the Roman senator and of the Pagan priests; it was probably adopted by the Bishop of Rome when he assumed the title and office of Pontifex Maximus, and after a time the custom was followed by other bishops and priests of his communion.

GLASS VASES.

A valuable work on the ancient glass vases found in the catacombs was published by F. Buonarotti in Florence, nearly simultaneously with the work of Boldetti on the catacombs, and of Fabretti on the inscriptions found in them. This is the foundation of all the subsequent works on the subject; the figures are badly drawn and engraved, according to the fashion of the period, but many of the later works are not much better. The subjects are generally the same as in the paintings on the walls: the Good Shepherd, more numerous than any other; Adam and Eve, Moses striking the Rock, Noah and the Ark, the raising of Lazarus, Peter and Paul, generally busts--these are very numerous. Both the style of drawing and the character of the inscriptions indicate late dates and frequent copying from the same type. In one are three figures, S. Peter, S. Paul, with S. Laurence seated between them. S. Agnes occurs frequently, always drawn as in the usual type of the eighth century. Other busts are evidently portraits of persons interred. In some are the father, mother and child;--one has the name of Cerontius; another of two busts, Cericia and Sottacus;--another is a family group, father, mother and four children; the name is partly broken off ....N ... BVSVISTRIS. P. Z. remains.--Abraham with a drawn sword in his hand, and Isaac with his eyes bound, kneeling at his feet, with the ram. A tall female figure with the hands uplifted in prayer; the inscription is PETRVS PAVLVS ANE possibly for AGNES. Another similar subject consists of two figures seated facing each other; over the left hand figure the name CRISTVS, over the right hand one ISTEFANVS. Several of the subjects are distinctly Pagan; others are evidently from the Jews' catacomb, as two lions guarding the ark, and under them two of the seven-branched candlesticks, with leaves and vases and palm-branch.

S. CALIXTUS.

This is one of the earliest of the catacombs; it is mentioned at a very early period as a burying-place, then in use, not as being then just made. Michele de Rossi, in the course of his investigations in this catacomb, found a brick staircase and some brick _loculi_, evidently an alteration of and addition to the original catacombs, and the stamps on these bricks were those of Marcus Aurelius, A.D. 161-180. This staircase is in the lower part of the catacomb, made for the purpose of enlarging it, and seems to show that the ground had been used as a cemetery in the first century. The original part was probably made before there were any Christians to be buried. Although the staircase is later, and the bricks used again, they were probably found on the spot.

Calixtus is said to have been entrusted with the government of the clergy, and set over _the cemetery_ by Zephyrinus his predecessor, before he became bishop or pope. This expression, _over the cemetery_, seems to prove that the whole of the catacombs were considered as one cemetery, and that he had the general superintendence of the burial of the Christians.

This is the catacomb usually exhibited to strangers and now used for pilgrimages; its present state is very uninteresting to the archæologist. The upper part of it nearest to the entrance has been so much _restored_ that it has lost all archæological importance. This portion of the catacomb is illuminated on certain occasions, and is employed to excite the devotion of the faithful. A low mass is said at an altar fitted up in the cemetery chapel of S. Cæcilia, on the anniversary of her martyrdom, and this part of the catacomb on that occasion is illuminated with candles.

The other parts are in the usual state, stripped of nearly every inscription, and the graves empty. The earliest inscription from this catacomb, of ascertained date, is of A.D. 268 or 279; it is dated by the names of the consuls, which would apply to either of these two dates. One important inscription of Bishop Damasus is preserved, and is valuable in many ways; it shows that the cemetery chapel, in which it was found, was made in his time, and the slab of marble on which it is engraved has a Pagan inscription on the back of it, evidently proving that it was used merely as a slab of marble, without reference to that inscription. It shows for what purpose _some_ of the Pagan inscriptions found in the catacombs may have been brought there. Two small and very curious tombstones, consisting of mosaic pictures said to have been taken from this catacomb, are now preserved in the sacristy of the church of S. Maria in Trastevere. They were for some centuries in the nave, built into one of the piers; but during the _restorations_ made in 1868-76, they were removed and built into the wall of the sacristy. One represents a landscape, with building in the style of the third century, and a harbor or a lake with a vessel, and fishermen dragging in a great net, evidently intended for the miraculous draught of fishes. This is an extremely curious mosaic picture, the probable date of which is the beginning of the fourth century. The other small mosaic represents birds of various kinds, and is much earlier than the view of the harbor, perhaps as early as the first century. Possibly the birds were intended to be symbolical of the souls of the faithful. These are engraved by Ciampini in his work on Mosaics. Some of the original paintings [Bosio gives, on eight plates, engravings of a number of vases and lamps found in this catacomb, several views of _cubicula_, and upwards of seventy paintings. The same subjects have been repeated by Perret and Signor de Rossi.] remain in the lower part of this catacomb that have not been restored, and these are of the usual subjects: Daniel and the two lions, Moses striking the rock, the raising of Lazarus, etc.

