Chapter III: Part 3

"I the priest, I who speak, I who burn this incense, I who light
this candle, I who pray for him, I who take him under my
protection, I ask you that he may obtain his subsistence with
facility. Thou, God, canst provide him with money; let him not fall
ill of fever; I ask that he shall not become paralytic; that he
may not choke with severe coughing; that he be not bitten by a
serpent; that he become neither bloated nor asthmatic; that he do
not go mad; that he be not bitten by a dog; that he be not struck
by lightning; that he be not choked with brandy; that he be not
killed with iron, nor by a stick, and that he be not carried off by
an eagle; guard him, O clouds; aid him, O lightning; aid him, O
thunder; aid him, St. Peter; aid him, St. Paul; aid him, eternal
Father.

"And I who up to this time have spoken for him to you, I ask you
that sickness may visit his enemies. So order it, that when his
enemies go forth from their houses, they may meet sickness; order
it, that wherever they go, they may meet troubles; do your offices
of injury to them, wheresoever they are met; do this that I pray, O
holy souls. God be with you; God the Father, God the Son, God the
Holy Spirit: Amen, Jesus."

Most of such invocations are expressed in terms far more recondite and symbolic than the above. We have many such preserved in the work of Jacinto de la Serna, which supply ample material to acquaint us with the peculiarities of the sacred and secret language of the nagualists. I shall quote but one, that employed in the curious ceremony of "calling back the _tonal_," referred to on a previous page. I append an explanation of its obscure metaphors.

_Invocation for the Restitution of the Tonal._

"Ho there! Come to my aid, mother mine of the skirt of precious
stones![1] What keeps thee away, gray ghost, white ghost?[2] Is the
obstacle white, or is it yellow? See, I place here the yellow
enchantment and the white enchantment.[3]

"I, the Master of the Masters of enchantments, have come, I, who
formed thee and gave thee life.[4] Thou, mother mine of the starry
skirt, thou, goddess of the stars, who givest life, why hast thou
turned against this one?[5]

"Adverse spirit and darkened star, I shall sink thee in the breadth
and depth of the waters.[6] I, master of spells, speak to
thee[TN-5] Ho there! Mother mine, whose skirt is made of gems,
come, seek with me the shining spirit who dwells in the house of
light,[7] that we may know what god or mighty power thus destroys
and crushes to earth this unfortunate one. Green and black spirit
of sickness, leave him and seek thy prey elsewhere.

"Green and yellow ghost, who art wandering, as if lost, over
mountains and plains, I seek thee, I desire thee; return to him
whom thou hast abandoned. Thou, the nine times beaten, the nine
times smitten, see that thou fail me not.[8] Come hither, mother
mine, whose robe is of precious gems; one water, two waters; one
rabbit, two rabbits; one deer, two deers; one alligator, two
alligators.[9]

"Lo! I myself am here; I am most furious; I make the loudest noise
of all; I respect no one; even sticks and stones tremble before me.
What god or mighty power dare face me, me, a child of gods and
goddesses?[10] I have come to seek and call back the _tonal_ of
this sick one, wherever it is, whithersoever it has wandered, be it
nine times wandered, even unto the nine junctures and the nine
unions.[11] Wherever it is, I summon it to return, I order it to
return, and to heal and clean this heart and this head."

_Explanations._

1. The appeal is to Water, regarded as the universal Mother. The
"skirt of precious stones" refers to the green of the precious
green stones, a color sacred to water.

2. The question is addressed to the _tonal_.

3. The yellow enchantment is tobacco; the white, a cup of water.

4. That is, assigned the form of the nagual belonging to the sick
man.

5. This appeal is directed to the Milky Way.

6. The threat is addressed to the _tonal_, to frighten it into
returning.

7. The "shining spirit" is the Fire-god.

8. The yellow tobacco, prepared ceremonially in the manner
indicated.

9. These are names of days in the native calendar which are
invoked.

10. The priest speaks in the person of his god.

11. Referring to the Nahuatl belief that there are nine upper and
nine under worlds.

From the same work of de la Serna I collect the following list of symbolic expressions. It might easily be extended, but these will be sufficient to show the figurative obscurities which they threw around their formulas of conjuration, but which were by no means devoid of coherence and instruction to those who could understand them.

_Symbolic Expressions of the Nagualists._

_Blood._--"The red woman with snakes on her gown" (referring to the
veins).

_Copal Gum._--"The white woman" (from the whitish color of the
fresh gum).

_Cords_ (for carrying burdens).--"The snake that does woman's work"
(because women sit still to knit, and the cord works while itself
is carried).

_Drunkenness._--"My resting time," or "when I am getting my
breath."

_The Earth._--"The mirror that smokes" (because of the mists that
rise from it); "the rabbit with its mouth upward" (the rabbit, in
opposition to the one they see in the moon; with its mouth upward,
because of the mists which rise from it like the breath exhaled
from the mouth); "the flower which contains everything" (as all
fruit proceeds from flowers, so does all vegetable life proceed
from the earth, which is therefore spoken of as a flower); "the
flower which bites the mouths" (a flower, for the reason given; it
eats the mouths, because all things necessarily return to it, and
are swallowed by it).

_Fingers._--"The five fates," or "the five works," or "the five
fields" (because by the use of his fingers man works out his own
destiny. Hence also the worship of the Hand among the Nahuas as the
god Maitl, and among the Mayas as the god Kab, both which words
mean "hand").

_Fire._--"Our Father of the Four Reeds" (because the ceremony of
making the new fire was held on the day Four Reeds, 4 Acatl); "the
shining rose;" "the yellow flyer;" "the red-haired one;" "the
yellow spirit."

_A Knife of Copper._--"The yellow Chichimec" (because the
Chichimecs were alleged to tear out the bowels of their enemies).

_The Maguey Plant._--"My sister, the eight in a row" (because it
was planted in this manner).

_A Road._--"That which is divided in two, and yet has neither
beginning, middle nor end" (because it always lies in two
directions from a person, and yet all roads lead into others and
thus never end).

