Chapter VI: Fire Direction and Control

Section =41=.--General Remarks.

=1.= In the previous stages of instruction the foundation of training for fire action beyond close range will have been laid. The eyesight of both fire-unit commanders and men will have been trained to discern service targets at all ranges, and they will have become familiar with their appearance under various conditions of light and atmosphere, and accustomed to look for them and detect them quickly. Both fire-unit commanders and men will also have been trained in military vocabulary and the study of ground, so that they apply a common phraseology to various military objects, especially those under the head of service targets, and also to the ground and its natural features, the military value of which they will have learned in field training through instruction in the use of ground and cover.

=2.= Fire-unit commanders and men must now be taught to work together as an unit in directing fire at service targets beyond close range by the efficient performance of the various duties described in the following sections. This instruction should commence with lectures, illustrated if possible by the use of the Solano and landscape targets as described in Secs. 72, 73, and 74. Lectures should deal with organization for fire action, the effect of rifle fire at various ranges, the tactical application of rifle fire, the description and recognition of targets, fire orders, fire discipline, and night firing.

=3. Lectures and Demonstrations= (see pp. 221-225). Special lectures in their duties should be given to fire-unit commanders, non-commissioned officers, and observers, and these lectures should include information and hints which will enable fire-unit commanders to train their men both by lectures and practical instruction. Lectures to men should be given by their fire-unit commanders, and should deal with all the various duties which are combined for fire action, including organization and the duties of fire-unit commanders. These lectures must deal thoroughly with the duties of men in the firing-line and with the vitally important subject of fire discipline (see pp. 214, 215).

Section =42=.--Organization for Fire Action.[18]

1. Fire direction and control depend in a great measure upon good organization for fire action. The value of this organization depends on the fitness of superior officers and battalion commanders to handle their troops efficiently, and issue such clear and concise orders as will enable each unit to carry out its allotted task well supported, with their communications and ammunition supply well maintained. The duties of organization for fire action may be described generally as follows:[19]

(i) Allotment of frontages and objectives to various units.

(ii) Arrangements for communications and ammunition supply.

(iii) Arrangements for covering fire by supports and reserves,
machine-guns, and artillery.

=2. Allocation of Frontages and Objectives.=--Both in attack and defence a definite frontage in the field of fire--termed a _sector_--should be allotted to each fire-unit by company and platoon commanders. Thus the enemy appearing in any given sector will at once be engaged by the unit to which that particular sector has been allotted. Each fire-unit commander on receiving orders as to his frontage, will indicate it to his unit in the manner described in the following paragraphs, and must make sure that the N.C.O.’s, observers, and men of his unit clearly understand the extent and limits of their sector.

=3. Indicating the Limits of Sectors= (Fig. 47).--The limits of each sector will be indicated by means of suitable description points (see Sec. 45, para. 3) on each flank of the frontage allotted to an unit. These description points should, as a rule, consist of distant features of a landscape or of the field of fire. If no suitable description points mark the limits of a sector exactly, the limits will be indicated as being so many hand or finger breadths (Sec. 45, para. 7) to the left or right of the nearest suitable description point. The limits of sectors may be made to overlap in the same manner. In defence there will generally be ample time for allotting frontages. In attack frontages will usually be allotted on deployment, but whenever possible they will be selected beforehand by preliminary reconnaissance.

=4. Object of Overlapping the Sectors.=--The overlapping of sectors insures that the entire front is kept under close observation, and that no part of it remains unswept by fire should occasion arise for delivering fire at a target in any part. It also prevents waste of ammunition and loss of fire effect through units firing at objectives outside their own sectors unless this is necessary for the purpose of mutual support.

=5. Example of Field of Fire divided into Sectors.=--(i) Fig. 47 shows a field of fire divided into overlapping sectors by the use of description points. The sketch illustrates the arrangements made, as the result of a hasty preliminary reconnaissance, by a company commander for fire action by the four sections or normal fire-units of his command on deployment in the early stage of attack. In defensive positions similar arrangements may be made for indicating sectors allotted to each locality. Defensive positions will usually include a number of localities of special tactical importance. From these localities either direct or flanking fire, or both, is brought to bear on all ground over which the enemy may advance. As long as this is done the intervening ground between localities need not be held in a continuous line.

(ii) In defence, the arrangements for fire action will include the various measures described in Chapter VIII of _Field Entrenchments_ of this series, such as clearing the foreground of features which would afford cover to the enemy and assist his advance, and clearing it of features to improve the defenders field of fire, together with the construction of different obstacles to impede and check the enemy’s advance or cause him to select lines of approach along avenues commanded by the fire of the defenders.

=6. Direction and Control of Fire.=--Fire is said to be _directed_ by the commander, who defines the objective against which it is to be used, and to be _controlled_ by the fire-unit commanders, who give the necessary executive words of command. In attack occasions will frequently arise when fire-unit commanders must both direct and control the fire of their units, while at close ranges, or when men are widely extended, it may happen that the transmission of any fire-order is impossible, and that each individual man must control his own fire.

=7. Fire-Unit.=--The normal infantry fire-unit is the section, though under certain conditions at the longer ranges the fire of a platoon, or even a whole company, may be controlled by its commander. _The efficiency of section commanders is therefore of paramount importance._

Emery Walker Ltd. sc.