THE LAST SUPPER.

S. CALIXTUS.

This painting has more the appearance of being really intended for the Last Supper than most of the paintings of this class. The central figure has a certain dignity about it. Upon the round plates on the table are fishes, and the eight baskets are full of bread. It may be a Christian painting of a bad period, and intended to commemorate some of our Lord's miracles. The principal lines on the edges of the dresses have been renewed. This painting is under an _arco-solium_ in the chapel of the Sacraments, the burial-place of the Bishops of Rome in the third century. All the paintings in that part of this great catacomb that is usually open to the public, and in which masses are said on certain occasions, have long been said by well-informed persons to have been _restored_ within the last twenty years, but this is now denied by the Roman Catholic authorities.

An engraving of this painting is given by Bosio in the sixth _arco-solium_ of this catacomb, p. 523; he calls it Christ and the Apostles. It is also given by Perret in the modern French style, vol. i. p. 28; and by Dr. Northcote in plate xiii., much embellished by color and improved by the skill of modern artists.

S. PONTIANUS.

The Baptistery, with the Baptism of Christ painted on the wall, over the arch. He is represented standing in the River Jordan up to His waist in water, in which fishes are swimming, and at which a hart is drinking; the Holy Dove is over His head. S. John Baptist is standing on the bank, and pouring water on His head, or perhaps only holding out his hand to touch it. On the opposite side is another figure in a white dress, hiding his face. All the three figures have the nimbus.

AN AGAPE.

An Agape, or love-feast, is a common subject of the paintings in the catacombs, and sometimes seems to be evidently a representation of the family gatherings that were held on the anniversaries in these tombs, in the same manner as they were in the painted tombs in the Via Latina or the Via Appia. These paintings are often supposed to be the LAST SUPPER, and sometimes may be so, but the one before us can hardly be intended for Christ and his Apostles.

CHRIST AND THE CHURCH.

These two figures, one on either side of a small table, on which are two dishes, one with a fish upon it and the other with bread, are supposed to represent our Lord after the Resurrection, and the Christian Church in the form of a woman, with the hands uplifted in the Oriental attitude of prayer, such as is usually called in the catacombs an Orante. This explanation is of course conjectural only, but seems not improbable. The painting is so much damaged that it is difficult to tell to what period it belongs. A part of this great catacomb is as early as the second century. In this passage _stravit_ may mean covering the walls with slabs of porphyry also, as well as the floor. It is evident that in several instances the word _platonia_ is applied by Anastasius to a chapel lined with marble plates for inscriptions, as at S. Sebastian's.

HEAD OF CHRIST IN AN AUREOLE.--MARY, MOTHER OF CHRIST, AND MARY MAGDALENE.--ST. MARK, ST. PAUL AND ST. PETER.

This cemetery or catacomb is on the western side of the Tiber, about half a mile beyond the Porta Portuensis, on the road to Porto, but on the hill above, and on a higher level than the road in what is now a vineyard. The soil in which this catacomb is made is quite different from the others; instead of the granular tufa, or volcanic sand, which is the soil generally used for them near the Via Appia and the Via Ardeatina, this is an alluvial soil formed by the action of water on the bank of the Tiber. Whether from this cause, or from some others that have not been explained, the paintings in this catacomb are far more perfect than those in any other; they are the most celebrated and the most popular, and those that have been more often engraved and published than any others.

The picture of the head of Christ is a very fine one, in an aureole or circular nimbus, with the cross on it, called also a cruciform nimbus. This head has been many times engraved and published, and it is amusing to compare those commonly sold in the shops of Rome with the original as shown in the photograph. These will illustrate the manner in which the clever modern artists have _improved upon_ the originals; it is difficult to understand that they are intended for the same picture.

The figures of the three saints, St. Paul, St. Peter, and St. Mark, are painted on the ceiling, while Mary, the Mother of Christ, and Mary Magdalene are over and on the left side of the head of Christ.

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TRUTH OF THE BIBLE.