_Sickness._--"The red woman;" "the breath of the flame;" "our
mother the comet" (all referring to the fever); "the Chichimec"
(because it aims to destroy life, like these savage warriors); "the
spider" (because of its venomous nature).

_Smoke._--"The old wife" (_i. e._, of the fire).

_The Sun._--"Our holy and pockified Uncle" (referring to the myth
of Nanahuatl, who was syphilitic, and leaping into the flames of a
fire rose as the sun).

_Tobacco._--"The nine (or seven) times beaten" (because for sacred
purposes it was rubbed up this number of times); "the enchanted
gray one" (from its color and use in conjuring).

_Water._--"The Green Woman" (from the greenness which follows
moisture); "our Mother, whose robe is of precious stones" (from the
green or vegetable life resembling the turquoise, emerald, jade,
etc.).

=36.= It might be asked how the dark arts and secret ceremonies of the Nagualists escaped the prying eyes of the officers of the Holy Inquisition, which was established in Mexico in 1571. The answer is, that the inquisitors were instructed by Cardinal Diego de Espinosa, who at that time was Inquisitor General and President of the Council of the Indies, "to abstain from proceedings against Indians, because of their stupidity and incapacity, as well as scant instruction in the Holy Catholic faith, for the crimes of heresy, apostasy, heretical blasphemy, sorcery, incantations, superstitions," etc.

Energetic inquisitors, however, conceded very grudgingly this exemption. In the imposing _auto de fe_ celebrated in the city of Mexico, in 1659, a half-breed, Bernardo del Carpio by name, son of a full-blood Indian mother, accused of blasphemy, etc., endeavored to escape the Holy Office by pleading his Indian blood; but his appeal was disallowed, and the precedent established that any admixture whatever of European blood brought the accused within the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.[55-*] Even this seems to have been a concession, for we find the record of an _auto de fe_ held in 1609, in the province of Tehuantepec, in which eight full-blood natives were punished for worshiping the goddess Pinopiaa.[55-[+]] Mr. David Ferguson, however, who has studied extensively the records of the inquisition in Mexico, informs me that in none of the trials read by him has he observed any charges of Nagualism, although many white persons were accused, and some tried, for consulting Indian sorcerers.

=37.= It will be seen from what I have said, that the rites of Nagualism extended as widely as did the term over Mexico and Central America. It becomes, therefore, of importance to discover from what linguistic stock this term and its associated words are derived. From that source it is reasonable to suppose the rites of this superstition also had their origin.

The opinions on this subject have been diverse and positive. Most writers have assumed that it is a Nahuatl, or pure Mexican, word; while an eminent authority, Dr. Stoll, is not less certain that it is from a radical belonging to the neighboring great stock of the Mayan dialects, and especially the Quiche, of Guatemala.[55-[++]] Perhaps both these positions are erroneous, and we must look elsewhere for the true etymology of these expressions. Unquestionably they had become domesticated in both Maya and Nahuatl; but there is some reason to think they were loan-words, belonging to another, and perhaps more venerable, civilization than either of these nations could claim.

To illustrate this I shall subjoin several series of words derived from the same radical which is at the basis of the word nagual, the series, three in number, being taken from the three radically diverse, though geographically contiguous, linguistic stocks, the Maya, the Zapotec and the Nahuatl.

_From the Maya, of Yucatan._

_Naual_, or _nautal_, a native dance, forbidden by the
missionaries.

_Naatil_, talent, skill, ability.

_Naat_, intelligence, wisdom.

_Naatah_, to understand, to divine.

_Nanaol_, to consider, to contemplate, to meditate, to commune with
oneself, to enter into oneself.

_Noh_, great, skillful; as _noh ahceh_, a skillful hunter.

_From Maya Dialects._

QUICHE-CAKCHIQUEL.

_Naual_, a witch or sorcerer.

_Naualin_, to tell fortunes, to predict the future.

_Qui naualin_, to sacrifice, to offer sacrifices.

_Na_, to feel, to suspect, to divine, to think in one's heart.

_Nao_, to know, to be alert or expert in something.

_Naol_, a skillful person, a rhetorician.

_Naotizan_, to make another intelligent or astute.

_Natal_, the memory.

_Natub_, the soul or shadow of a man.

_Noh_, the god of reason ("Genius der Vernunft," Scherzer).

_Noh_, to fecundate, to impregnate (_Popol Vuh_).

TZENTAL.

_X-qna_, to know.

_X-qnaulai_, to know often or thoroughly (frequentative).

_Naom_, wise, astute (_naom vinic_, hombre sabio).

_Naoghi_, art, science.

_Naoghibal_, memory.

_Ghnaoghel_, a wise man.

_Alaghom naom_, the Goddess of Wisdom.

_From the Zapotec, of Oaxaca_.

_Nana_, _gana_, _gona_, to know.

_Nona_, to know thoroughly, to retain in the memory.

_Nana ticha_, or _nona lii_, a wise man.

_Guela nana_, or _guela nona_, wisdom, knowledge.

_Hue gona_, or _ro gona_, a teacher, a master.

_Na lii_, truth; _ni na lii_, that which is true.

_Nacina_, or _naciina_, skill, dexterity.

_Hui naa_, a medicine man, a "nagualist."

_Nahaa_, to speak pleasantly or agreeably.

_Nayaa_, or _nayapi_, to speak easily or fluently.

_Rigoo gona_, to sacrifice, to offer sacrifice.

_Ni nana_, the understanding, the intelligence, generally.

_Nayanii_, the superior reason of man.

_Nayaa_, } superiority, a superior man (gentileza, gentil hombre).
_Naguii_, }

_From the Nahuatl, of Mexico_.

_Naua_, to dance, holding each other by the hands.

_Naualli_, a sorcerer, magician, enchanter.

_Nauallotl_, magic, enchantment, witchcraft.

_Nauatl_, or _nahuatl_, skillful, astute, smart; hence, superior;
applied to language, clear, well-sounding, whence (perhaps) the
name of the tongue.

_Nauati_, to speak clearly and distinctly.

_Nauatlato_, an interpreter.