=Fig. 47.=--ROUGH SKETCH OF A FIELD OF FIRE DIVIDED INTO OVERLAPPING SECTORS BY THE USE OF DESCRIPTION POINTS ON DEPLOYMENT IN ATTACK.]

=8. Duties of Fire-Unit Commander.=[20]--(i) The value of a fire-unit commander depends upon his ability _to apply the fire of his unit at the right time and in the right volume to the right target_. In addition to his other duties, the fire-unit commander is responsible for:

(_a_) Indicating targets.

(_b_) Issuing orders for sighting, and, when possible,
supervising the correct adjustment of sights.

(_c_) Regulating the volume of fire, whether deliberate or rapid.

(_d_) Reporting to platoon or company officers when ammunition is
running short.

(ii) The additional duties of the fire-unit commander referred to in the above paragraphs may be described generally as follows:

(_a_) Watching for favourable targets.

(_b_) Watching for signals from platoon or company officers.

(_c_) Observing effect of fire.

(_d_) Seizing all chances of firing for mutual support.

(_e_) Seeing that all orders are properly passed.

(_f_) Seeing to issue and redistribution of ammunition.

(_g_) Selecting halting places in attack.

(_h_) Making best use of ground and cover.

(_i_) Re-forming and telling off units as opportunity offers.
During the attack advantage will be taken of dead ground and
cover to re-form separate units which may become mixed owing to
confusion, especially in the later stages of attack.

=9. Duties of Observers.=--Men trained as observers will be employed, as necessary, to assist fire-unit commanders in observation of fire, in watching the enemy and neighbouring troops, and in keeping up communication between platoons. Observers will also be trained in the duties of ranging and control of fire, so that they can carry them out if fire-unit commanders are incapacitated.

Section =43=.--Effect of Fire at Different Ranges on Various Formations and Objectives.

=1. Effect of Fire at Various Ranges=--(i) =Close Range=.[21]--Owing to the flatness of the trajectory, it should be possible to obtain the maximum effect from rifle fire at targets within close range--given a good field of fire and the absence of dead ground and other conditions unfavourable to fire effect at all ranges--_provided that fire discipline is good and that individual soldiers select their targets and fire carefully, making due allowance for elevation by aiming down when necessary_.

(ii) =Effective Ranges.=--Between 600 and 1,400 yards, carefully controlled collective fire produces better results than the uncontrolled fire of individual men, which ceases to be sufficiently effective beyond ranges of about 600 yards to counterbalance the expenditure of ammunition involved. At effective ranges troops advancing steadily and rapidly suffer less than when they remain lying down, even under moderately good cover. This is due to the moral effect on the enemy and to the constant alteration of the range.

(iii) =Long and Distant Ranges.=--Beyond 1,400 yards the fire of even large and well-controlled units of infantry has seldom much effect upon the decision of the struggle for superiority of fire. Exceptional circumstances, such as the appearance of considerable bodies of the enemy in vulnerable formations, may, however, justify the use of long-range fire, especially in the defence.

=2. Effect of Rifle Fire on Various Formations and Objectives=--(i) =Infantry.=--On open ground swept by effective rifle fire an extended line is the least vulnerable formation for infantry, and on such ground it will usually be advisable to extend before it becomes necessary for the advancing troops to open fire. The greater the extension of a line, the fewer will be the casualties, but the less will be its fire effect [see Preface, para. 8 (i)].

(ii) =Cavalry.=--The fire effect which infantry can develop against cavalry is such that infantry which is ready to open a steady and timely fire has nothing to fear from a cavalry charge, provided the cavalry cannot find dead ground over which to approach. Any formation which allows fire to be delivered quickly and accurately is suitable for meeting cavalry. Closing an extended line to meet cavalry delays the opening of fire, and may offer a vulnerable target to the enemy’s artillery. Even if cavalry succeeds in riding through a firing-line, it can inflict little loss upon it if the infantry holds its ground. Whenever there is a possibility of being charged by cavalry, special care must be taken to watch and guard the flanks.

(iii) =Artillery.=--Artillery coming into action, limbering up, or in movement, is a vulnerable target against which rapid fire or even fire at long infantry ranges is justifiable. Infantry will experience difficulty in putting shielded artillery out of action by _direct fire_ even at close infantry ranges, but it can prevent the artillery from moving and interfere with the service of the guns. Infantry can best obtain decisive effect against guns with shields by means of _enfilade or oblique fire_.

(iv) =Machine-Guns.=--Machine-gun sections with their guns on travelling carriages are as vulnerable as artillery limbered up; but detachments carrying the gun into action are difficult to distinguish from infantry. Machine-guns in position _are usually concealed_, and are a difficult target. To obtain good effect against them it is usually necessary to employ a considerable number of rifles.

(v) =Aircraft.=--Aircraft form a very difficult target to fire directed from the ground, and only a small proportion of their area is vulnerable. Bullets can pass through the fabric of aeroplane wings without doing serious damage. Indiscriminate fire at hostile aircraft is, moreover, likely to cause casualties in neighbouring units, and will also disclose the position of the troops to the enemy’s observer. The strictest control must be exercised over all fire directed against aircraft. In the case of rifle fire at _aeroplanes_, men should be instructed to aim _six times the length of the machine in front_, and _at the nose of the envelope in the case of airships_.

(vi) =Retiring Troops.=--Other conditions being equal, the effect of fire in the open at all ranges is always greater when directed at retiring troops as compared with the effect on troops advancing.