=38.= I believe that no one can carefully examine these lists of words, all taken from authorities well acquainted with the several tongues, and writing when they still retained their original purity, without acknowledging that the same radical or syllable underlies them all; and further, that from the primitive form and rich development of this radical in the Zapotec, it looks as if we must turn to it to recognize the origin of all these expressions, both in the Nahuatl and the Maya linguistic stocks.

The root _na_, to know, is the primitive monosyllabic stem to which we trace all of them. _Nahual_ means knowledge, especially mystic knowledge, the Gnosis, the knowledge of the hidden and secret things of nature; easily enough confounded in uncultivated minds with sorcery and magic.[57-*]

It is very significant that neither the radical _na_ nor any of its derivatives are found in the Huasteca dialect of the Mayan tongue, which was spoken about Tampico, far removed from other members of the stock. The inference is that in the southern dialects it was a borrowed stem.

Nor in the Nahuatl language--although its very name is derived from it[58-*]--does the radical _na_ appear in its simplicity and true significance. To the Nahuas, also, it must have been a loan.

It is true that de la Serna derives the Mexican _naualli_, a sorcerer, from the verb _nahualtia_, to mask or disguise oneself, "because a _naualli_ is one who masks or disguises himself under the form of some lower animal, which is his _nagual_;"[58-[+]] but it is altogether likely that _nahualtia_ derived its meaning from the custom of the medicine men to wear masks during their ceremonies.

Therefore, if the term _nagual_, and many of its associates and derivatives, were at first borrowed from the Zapotec language, a necessary corrollary[TN-6] of this conclusion is, that along with these terms came most of the superstitions, rites and beliefs to which they allude; which thus became grafted on the general tendency to such superstitions existing everywhere and at all times in the human mind.

Along with the names of the days and the hieroglyphs which mark them, and the complicated arithmetical methods by means of which they were employed, were carried most of the doctrines of the Nagualists, and the name by which they in time became known from central Mexico quite to Nicaragua and beyond.

The mysterious words have now, indeed, lost much of their ancient significance. In a recent dictionary of the Spanish of Mexico _nagual_ is defined as "a witch; a word used to frighten children and make them behave,"[58-[++]] while in Nicaragua, where the former Nahuatl population has left so many traces of its presence in the language of to-day, the word _nagual_ no longer means an actor in the black art, or a knowledge of it, but his or her armamentarium, or the box, jar or case in which are kept the professional apparatus, the talismans and charms, which constitute the stock in trade or outfit of the necromancer.[59-*]

Among the Lacandons, of Mayan stock, who inhabit the forests on the upper waters of the Usumacinta river, at the present day the term _naguate_ or _nagutlat_ is said to be applied to any one "who is entitled to respect and obedience by age and merit;"[59-[+]] but in all probability he is also believed to possess superior and occult knowledge.

=39.= All who have any acquaintance with the folk-lore of the world are aware that the notion of men and women having the power to change themselves into beasts is as wide as superstition itself and older than history. It is mentioned in the pages of Herodotus and in the myths of ancient Assyria. It is the property of African negroes, and the peasantry of Europe still hold to their faith in the reality of the were-wolf of Germany, the _loup-garou_ of France and the _lupo mannaro_ of Italy. Dr. Richard Andree well says in his interesting study of the subject: "He who would explain the origin of this strange superstition must not approach it as a national or local manifestation, but as one universal in its nature; not as the property of one race or family, but of the species and its psychology at large."[59-[++]]

Even in such a detail as the direct connection of the name of the person with his power of change do we find extraordinary parallelisms between the superstition of the red man of America and the peasant of Germany. As in Mexico the _nagual_ was assigned to the infant by a form of baptism, so in Europe the peasants of east Prussia hold that if the godparent at the time of naming and baptism thinks of a wolf, the infant will acquire the power of becoming one; and in Hesse to pronounce the name of the person in the presence of the animal into which he has been changed will restore him to human shape.[59-Sec.]

=40.= I need not say that the doctrine of personal spirits is not especially Mexican, nor yet American; it belongs to man in general, and can be recognized in most religions and many philosophies. In ancient Greece both the Platonicians and later the Neo-Platonicians thought that each individual has a particular spirit, or _daim[=o]n_, in whom is enshrined his or her moral personality. To this _daim[=o]n_ he should address his prayers, and should listen heedfully to those interior promptings which seem to arise in the mind from some unseen silent monitor.[60-*]

Many a member of the Church of Rome substitutes for the _daim[=o]n_ of the Platonists the patron saint after whom he is named, or whom he has chosen from the calendar, the hagiology, of his Church. This analogy did not fail to strike the early missionaries, and they saw in the Indian priest selecting the _nagual_ of the child a hideous and diabolical caricature of the holy rites.

But what was their horror when they found that the similarity proceeded so far that the pagan priest also performed a kind of baptismal sacrament with water; and that in the Mexican picture-writing the sign which represents the natal day, the _tonal_, by which the individual demon is denoted, was none other than the sign of the cross, as we have seen. This left no doubt as to the devilish origin of the whole business, which was further supported by the wondrous thaumaturgic powers of its professors.

=41.= How are we to explain these marvelous statements? It will not do to take the short and easy road of saying they are all lies and frauds. The evidence is too abundant for us to doubt that there was skillful jugglery among the proficients in the occult arts among those nations. They could rival their colleagues in the East Indies and Europe, if not surpass them.

Moreover, is there anything incredible in the reports of the spectators? Are we not familiar with the hypnotic or mesmeric conditions in which the subject sees, hears and feels just what the master tells him to feel and see? The tricks of cutting oneself or others, of swallowing broken glass, of handling venomous reptiles, are well-known performances of the sect of the Aissaoua in northern Africa, and nowadays one does not have to go off the boulevards of Paris to see them repeated. The phenomena of thought transference, of telepathy, of clairvoyance, of spiritual rappings, do but reiterate under the clear light of the close of the nineteenth century the mystical thaumaturgy with which these children of nature were familiar centuries ago in the New World, and which are recorded of the theosophists and magicians of Egypt, Greece and Rome.[61-*] So long as many intelligent and sensible people among ourselves find all explanations of these modern phenomena inadequate and unsatisfactory, we may patiently wait for a complete solution of those of a greater antiquity.

=42.= The conclusion to which this study of Nagualism leads is, that it was not merely the belief in a personal guardian spirit, as some have asserted; not merely a survival of fragments of the ancient heathenism, more or less diluted by Christian teachings, as others have maintained; but that above and beyond these, it was a powerful secret organization, extending over a wide area, including members of different languages and varying culture, bound together by mystic rites, by necromantic powers and occult doctrines; but, more than all, by one intense emotion--hatred of the whites--and by one unalterable purpose--that of their destruction, and with them the annihilation of the government and religion which they had introduced.

FOOTNOTES:

[4-*] These words occur a number of times in the English translation, published at London in 1822, of Dr. Paul Felix Cabrera's _Teatro Critico Americano_. The form _nagual_ instead of _nahual_, or _naual_, or _nawal_ has been generally adopted and should be preferred.

[4-[+]] For instance, in "The Names of the Gods in the Kiche Myths," pp. 21, 22, in _Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society_, 1881; _Annals of the Cakchiquels_, Introduction, p. 46; _Essays of an Americanist_, p. 170, etc.

[5-*] _Historia de las Indias Occidentales_, Dec. iv, Lib. viii, cap. 4.

[5-[+]] More especially it is the territory of the Chorti dialect, spoken to this day in the vicinity of the famous ancient city of Copan, Honduras. Cerquin lies in the mountains nearly due east of this celebrated site. On the Chorti, see Stoll, _Zur Ethnographie der Republik Guatemala_, pp. 106-9.

[6-*] Bernardino de Sahagun, _Historia de la Nueva Espana_, Lib. x, cap. 9.

[6-[+]] Derived from _teciuhtlaza_, to conjure against hail, itself from _teciuh_, hail. Alonso de Molina, _Vocabulario Mexicano_, sub voce.

[6-[++]] Bautista, _Advertencias para los Confesores_, fol. 112 (Mexico, 1600).

[6-Sec.] Nicolas de Leon, _Camino del Cielo_, fol. 111 (Mexico, 1611).

[7-*] Paso y Troncoso, in _Anales del Museo Nacional[TN-7] de Mexico_, Tom. iii, p. 180.

[7-[+]] Sahagun, _Historia de Nueva Espana_, Lib. x, cap. 29, and Lib. xi, cap. 7. Hernandez has the following on the mysterious properties of this plant: "Illud ferunt de hac radice mirabile (si modo fides sit vulgatissimae inter eos rei habendae), devorantes illam quodlibet prsaesagire praedicereque; velut an sequenti die hostes sint impetum in eos facturi? Anne illos felicia maneant tempora? Quis supellectilem, aut aliud quidpiam furto subripruerit? Et ad hunc modum alia, quibus Chichimecae hujusmodi medicamine cognoscendis." Franciscus Hernandus, _Historia Plantarum Novae Hispaniae_, Tom. iii, p. 71 (Ed., Madrid, 1790).

[7-[++]] _Diccionario Universal_, Appendice, Tom. i, p. 360 (Mexico, 1856).

[8-*] _Confessionario Mayor y Menor en lengua Mexicana_, fol. 8, verso (Mexico, 1634).

[8-[+]] Vetancurt, _Teatro Mexicano_, Trat. iii, cap. 9.

[8-[++]] Hernandez, _Historia Plantarum Novae Hispaniae_, Tom. iii, p. 32.

[9-*] Dr. Jacinto de la Serna, _Manual de Min stros[TN-8] de Indios para el Conocimiento de sus Idolatrias y Extirpacion de Ellas_, p. 163. This interesting work was composed about the middle of the seventeenth century by a Rector of the University of Mexico, but was first printed at Madrid, in 1892, from the MS. furnished by Dr. N. Leon, under the editorship of the Marquis de la Fuensanta del Valle.

[9-[+]] MSS. of the Licentiate Zetina, and _Informe_ of Father Baeza in _Registro Yucateco_, Tom. i.

[10-*] Acosta, _De la Historia Moral de Indias_, Lib. v, cap. 26.

[10-[+]] Of the _thiuimeezque_ Hernandez writes: "Aiunt radicis cortice unius unciae pondere tuso, atque devorato, multa ante oculos observare phantasmata, multiplices imagines ac monstrificas rerum figuras, detegique furem, si quidpiam rei familiaris subreptum sit." _Hist. Plant. Nov. Hispan._, Tom. iii, p. 272. The _chacuaco_ and its effects are described by Father Venegas in his _History of California_, etc.

[10-[++]] "In Mictlan Tetlachihuique, in Nanahualtin, in Tlahuipuchtin." Paredes, _Promptuario Manual Mexicano_, p. 128 (Mexico, 1757). The _tlahuipuchtin_, "those who work with smoke," were probably diviners who foretold the future from the forms taken by smoke in rising in the air. This class of augurs were also found in Peru, where they were called _Uirapircos_ (Balboa, _Hist. du Perou_, p. 28-30).

[10-Sec.] Von Gagern, _Charakteristik der Indianischer Bevoelkerung Mexikos_, s. 125.

[11-*] _Historia Antigua de Mexico_, Tom. ii, p. 25. Francisco Pimentel, in his thoughtful work, _Memoria sobre las Causas que han originado la Situacion Actual de la Raza Indigena de Mexico_ (Mexico, 1864), recognizes how almost impossible it is to extirpate their faith in this nagualism. "Conservan los agueros y supersticiones de la antigueedad, siendo cosa de fe para ellos, los _nahuales_," etc., p. 200, and comp. p. 145.

[11-[+]] On these terms consult the extensive _Dictionnaire de la Langue Nahuatl_, by Remi Simeon,[TN-9] published at Paris, 1887. It is not impossible that _tona_ is itself a compound root, including the monosyllabic radical _na_, which is at the basis of _nagual_.

[11-[++]] Sahagun, _Historia de Nueva Espana_, Lib. iv, _passim_, and Lib. x, cap. 9.