Section =44=.--Tactical Application of Rifle Fire.

=1.= In connection with the tactical application of rifle fire, it must be remembered that the essence of infantry tactics in the attack consists in breaking down the enemy’s resistance by the weight and direction of its fire, and then completing his overthrow by assault--that is, by _bayonet charge_. Although the enemy may not await the assault, _infantry must always be animated with the desire to close with him as quickly as possible_. Troops under cover, unless enfiladed, can seldom be forced to retire by fire alone, and a decision by fire, even if possible, takes long to obtain. _To drive an enemy from the field, assault, or the immediate threat of it, is almost always necessary._

=2. Superiority of Fire.=--The object of fire action is to attain superiority of fire over the enemy’s fire. Fire is said to attain superiority when by its superior effect it beats down or silences the enemy’s fire. Superiority of fire in the different stages of attack enables the advance to be pushed up by degrees to ground from which the assault can be delivered on the enemy’s position. Superiority of fire enables the defence to check the enemy’s advance, and in active defence to create opportunities for a general assumption of the offensive or for local counter-attacks. _Superiority of fire is produced by superior efficiency in_ (_a_) _fire direction and control_, (_b_) _fire discipline_, (_c_) _use of the rifle, and_ (_d_) _ammunition supply._

=3. Opening Fire.=--When from his position it is possible to do so, the company commander decides as to the time for opening fire, subject to such orders as the battalion commander may issue, and regulates the supply of ammunition. In the defence he also normally arranges for the distribution or concentration of fire, and indicates the targets generally to his subordinates; but in the attack these duties will usually devolve upon the subordinate commanders with the firing-line.

=4. Decision as to Opening Fire.=--In forming a decision as to when fire should be opened, regard must be had to the necessities of the tactical situation. The following conditions must also be taken into account:

(i) =Surprise.=--The early opening of fire discounts surprise, and, whether in attack or defence, often indicates the position of troops which would otherwise be unnoticed by the enemy. In attack it may delay the advance unnecessarily.

(ii) =Effect of Fire at Different Ranges.=--The effect of fire at various ranges must be taken carefully into account. This subject is dealt with in Sec. 43, para. 1.

=5. Opening Fire in Attack.=--(i) In connection with the considerations mentioned in para. 4 (i) and (ii) above, fire, as a general rule, should rarely be opened by infantry in attack when satisfactory progress can be made without it. The leading troops in particular should save every possible round for the final struggle for superiority of fire at close range, as the replenishment of ammunition in the firing-line at that time will be a matter of considerable difficulty.

(ii) When progress is no longer possible, fire should be opened, either by such parts of the firing-line as cannot advance, or by bodies of infantry specially detailed for this purpose, to enable a further advance to be made. Subject to these principles, fire may be opened in attack when there is a probability of its producing good effect, or when withholding fire might lead to heavy loss.

=6. Opening Fire in Defence.=--When infantry is acting on the defensive, there is usually less difficulty in arranging for the supply of ammunition. Fire may therefore be opened at longer ranges than when attacking, if it seems probable that any advantage will be gained thereby, especially when it is desired to prevent the enemy coming to close quarters, and when the ranges have been ascertained beforehand. If, however, the object is to gain decisive results, it is generally preferable to reserve fire for closer ranges and for surprise (Practice No. 1, p. 226).

=7. Fire and Movement.=--It is clear from the above considerations that fire is closely related to movement. The direct object of fire in the case of attack and counterattack is to facilitate movement, and also to check or hinder the movements of the enemy. The direct object of fire in defence is to check the movements of the enemy, and in the case of active defence to create an opportunity for the assumption of the offensive or for local counter-attacks. _Fire, therefore, is related to movement, and its proper application with respect to movement is one of the principal objects of training in fire control._

=8. Concentrated Fire= (Fig. 48).--Collective fire may be concentrated or distributed. Concentrated fire produces a cone of fire favourable to observation of results, and is more effective than distributed fire at the point of application. Against narrow-fronted targets, such as the head of a column or a machine-gun, or against very vulnerable targets, or to produce an increased effect at a particular point, fire may be concentrated with advantage.

=9. Distributed Fire.=--(i) It is usually necessary to distribute fire so as to keep the enemy’s firing-line under fire throughout its length, in order to disturb his aim and prevent his movements. Fire employed to cover movements or directed on entrenchments should be distributed carefully and systematically [see also Sec. 54, para. 3 (v)].

(ii) =Sweeping Fire= (Fig. 48).--Fire distributed _laterally_ is called sweeping fire. Such fire is to be preferred for neutralizing an enemy’s fire along any portion of his front.

(iii) =Searching Fire=[22] (Fig. 7).--Fire distributed in depth is called searching fire. Such fire gives greater assurance that some portion of the fire will be effective when the target has not been located definitely, or when serious errors in sighting are to be expected.

=10. Oblique and Enfilade Fire= (Fig. 48).--Both oblique and enfilade fire have greater moral and material effect than frontal fire, for they usually come from an unexpected direction, and the targets presented to them are generally more vulnerable than those presented to frontal fire. In defence, opportunities for the employment of enfilade fire may be created by careful pre-arrangement between the commanders of adjoining units.

=11. Converging Fire= (Fig. 48).--Converging fire is fire directed at a target from two or more different points simultaneously. The moral and material effect of converging fire may be very great, as it may combine the effects of frontal, oblique, and enfilade fire at one and the same time (Demonstration No. 3, p. 222).