[12-*] See Ch. de Labarthe, _Revue Americaine_, Serie ii, Tom. ii, pp. 222-225. His translation of _naualteteuctin_ by "Seigneurs du genie" must be rejected, as there is absolutely no authority for assigning this meaning to _naualli_.

[13-*] _Anales de Cuauhtitlan_, p. 31. The translator renders it "palo brujo."

[13-[+]] _Les Anciennes Villes du Nouveau Monde_, pp. 146-148, figured on p. 150. On its significance compare Hamy, _Decades Americanae_, pp. 74-81.

[13-[++]] _The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico_ (Philadelphia, 1893).

[13-Sec.] Eduard Muehlenpfordt, _Mexico_, Bd. i, s. 255.

[14-*] The word is derived from _tlatoa_, to speak for another, and its usual translation was "chief," as the head man spoke for, and in the name of the gens or tribe.

[14-[+]] The interesting account by Iglesias is printed in the Appendix to the _Diccionario Universal de Geographia y Historia_ (Mexico, 1856). Other writers testify to the tenacity with which the Mixes cling to their ancient beliefs. Senor Moro says they continue to be "notorious idolaters," and their actual religion to be "an absurd jumble of their old superstitions with Christian doctrines" (in Orozco y Berra, _Geografia de las Lenguas de exico[TN-10]_, p. 176).

[15-*] For instance, J. B. Carriedo, in his _Estudios Historicos del Estado Oaxaqueno_ (Oaxaca, 1849), p. 15, says the _nahualt_ was a ceremony performed by the native priest, in which the infant was bled from a vein behind the ear, assigned a name, that of a certain day, and a guardian angel or _tona_. These words are pure Nahuatl, and Carriedo, who does not give his authority, probably had none which referred these rites to the Zapotecs.

[15-[+]] Juan de Cordova, _Arte en Lengua Zapoteca_, pp. 16, 202, 203, 213, 216.

[16-*] Quoted in Carriedo, ubi supra, p. 17.

[16-[+]] _Hist. de las Indias Oc._, Dec. iii, Lib. iii, cap. 12.

[17-*] So I understand the phrase, "figuras pintadas con zifras enigmaticas"[TN-11]

[17-[+]] _Popoluca_ was a term applied to various languages. I suspect the one here referred to was the Mixe. See an article by me, entitled "Chontales and Popolucas; a Study in Mexican Ethnography," in the _Compte Rendu_ of the Eighth Session of the Congress of Americanists, p. 566, _seq._

[17-[++]] _Constit. Diocesan_, p. 19.

[18-*] _Constitut. Diocesan_, Titulo vii, pp. 47, 48.

[19-*] Rather with the Quetzalcoatl of the Nahuas, and the Gucumatz of the Quiches, both of which names mean "Feathered Serpent." Mixcohuatl, the Cloud Serpent, in Mexican mythology, referred to the Thunder-storm.

[19-[+]] In his Tzental Vocabulary, Father Lara does not give this exact form; but in the neighboring dialect of the Cakchiquel Father Ximenes has _quikeho_, to agree together, to enter into an arrangement; the prefix _zme_ is the Tzental word for "mother."

[20-*] Father Lara, in his _Vocabulario Tzendal MS._ (in my possession), gives for medical (medico), _ghpoxil_, for medicine (medicinal cosa), _pox_, _xpoxtacoghbil_; for physician (medico), _ghpoxta vinic_ (the form _vanegh_, person, is also correct). The Tzendal _pox_ (pronounced _p[=o]sh_) is another form of the Quiche-Cakchiquel _p[=u]z_, a word which Father Ximenes, in his _Vocabulario Cakchiquel_ MS (in my possession), gives in the compound _puz naual_, with the meaning, enchanter, wizard. Both these, I take it, are derived from the Maya _puz_, which means to blow the dust, etc., off of something (soplar el polvo de la ropa o otra cosa. _Dicc. de la Lengua Maya del Convento de Motul_, MS. The dictionary edited by Pio Perez does not give this meaning). The act of blowing was the essential feature in the treatment of these medicine men. It symbolized the transfer and exercise of spiritual power. When Votan built his underground shrine he did it _a soplos_, by blowing (Nunez de la Vega, _Constitut. Diocesan_, p. 10). The natives did not regard the comet's tail as behind it but in front of it, blown from its mouth. The Nahuatl word in the text, _tzihuizin_, is the Pipil form of _xihuitzin_, the reverential of _xihuitl_, which means a leaf, a season, a year, or a comet. Apparently it refers to the Nahuatl divinity _Xiuhte cutli_, described by Sahagun, _Historia de Nueva Espana_, Lib. i, cap. 13, as god of fire, etc.

[21-*] _Hicalahau_, for _ical ahau_, Black King, one of the Tzental divinities, who will be referred to on a later page.

[21-[+]] "Maestros de los pueblos," _Constitut. Diocesan_, i, p. 106.

[23-*] _Historia de Guatemala, o, Recordacion Florida_, Tom. ii, p. 44, _seq._

[24-*] Gage, _A New Survey of the West Indies_, p. 388, _seq._ (4th Ed.).

[25-*] _Le Popol Vuh, ou Livre Sacre des Quiches_, p. 315 (Ed. Brasseur, Paris, 1861). In the Quiche myths, Gucumatz is the analogue of Quetzalcoatl in Aztec legend. Both names mean the same, "Feathered Serpent."

[25-[+]] Baeza's article is printed in the _Registro Yucateco_, Vol. i, p. 165, _seq._

[26-*] "Wird ein Kind im Dorfe geboren, so erhaelt der heidnische Goetzenpriester von diesem Ereignisse viel eher Kunde, als der katholische Pfarrer. Erst wenn dem neuen Weltbuerger durch den Aj-quig das Horoskop gestellt, der Name irgend eines Thieres beigelegt, Mi-si-sal (das citronengelbe Harz des Rhus copallinum) verbrannt, ein Lieblingsgoetze angerufen, und noche viele andere aberglauebische Mysterien verrichtet worden sind, wird das Kind nach dem Pfarrhause zur christlichen Taufe getragen. Das Thier, dessen Name dem Kinde kurz nach seiner Geburt vom Sonnenpriester beigelegt wird, gilt gewoehnlich auch als sein Schutzgeist (_nagual_) fuers ganze Leben." Dr. Karl Scherzer, _Die Indianer von Santa Catalina Istlavacan_, p. 11, Wien, 1856.

[26-[+]] The word _zahori_, of Arabic origin, is thus explained in the Spanish and English dictionary of Delpino (London, 1763): "So they call in Spain an impostor who pretends to see into the bowels of the earth, through stone walls, or into a man's body." Dr. Stoll says the Guatemala Indians speak of their diviners, the _Ah Kih_, as _zahorin_. _Guatemala_, s. 229.

[26-[++]] Emetorio Pineda, _Descripcion Geografica de Chiapas y Soconusco_, p. 22 (Mexico, 1845).

[27-*] Madier de Montjau, "Manuscrits Figuratifs de l' Ancien Mexique," in _Archives de la Societe Americaine[TN-12] de France_, 1875, p. 245.

[27-[+]] Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. xv, cap. 16.

[28-*] De la Serna, _Manual de Ministros_, pp. 20, 21, 42, 162. The mushroom referred to was the _quauhnanacatl_, probably the same as the _teyhuinti_ of Hernandez, _Hist. Plant. Nov. Hispan._, Tom. ii, p. 358, who says that it is not dangerous to life, but disturbs the mind, inciting to laughter and intoxication.

[28-[+]] Actual slavery of the Indians in Mexico continued as late as the middle of the seventeenth century. See Cavo, _Tres Siglos de Mexico_, etc., Tom. ii, p. 11.

[28-[++]] Brasseur, _Hist. des Nations Civilisees de Mexique_, Tom. iv, p. 822.

[29-*] _Informe del teniente general, Don Jacobo de Barba Figueroa, corregidor de la Provincia de Suchitepeque_, quoted by Brasseur.

[29-[+]] Jacinto de la Serna says: "Los maestros de estas ceremonias son todos unos, y lo que sucede en esta cordillera en todas sucede." _Manual de Ministros_, p. 52. Speaking of the methods of the nagualists of Chiapas, Bishop Nunez de la Vega writes: "Concuerdan los mas modernos con los mas antiguos que se practicaban en Mexico." _Constituciones Diocesanas_, p. 134.

[29-[++]] He observes that there were "familias de los tales sabios en las quales en manera de patrimonio se heredaban, succediendo los hijos a los padres, y principalmente su abominable secta de Nagualismo." _Historia del Cielo y de la Tierra_, MS., p. 7. Ordonez advances various erudite reasons for believing that Nagualism is a religious belief whose theory and rites were brought from Carthage by Punic navigators in ancient times.

[29-Sec.] Maria de Moxo, _Cartas Mejicanas_, p. 270, (Genova, n. d.).

[30-*] "_Xochimilca_, que asi llamavan a los mui sabios encantadores." Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. xv, cap. 16.

[30-[+]] In Nahuatl, _tlapiani_, a guardian or watchman. The Zapotec priesthood was divided into the _huijatoos_, "greater guardians," and their inferiors, the _copavitoos_, "guardians of the gods." Carriedo, _Estudios Historicos_,[TN-13] p. 93.

[30-[++]] See Eligio Ancona. _Historia de Yucatan_, Tom. iv, cap. 1 (Merida, 1880).

[31-*] The mention of the fifteen, 5 x 3, chosen disciples indicates that the same system of initiating by triplets prevailed in Yucatan as in Chiapas (see above, p. 19). The sacred tree is not named, but presumably it was the ceiba to which I refer elsewhere. The address of Jacinto was obtained from those present, and is given at length by the Jesuit Martin del Puerto, in his _Relacion hecho al Cabildo Eclesiastico por el preposito de la Compania de Jesus, acerca de la muerte de Jacinto Can-Ek y socios_, Dec. 26, 1761. It is published, with other documents relating to this revolt, in the Appendix to the _Diccionario Universal_, edited by Orozco y Berra, Mexico, 1856. On the prophecies of Chilan Balam, see my _Essays of an Americanist_, pp. 255-273 (Philadelphia, 1890).

[31-[+]] Eligio Ancona, _Hist. de Yucatan_, Tom. ii, p. 452.

[32-*] See Pedro Sanchez de Aguilar, _Informe contra Idolum Cultores en Yucathan_ (Madrid, 1639); Eligio Ancona, _Historia de Yucatan_, Tom. ii, pp. 128, 129.

[32-[+]] The chief authority on this revolt is Juan de Torres Castillo, _Relacion de lo Sucedido en las Provincias de Nexapa, Iztepex y Villa Alta_ (Mexico, 1662). See also Cavo, _Los Tres Siglos de Mexico durante el Gobierno Espanol_, Tom. ii, p. 41, and a pamphlet by Christoval Manso de Contreras, _Relacion cierta y verdadera de lo que sucedio en esta Provincia de Tehuantepec_, etc. (printed at Mexico, 1661), which I know only through the notes of Dr. Berendt. Mr. H. H. Bancroft, in his very meagre account of this event, mistakingly insists that it took place in 1660. _History of Mexico_, Vol. iii, p. 164.

[32-[++]] See Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations Civilisees de la Mexique_, Tom. iv, 824.

[32-Sec.] Cavo, _Los Tres Siglos_, etc., Tom. ii, p. 82. On the use and significance of the _piochtli_ we have some information in Vetancurt, _Teatro Mexicano_, Tom. ii, p. 464, and de la Serna, _Manual de Ministros_, pp. 166, 167. It was the badge of a certain order of the native priesthood.

[33-*] _Adventures on the Musquito Shore_, by S. A. Ward, pseudonym of Mr. Squier, p. 258 (New York, 1855).

[33-[+]] Nunez de la Vega, _Constituciones Diocesanas_, p. 10, and comp. Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Hist. des Nat. Civ. de Mexique_, Tom. i, p. 74.