=12. Mutual Support= (Fig. 48).--(i) The various portions of the firing-line will also on occasions be able to afford each other mutual support by fire, and all commanders must be on the alert to assist units on their flanks in this manner when the situation requires. Covering fire in mutual support should consist of heavy bursts of rapid fire, sustained during the forward movement, and directed at the enemy to the front of the advancing unit, as well as to the front of the unit firing (Practice No. 1, p. 226).

(ii) Mutual support in the firing-line will as a rule, however, be more automatic than deliberately arranged, and in no case must its employment be allowed to induce hesitation in the advance. The paramount duty of all leaders in the firing-line is to get their troops forward, and if every leader is imbued with a determination to close with the enemy, he will be unconsciously assisting his neighbour also, for as a rule _the best method of supporting a neighbouring unit is to advance_.

=13. Covering Fire= (Fig. 48).--(i) When the ground permits, it is generally necessary to detail special detachments of infantry to provide covering fire for the leading troops. These detachments will usually be detailed by battalion commanders from local reserves in the original distribution for the attack, but any commander, at any stage of the fight, may detail troops from those under his command to assist his advance. No fire-unit commander, however, is justified, on his own initiative, in withdrawing from the advance or ceasing to seek an opportunity to advance in order to constitute his command a detachment for providing covering fire (Demonstration No. 6, p. 223).

(ii) In undulating or mountainous country it may be possible for detachments employed to provide covering fire to cover the advance from positions in rear, but in flat country it may be dangerous or impossible for infantry or machine-guns to fire over the heads of their own troops, and opportunities for providing covering fire should be sought on the flanks.

(iii) Troops detailed to provide covering fire for the advance must take care to select as targets _those bodies of the enemy whose fire is chiefly checking the advance_. Great difficulty will often be experienced in discovering which these bodies are, and all ranks must be on the alert to notice any indication which may help to discover them.

(iv) As soon as their fire ceases to be effective in aiding the advance of the firing-line, it is the duty of troops detailed to provide covering fire _at once to join in the advance_, unless definite orders to the contrary have been received.

=14. Volume of Fire.=--In deciding on the volume of fire to be directed against the enemy at any particular time, a commander should consider chiefly the tactical situation, the target presented, the effect it is desired to produce, the range, and the state of the ammunition-supply.

=15. Rates of Fire.=--_The rate of fire will always be regulated carefully according to tactical requirements._

(i) =Slow Desultory Fire= may disturb the enemy’s aim, but it is opposed to principles of surprise.

(ii) =Deliberate Fire.=--The rate of deliberate fire should not exceed six rounds a minute.

(iii) =Rate when Working in Pairs.=--Soldiers working in pairs for observation and mutual support (Sec. 47, para. 4) may _each_ fire about three rounds a minute.

(iv) =Rapid Collective Fire.=--In rapid collective fire the rate will vary according to the visibility of the aiming-mark, the range, and the standard of training a man has reached. With a distinct aiming-mark within about 1,000 yards a well-trained man should be able to fire from twelve to fifteen rounds per minute without serious loss of accuracy.

=16. Use of Rapid Fire.=--(i) _Rapid fire should be considered as a reserve of power to be used when the occasion demands it._ It must never be used except when occasion most fully justifies it, otherwise serious waste of ammunition will result. _Rapid fire must combine accuracy with rapidity, and never degenerate into a wild expenditure of ammunition at the fastest possible rate._ If rapid fire is ordered, _each man will fire at his own best rate for combining rapidity with accuracy_.

(ii) Rapid fire may be employed generally when it is necessary to beat down the enemy’s fire quickly; when covering the withdrawal of other troops; when pursuing an enemy with fire; when meeting cavalry attacks; and when good targets are exposed. In attack, rapid fire is employed by all troops as final preparation for the assault. In defence, it is employed to beat off an enemy in the act of assaulting (Practices Nos. 5 and 6, p. 228).

=17. Short Bursts of Fire.=--(i) The effect of surprise by a sudden burst of accurate fire from an unexpected quarter is very great. Short bursts of rapid fire, followed by pauses, favour observation of results, and give time for the adjustment of sights. They also facilitate the control of fire in critical situations.

(ii) The duration of such bursts must be strictly controlled, and limited to the requirements of the occasion, for if rapid-fire is continued for any length of time, it excites and exhausts the troops, and leads to waste of ammunition. In order to insure control and facilitate the passing of orders, the number of rounds to be fired may be named, as, for instance, _ten rounds fire, or rapid fire_.

=18. Surprise.=--A sudden effective fire is known to have a particularly demoralizing effect on the enemy; it is often advantageous, therefore, to seek for surprise effects of this sort by temporarily withholding fire.

=19. Unsteady Firing.=--Wild, unsteady fire causes little or no loss, and tends to encourage the enemy by inducing a belief in his mind that his opponent is shaken. It is therefore worse than useless against good troops. _If firing tends to become wild, it should be stopped, and only resumed under strict control and detailed orders._

Section =45=.--Description and Recognition of Targets.

=1. Importance of Good Description.=--(i) Owing to the difficulty of discerning service targets beyond close range with the naked eye, collective fire cannot be effective unless the objective is described by the fire-unit commander in such a way that every individual of his unit can immediately recognize the target or point of aim indicated, and unless men are also trained to recognize targets and to bring fire to bear upon them immediately they are indicated. These three conditions--good indication of targets, immediate recognition of targets, and instant opening of accurate fire--are essential if full effect is to be obtained from fire, especially when directed at fleeting targets, such as troops in movement.

(ii) Bad description of targets or delay in opening fire due to this or other causes will lead to loss of fire effect, which may prove disastrous in critical phases of action. For example, bad description at the best will result in recognition of the target by some instead of all the men in an unit, as well as in delay in opening fire, which in the case of fleeting targets will render fire partly or wholly ineffective. Bad description may result in part or the whole of an unit mistaking another aiming-point near it for the target described, with total loss of fire effect due to firing at the wrong target. It may result in part or the whole of an unit becoming confused and not firing at all. It is clear, therefore, that good description and quick recognition of targets is essential for fire effect at longer ranges, and that these duties form a vitally important part of the training of fire-unit commanders and men.

=2. Need of System in describing Targets.=--As service targets, such as a fold in the ground or a patch of open ground, will often be without any definite feature to distinguish them from similar aiming-points near them, or to locate their position exactly, and as targets generally will be difficult to describe on ground devoid of prominent or well-marked features, it is necessary to adopt a system of description which will enable fire-unit commanders to indicate the most difficult aiming-points to their men clearly by some consistent method.

=3. Description Points.=--A good system of indicating targets is by description-points, consisting of natural or other features of the ground in the frontage allotted to an unit. If targets cannot be indicated sufficiently accurately by description-points alone, supplementary methods, known respectively as the Finger-breadth and Clock-face methods, may be used in connection with description-points, as described in paras. 7 and 8. As a rule the former of these supplementary methods only will be employed, and both will seldom be employed together in combination with description-points.

=4. Selecting Description-Points.=--(i) Company officers will select description-points when occupying a position or at the conclusion of movement. The number of description-points necessary will depend on the nature of the ground, and whether it has much or little detail in the shape of prominent natural and other features; but points should be selected so as to facilitate the indication of targets in all parts of the field of fire.

(ii) _The most prominent objects should be chosen._ They should be in the distance or middle of the field of fire, and as far off as possible. No two points, if it can be avoided, should be similar--as, for instance, two church spires or clumps of trees. The points should be at least two hands’ breadth apart. Each point should be named, and the name by which it is to be known should be communicated to fire-unit commanders and the men of their units.

(iii) There will usually be more time for selecting description-points in defence than in attack. For example, Fig. 46 illustrates a field of fire in front of a defensive position, in which almost every feature of ground has been named and the range of all prominent objects taken. Such preparation will be impossible, and to a great extent unnecessary, in attack, when time for even a short preliminary reconnaissance may not always be available. _Company, platoon, and section commanders should therefore be trained to select a few good description-points as quickly as possible, and indicate them by suitable names to their commands._

=5. Points of Military Importance.=--In addition to the description-points, when there is time, any points in the field of fire which are of military importance--such as a road, a bridge (Fig. 50), or the forward edge of dead ground--at which fire may suddenly have to be directed, should also be named and indicated to fire-unit commanders. This should be done, if possible, whenever such points are difficult to describe and cannot be indicated quickly.

=6. Rules for describing Targets.=--(i) Targets must be indicated by short, accurate, clearly understood, descriptions of their nature, features, and exact position.

(ii) Field-glasses may be used to discern targets before indicating them. _But aiming-points must always be described as they are seen with the naked eye, and not as seen through field-glasses, otherwise the men, being without glasses, may fail to recognize them._

(iii) In both attack and defence _the front should always be pointed out_, so that if a general direction, such as _half right_, is used to indicate a target, men will look in the proper direction with regard to the front. This is necessary, because the formation of the ground, the line of cover, and the siting of trenches does not always permit of men facing directly to the front.

(iv) As a general rule the finger-breadth and clock-face methods of describing targets will only be used when they will _shorten and simplify_ the description, as well as make it more accurate.

(v) Only one system of indicating targets should be employed in a battalion, and, if possible, in an army, so that the men may recognize targets described by commanders of other fire-units should they become separated from their own in action.

(vi) When possible, targets will always be described and their range given _before the occasion for firing arises_, so that men may adjust their sights and be ready to open fire without further orders as soon as the target appears.

=7. Finger-Breadth Method= (Fig. 49).--(i) This method may be employed to indicate roughly the approximate distance of an objective from a description-point. Only one hand should be used, even if more than one hand’s breadth is required to indicate the distance. The arm must be held out perfectly straight from the shoulder in front of the face, with the fingers vertical. If, however, the object is immediately _above_ or _below_ the description-point, the fingers should be horizontal. In measuring distances, one eye should be closed, and both the description-point and the objective kept in view.

(ii) =Instruction in the Finger-Breadth Method.=--Results obtained by this method are necessarily inaccurate, because the hands and fingers vary in size and in distance from the eye with each individual. It is, however, a useful guide for measuring approximate distances. After the first few lessons in the use of this method, measurements should first be judged, and then the fingers should be used to check them. It will be found that when men have been thoroughly trained in this method they will seldom have to use their fingers for measurements at all except in very doubtful cases.

(“Section Fire” Landscape Target, Panel No. 2.)]

(“Section Fire” Landscape Target, Panel No. 1.)]