[33-[++]] Herrera, _Hist. de las Indias Occidentales_, Dec. ii, Lib. iii, cap. 5.

[34-*] Acosta, _Hist. Nat. y Moral de las Indias_, Lib. vii, cap. 5.

[34-[+]] The story is given in Herrera, _Hist. de las Indias_, Dec. iv, Lib. viii, cap. 4. The name Coamizagual is translated in the account as "Flying Tigress." I cannot assign it this sense in any dialect.

[34-[++]] Jacinto de la Serna, _Manual de Ministros_. p. 138. Sahagun identifies Quilaztli with Tonantzin, the common mother of mankind and goddess of child-birth (_Hist. de Nueva Espana_, Lib. i, cap. 6, Lib. vi, cap. 27). Further particulars of her are related by Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. ii, cap. 2. The _tzitzime_ were mysterious elemental powers, who, the Nahuas believed, were destined finally to destroy the present world (Sahagun, l. c., Lib. vi, cap. 8). The word means "flying haired" (Serna).

[34-Sec.] Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. ii, cap. 62.

[35-*] Fr. Tomas Coto, _Diccionario de la Lengua Cakchiquel_, MS., s. v. _Sacrificar_; in the Library of the American Philosophical Society at Philadelphia.

[35-[+]] "Trataron de valerse del arte de los encantos y _naguales_" are the words of the author, Fuentes y Guzman, in his _Recordacion Florida_, Tom. i, p. 50. In the account of Bernal Diaz, it reads as if this witch and her dog had both been sacrificed; but Fuentes is clear in his statement, and had other documents at hand.

[35-[++]] Teobert Maler, "Memoire sur l'Etat de Chiapas," in the _Revue d' Ethnographie_, Tom. iii, pp. 309-311. This writer also gives some valuable facts about the Indian insurrection in the Sierra de Alicia, in 1873.

[36-*] The long account given by Mr H. H. Bancroft of this insurrection is a travesty of the situation drawn from bitterly prejudiced Spanish sources, of course, utterly out of sympathy with the motives which prompted the native actors. See his _History of the Pacific States_, Vol ii, p. 696 _sqq._ Ordonez y Aguiar, who lived on the spot within a generation of the occurrences recognizes in Maria Candelaria (whose true name Bancroft does not give) the real head of the rebellion, "quien ordenaba los ardides del motin; .... de lo que principalmente trataban las leyes fundamentales de su secta, era de que no quedase rastro alguno de que los Europeos havian pisado este suelo." His account is in his unpublished work, _Historia del Cielo y de la Tierra_, written at Guatemala about 1780. Juarros, speaking of their rites, says of them: "Apostando de la fe, profanando los vasos sagrados, y ofreciendo sacrilegos cultos a una indizuela." _Historia de la Ciudad de Guatemala_, Tom. i, p. 17.

[36-[+]] Bancroft, ubi supra, p. 705, note. One was hanged, whom Garcia Pelaez calls "una india bruja." _Memorias para la Historia de Guatemala_, Tom. ii, p. 153.

[36-[++]] Squier, ubi supra, passim.

[37-*] _Voyage a l' Isthmus de Tehuantepec_, p. 164. He adds a number of particulars of the power she was supposed to exercise.

[38-*] "Que era venerado en todo el imperio de Montezuma." See _Diccionario Universal_, Appendice, s. v. (Mexico, 1856).

[38-[+]] "Dass der Gott Tepeyollotl im Zapotekenlande und weiter suedwaerts seine Wurzeln hat, und dem eigentlichen Aztekischen Olymp fremd ist, darueber kann kein Zweifel mehr obwalten." See Dr. Seler's able discussion of the subject in the _Compte-Rendu_ of the Seventh International Congress of Americanists, p. 559, _seq._ The adoption of subterranean temples was peculiarly a Zapotecan trait. "Notandose principalmente en muchos adoratorios de los Zapotecos, estan los mas de ellos cubiertos, o en subterraneos espaciosos y lobregos." Carriedo, _Estudios Historicos_, Tom. i, p. 26.

[39-*] _Constituciones Diocesanas_, pp. 9, 10.

[39-[+]] Gage, _A New Survey of the West Indies_, pp. 389, 393.

[39-[++]] _Teatro Mexicano_, Tratado iii, cap. 11. Mr. Bandelier has called attention to the naming of one of the principal chiefs among the Aztecs, _Tlilancalqui_, "Man of the Dark House," and thinks it related to the Votan myth. _Twelfth Annual Report of the Peabody Museum_, p. 689.

[40-*] Herrera, _Historia de las Indias Occidentales_, Dec. iii, Lib. iii, cap. 14.

[40-[+]] Villa Senor, _Teatro Americano_, Lib. v, cap. 38 (Mexico, 1747). Father Cavo adds that there were signs of human sacrifices present, but of this I can find no evidence in the earlier reports. Comp. Cavo, _Los Tres Siglos de Mexico durante el Gobierno Espanal[TN-14]_, Tom. ii, p. 128.

[40-[++]] _Teatro Americano_, Lib. ii, cap. 11; Lib. iii, cap. 13.

[41-*] See Muehlenpfordt, _Mexico_, Bd. ii, pp. 200-266; Brasseur, _Hist. des Nations Civ. de la Mexique_, Vol. iv, p. 821; Herrera, _Historia de las Indias_, Dec. iii, Lib. iii, cap. 12, etc.

[41-[+]] _Diccionario Universal_, Appendice, s. v.

[41-[++]] Their names were Ta Yoapa, Father Dawn; Ta Te, Father Stone; Coanamoa, the Serpent which Seizes. _Dicc. Univ._, App., Tom. iii, p. 11.

[41-Sec.] Duran, _Historia de los Indios_, Tom. ii, p. 140. They were Tota, Our Father; Yollometli, the Heart of the Maguey (probably pulque); and Topiltzin, Our Noble One (probably Quetzalcoatl, to whom this epithet was often applied).

[41-[||]] "Fue el Demonio que les dio la supersticion del numero nueve." _Manual de Ministros_, p. 197.