=8. Clock-Face Method= (Fig. 50).--This method may be used to indicate the position of the target described in relation to a description-point. In employing it, the clock-face must be imagined as hanging vertically, with its centre directly over the description-point. Thus, an objective vertically above the description-point would be described as being at twelve o’clock, while objectives to the right and left on the same horizontal plane as the description-point would be respectively at three and nine o’clock, and an objective directly below the description-point would be at six o’clock. _The direction, right or left, should always be given, as well as the hour, to avoid possible mistakes._

=9. Examples of Description of Targets=--(i) =Description-Points=.--Fig. 49 shows a field of fire with plenty of detail, and serves to illustrate the method of indicating targets by the use of description-points alone, and by the use of these points in combination with the finger-breadth method. If the landscape in this figure is taken as representing a sector, the following features might be as description-points: (_a_) Right edge of wood on hill; (_b_) tallest poplar half right; (_c_) white house on left. The fire-unit commander would inform his unit that they would be named and referred to respectively as _Wood_, _Poplar_, _House_, in using them to direct fire.

(ii) =Indication by Description-Points.=--Examples of indicating targets by these description-points alone are as follows:

(_a_) _At 1,000--at centre of hedge running from left of
poplar.--Ten rounds. Rapid fire._

(_b_) _At 1,400--brown field to right of house--at right half of
hedge running along top.--Fire._

(iii) =Indication by Description-Points and Finger-Breadths.=--Examples of indicating targets by description-points combined with the finger-breadth method are as follows:

(_a_) _At 800--at foot of big tree two fingers left of
poplar.--Five rounds. Fire._

(_b_) _At 900--at fold of ground one finger below house.--Five
Rounds. Rapid fire._

For the purpose of illustration the finger-breadths are shown drawn on the landscape.

(iv) =Indication by Description-Points and Clock-Face.=--Fig. 50 illustrates the method of indicating targets by the use of description-points combined with the clock-face method. The point of river bend right bank might be indicated and named: _Bend_: This description-point would be imagined as the centre of a clock-face, which, for the purpose of illustration, is shown drawn on the landscape.

(v) The following example illustrates the method of indicating targets by this arrangement:

(_a_) _At 1,400--at junction of three hedgerows--bend--right--two
o’clock.--Ten rounds. Fire._

(_b_) _At 1,000--at spit of land--bend--left--between eight and
nine o’clock.--Fire._

(vi) =Indication by Description-Points, Finger-Breadths, and Clock-Face.=--Fig. 51 shows a sector consisting of a field of fire with very little detail, in which targets might have to be indicated by the use of description-points, combined with both the finger-breadth and clock-face methods, which rarely have to be used together in combination with description-points.

The small tree in centre of hedge, the right end of the hedge, and the left end of the hedge, or the small tree to the left, may be taken as description-points, named respectively _hedge right_,--_hedge left_,--_centre tree_, and _left tree_. This will be an exception to the general rule that no two points should consist of features of a similar nature, but it is justified, as there is no danger of men confusing these similar features in the case illustrated.

(“Section Fire” Landscape Target, Panel No. 3.)]

Folds and ridges of ground could then be indicated in the manner of the following examples: _At 900--at fold of ground--centre tree--six o’clock--one-finger._ This would mean that fire will be directed at a fold of ground one finger-breadth directly below the centre tree. Another example of this method is: _At 800--at ridge--left tree--right--three o’clock--one finger._

=10. Instruction in Description of Targets.=--Training in description of targets should be carried out under practical conditions, according to the rules laid down in the preceding paragraphs. Training should be carried out on as great a variety of ground as possible under all conditions of light and atmosphere and at all ranges beyond close range. Instruction in the description as well as recognition of targets will form part of the field training, as well as of the advanced musketry training of both fire-unit commanders and men.

=11.= _In commencing an exercise, a front should always be pointed out._ At first the aiming-points to be described should be simple, and should consist of targets easily indicated with the aid of description-points alone. Subsequently more difficult targets may be indicated, which will necessitate the employment of either the finger-breadth or clock-face methods of description.

=12.= Fire-unit commanders may be trained in classes with a number of rifles on aiming-rests in the following manner: The instructor will indicate various aiming-points in different parts of a sector of ground to each member of the class in turn, not verbally, but by aiming a rifle at it, while the class are turned about, with their backs to the instructor. The instructor will next move his rifle from aim at the target and order the class to turn about, when the fire-unit commander will describe the target in his own words, using description-points alone, or combining their use with the finger-breadth or clock-face methods, as may, in his opinion, be necessary. The class will then aim their rifles at the target which they recognize from his description. _If they do not recognize any target from his description, they will not aim their rifles._

=13.= The instructor will next note the target at which each rifle has been aimed, and criticize faults both of description and recognition, pointing out those which caused errors or confusion. _Absolute accuracy of aim must be insisted upon, and faults in aiming at targets correctly recognized must be pointed out._

=14. Indication of Targets in Strange Country.=--As the nature of the ground and its features will vary greatly in different kinds of country, fire-unit commanders and men should be trained in the description and recognition of targets, both before and during military operations in unfamiliar country.

=15. Standard of Indication.=--A very low standard of indication is one which results in four out of every five in the class recognizing the target from the description given, for it must be remembered that the class will consist of men who should have been thoroughly trained in military vocabulary and study of ground before they commence their instruction in recognition of targets. Fire-unit commanders, therefore, will not be considered efficient in indicating targets until all the members of a class are able with ease to recognize a variety of targets described by him.

=16. Instruction in Recognition of Targets.=--Instruction in recognition of targets may be carried out on the same method as training in description of targets, the targets being described verbally by the instructor, or by an efficient fire-unit commander. Men aiming at wrong targets, or not aiming because they have failed to recognize the target, will be asked to explain their difficulty, and the instructor must try in each case to explain the cause of errors or failure to recognize targets, with a view to helping men to overcome it. Men will be trained to recognize targets by description-points alone, as well as in combination with the finger-breadth and clock-face methods.

=17. Instruction on Miniature Ranges.=--Training in description and recognition of targets can be carried out on miniature ranges, as described in Sec. 72, para. 8 (ii).

Section =46=.--Fire Orders.[23]

=1. Words of Command.=--The following words of command will be used as may be found necessary:

_At_--(_Elevation and deflection_).

_At_--(_Object_).

_Fire or_ {On which the firer will load, adjust
_Rapid Fire_ { his sights, aim and fire, deliberately or
{ rapidly.

{On which fire will be discontinued, and
_Cease Fire_ { the firer will bring the rifle to the
{ loading position, recharge the magazine,
{ and apply the safety-catch.

{On which the safety-catch will be applied
{ and an easy position assumed.
{When rifles are not provided with
_Rest_ { safety-catches, on the command “_Rest_”
{ the cut-off will be pressed in, the bolt
{ opened and closed, and the spring
{ eased.

{On which all cartridges will be removed
_Unload_ { from the chamber and magazine, and
{ other motions performed as detailed
{ in Sec. 27, para. 4.

=2.= Words of command in fire orders will be as few as possible. _They must be announced clearly and deliberately by fire-unit commanders, and repeated if necessary, should they notice by the actions of their men that they are not properly heard or understood._ If the noise of firing, the distance due to deployment of the unit, the wind, or other conditions prevent the hearing of orders, they must be passed from N.C.O. to N.C.O., from observer to observer, or from man to man.

=3.= As already stated, when possible, directions as to sighting as well as the target _will be given before the occasion for firing arises, and fire will be opened without further orders as soon as the target appears_. Orders for adjusting the sights should be given first, so that there may be no necessity for the firers to remove their eyes from the target after it is indicated, otherwise the order of the words of command is not of material importance.

=4. Anticipatory Orders.=--Fire orders should anticipate events as far as possible, so that lengthy orders will not be needed after the target appears. The following is an example of an anticipatory order, which includes the use of combined sights: _The enemy is about to advance from that fir-wood on the hill half left. When he moves, concentrate on the thickest part of his line--1250 and 1350._

=5.= If all ranks are kept informed of the course of events,[24] and led to anticipate occasions for fire action, _there should be no need for any words of command other than those which regulate movement, the opening and closing of fire, and the rate of fire_; and even these may be dispensed with if the firers are well trained, and combine their efforts according to orders issued in anticipation. _The results of observation and alterations to be made in sighting or point of aim must be notified at once._

=6. Instruction in Fire Orders.=--Fire-unit commanders, observers, and N.C.O.’s should be thoroughly trained in giving clear, concise fire orders under practical conditions. They must watch to see if their orders are understood by the actions of their men. _Men must be trained not to put their rifles to their shoulders until they understand the orders given and recognize the target indicated._ This rule is essential _to prevent useless waste of ammunition in war_, and to serve as a check in peace training, as to whether orders are given or passed from man to man so that they are immediately understood and carried out by the men. It will enable fire-unit commanders to know when their orders are not heard or understood, and also enable company and platoon commanders to supervise the training of fire-unit commanders.

=7. Passing Fire Orders from Man to Man.=--(i) Soldiers are trained in passing short verbal messages and orders accurately and quickly as part of their field-training, and this instruction is contained in _Drill and Field-Training_ of this series in Sec. 8 and also in Sec. 42, which deals with training in passing messages in whispers during night operations. Training in passing fire orders quickly and accurately from man to man is a vitally important part of the musketry training of N.C.O.’s, observers, and men. Orders passed from man to man in the firing-line must be short. They may be passed a sentence or two at a time, or as a whole, the latter being the best and quickest method if orders are short.

(ii) =Instruction in passing Fire Orders.=--Fire-units must be trained thoroughly in passing fire orders, and this duty should be practised during extended order drill, and later during manœuvre, when units are deployed, and especially when they are firing with blank cartridge, so as to accustom men to listening to orders and passing them while firing and in the noise it involves. In practising passing orders from man to man, an N.C.O. should be told off to record orders passed from man to man as received at the end of a line to check their accuracy.

=8. Instruction on Miniature Ranges.=--Fire orders can be practised on the miniature range as described in Sec. 74, para. 4 (iii).

Section =47=.--Fire Discipline.

=1. Importance of Fire Discipline.=--If full effect is to be obtained from the results of fire, a high standard of fire discipline in men is as important as skilful direction and control of fire by commanders.

=2. Qualities Necessary for Fire Discipline.=--Good fire discipline demands the following qualities in men:

(i) Strict attention to the signals and orders of the commander, combined with intelligent observation of the enemy.

(ii) Careful adjustment of the sight, economy of ammunition, and prompt cessation of fire when ordered or when the target disappears.

(iii) Power to endure the enemy’s fire even when no reply is possible.

(iv) A cool and intelligent use of the rifle when the commander can no longer exercise control.

=3. Rules for Fire Discipline.=--In addition to the above qualities, men must be trained to carry out their duties according to the following rules:

(_a_) In collective firing no man will fire until he clearly recognizes the target described by his commander, or without selecting a definite target in individual firing.

(_b_) In collective firing every man will press his trigger independently. _Bursts of independent fire are more effective than volleys._

(_c_) As a rule fire should be delivered deliberately, but each man must always satisfy himself that every time he presses the trigger he will hit the object aimed at.

(_d_) If rapid fire is ordered, every man will fire at his own best rate for combining rapidity with accuracy.

(_e_) Each man will take care to pass orders carefully and accurately.

(_f_) Each man will make the best use of ground and cover, _primarily to increase fire effect_, and secondarily for concealment and protection. He must remember that the most important requirement, when firing from behind cover, is the ability of a man to use his rifle to the best advantage, and that _his eyes must be kept on the enemy between shots to avoid losing sight of targets_.

(_g_) _Each man must watch the front and remain alert and attentive while awaiting orders. He must open fire smartly when ordered to do so on such fleeting targets as troops in movement, and continue firing, unless otherwise ordered, while they present a favourable target during movement._

(_h_) He must, when employing individual fire on the defensive, especially at shorter ranges, _mark down troops by noting their position on the ground or behind cover, and open fire the moment they expose themselves or rise up to advance_.

=4. Working in Pairs.=--Combined action is always more likely to be successful than isolated effort, and so long as control is possible the individual man must watch his leader and do his best to carry out his intentions. When, however, the section is under heavy fire, section commanders cannot always exercise direct control, and in these circumstances men should endeavour to work in pairs, indicating targets and estimating the range for each other, firing steadily, observing the results of each other’s fire, and husbanding their ammunition.

=5. Ammunition.=--If incapacitated from advancing, the soldier’s first duty is to place his ammunition in a conspicuous place, ready to be picked up by other men, and all ranks must seize opportunities that offer for replenishing their ammunition in this manner.

=6. Duty of Soldier when separated from Unit Commander.=--If, when reinforcing the firing-line, or at any other time, a soldier loses touch with his section commander, it is his duty to place himself under the orders of the nearest officer or non-commissioned officer, irrespective of the company or battalion to which he may belong.

=7. Training in Fire Discipline.=--The foundation of training in fire discipline will be laid in the general training of the soldier, especially in the instruction which imbues him with the soldierly spirit, and develops his character in discipline and other soldierly qualities.[25] The recruit’s instruction in aiming and firing and fire discipline will be carried out concurrently with his training in drill in both close and extended order, as laid down in the directions for the annual individual training of the soldier in _Infantry Training, 1914_, and other official textbooks. Training in fire discipline may commence when the recruit is sufficiently instructed in aiming and firing, and will be combined with training in extended order drill. _Fire discipline can only be taught by constant and systematic training._

=8. Exercises in Fire Discipline.=--These exercises should be carried out progressively. In the preliminary stages of instruction men should be trained in squads, as already described in para. 9, the fire orders being simple and the targets easy to recognize. More advanced stages of instruction in fire discipline will be combined with the soldier’s training in extended order drill and manœuvre (see Chapters III and VII of _Drill and Field Training_ of this series), and also during advanced stages of musketry training. Thus training in fire discipline can be combined with field exercises consisting of tactical schemes in attack and defence, etc., when blank cartridge is used, and with fire direction and collective field practices fired with ball cartridge on field firing ranges.

=9. Preliminary Exercises.=--(i) In preliminary exercises the squad will be drawn up in line at one or two paces interval, and on the command from the instructor--_Sitting, Standing, or Kneeling, at_ (range); _at_ (object); _Fire_ or _Rapid fire_--will perform the necessary motions, and continue firing until the order _Cease fire_ or _Unload_ is given. If no orders are given as to the firing position, the squad will assume the lying position. The standing, kneeling, and sitting positions will only be practised under conditions suitable to their employment.

(ii) If it is desired to change front or position, the instructor will give the necessary commands, but without as a rule causing fire to cease. All commands given during firing are to be passed down the line of firers, to practise them in passing orders, the orders being taken down at the of the line to check their accuracy.

=10.= When the squad has gained sufficient experience, the fire orders should be combined with those for movement, as in the following example, given to a section in fours: _Section, line that ridge--To the left three paces extend--At 1,000--At the enemy just left of that house on the hill, half left--Fire--Cease Fire--Advance._ In exercises carried out with blank ammunition, _the safety-catch will be applied_, or rifles will be _unloaded_ or _sloped_, before a movement is undertaken. In all fire discipline exercises the rule mentioned in Sec. 46, para. 6, regarding not bringing the rifle to the shoulder if they do not recognize targets, should be strictly observed by men for the reasons given.

=11. Development of Individual Judgment.=--In more advanced exercises, to develop individuality, the complete detail of commands will occasionally be dispensed with. Thus, on a target appearing suddenly for a limited time, the executive command _Fire_ or _Rapid Fire_ only will be given, on which each individual will adopt the firing position he considers most suitable to the tactical conditions, adjust his sight, and open fire. The instructor will observe and criticize the positions and the sighting of the rifles.

=12. Instruction on Miniature Ranges.=--Instruction in fire discipline can be carried out on miniature ranges during the Fire Direction Practices and Collective Field Practices contained in Sec. 74.