[42-*] _The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico_, p. 12.

[42-[+]] Motolinia, _Ritos Antiguos, Sacrificios e Idolatrias de los Indios de la Nueva Espana_, p. 340 (in _Coleccion de Documentos ineditos para la Historia de Espana_).

[42-[++]] Thomas Coto, _Vocabulario de la lengua Cakchiquel_, MS., sub voce, _Rayo_.

[42-Sec.] Herrera, _Historia de las Indias_, Dec. IV, Lib. viii, cap. 10.

[42-[||]] _Diccionario Universal_, Appendice, ubi supra.

[42-[P]] [TN-15]'Senor de los Animales." _Codex Telleriano-Remensis_, Parte ii, Lam. iv.

[43-*] See Dr. Seler's minute description in the _Compte Rendu_ of the Eighth Session of the Congres International des Americanistes, pp. 588, 589. In one of the conjuration formulas given by de la Serna (_Manual de Ministros_, p. 212) the priest says: "Yo soy el sacerdote, el dios _Quetzalcoatl_, que se bajara al infierno, y subire a lo superior, y hasta los nueve infiernos." This writer, who was very competent in the Nahuatl, translates the name Quetzalcoatl by "culebra con cresta" (_id._, p. 171), an unusual, but perhaps a correct rendering.

[43-[+]] His words here are somewhat obscure. They are, "El baptismo de fuego, en donde las ponen los sobre nombres que llaman _yahuiltoca_, quando nacen." This may be translated, "The baptism of fire in which they confer the names which they call _yahuiltoca_." The obscurity is in the Nahuatl, as the word _toca_ may be a plural of _tocaitl_, name, as well as the verb _toca_, to throw upon. The passage is from the _Camino del Cielo_, fol. 100, verso.

[43-[++]] Sahagun, _Historia de la Nueva Espana_, Lib. iv, cap. 25.

[43-Sec.] It is mentioned as useful for this purpose by the early physicians, Francisco Ximenes, _Cuatro Libros de la Naturaleza_, p. 144; Hernandez, _Hist. Plant. Novae Hispaniae_, Tom. ii, p. 200. Capt. Bourke, in his recent article on "The Medicine Men of the Apaches" (in _Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, p. 521), suggests that the _yiahuitli_ of the Aztecs is the same as the "hoddentin," the pollen of a variety of cat-tail rush which the Apaches in a similar manner throw into the fire as an offering. Hernandez, however, describes the _yiahuitli_ as a plant with red flowers, growing on mountains and hill-sides--no species of rush, therefore. De la Serna says it is the anise plant, and that with it the natives perform the conjuration of the "yellow spirit" (conjuro de amarillo espiritado), that is, of the Fire (_Manual de Ministros_, p. 197).

[44-*] From the verb _apeua_. Vetancurt's description is in his _Teatro Mexicano_, Tom. i, pp. 462, 463 (Ed. Mexico, 1870).

[44-[+]] His frequent references to it show this. See his _Manual de Ministros_, pp. 16, 20, 22, 24, 36, 40, 66, 174, 217, etc. The word _tlecuixtliliztli_ is compounded of _tlecuilli_, the hearth or fireplace, and _ixtliluia_, to darken with smoke.

[45-*] Duran, _Historia de los Indios de la Nueva Espana_, Tom. ii, p. 240. Sahagun adds that the _octli_ was poured on the hearth at four separate points, doubtless the four cardinal points. _Historia de Nueva Espana_, Lib. i, cap. 18. De la Serna describes the same ceremony as current in his day, _Manual de Ministros_, p. 35. The invocation ran:--"Shining Rose, light-giving Rose, receive and rejoice my heart before the God."

[45-[+]] A copy of these strange "Books of Chilan Balam" is in my possession. I have described them in my _Essays of an Americanist_ (Philadelphia, 1890).

[45-[++]] See his remarks on "Apperception der Menschenzeugung als Feuerbereitung," in the _Zeitschrift fuer Voelkerpsychologie_, Bd. vi, s. 113, _seq._

[46-*] Sahagun, _Historia de Nueva Espana_, Lib. i, cap. 13. The Nahuatl text is more definite than the Spanish translation.

[46-[+]] See my _Myths of the New World_, p. 154, _seq._

[46-[++]] In the Nahuatl language the word _xihuitl_ (_xiuitl_) has four meanings: a plant, a turquoise, a year and a comet.

[46-Sec.] J. B. Carriedo, _Estudios Historicos del Estado Oaxaqueno_, Tom. i, p. 82, etc.

[47-*] Alva, _Confessionario en Lengua Mexicana_, fol. 9.

[47-[+]] Carriedo, _Estudios Historicos_, pp. 6, 7.

[47-[++]] In the _Revue[TN-16] d' Ethnographie_, Tom. iii, p. 313. Some very fine objects of this class are described by E. G. Squier, in his "Observations on the Chalchihuitl," in the _Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History_, Vol. i (New York, 1869).

[48-*] Diego Duran, _Historia de los Indios de Nueva Espana_, Tom. ii, p. 140.

[48-[+]] In Kingsborough, _Antiquities of Mexico_, Vol. ii, Pl. 180. On the cross as a form derived from a tree see the observations of W. H. Holmes, in the _Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, pp. 270, 271.

[48-[++]] "Au Mexique, le cadre croise, la croix en sautoir, comme celle de St. Andre, avec quelques variantes, representait le signe de nativite, _tonalli_, la fete, le jour natal." M. Aubin, in Boban, _Catalogue Raisonnee de la Collection Goupil_, Tom. i, p. 227. Both Gomara and Herrera may be quoted to this effect.

[49-*] See a curious story from native sources in my _Essays of an Americanist_, pp. 171, 172. It adds that this change can be prevented by casting salt upon the person.

[49-[+]] Benito Maria de Moxo, _Cartas Mejicanas_, p. 257; Landa, _Cosas de Yucatan_, p. 193.

[49-[++]] Pedro de los Rios, in his notes to the Codex Vaticanus, published in Kingsborough's great work, assigns the sign, _cohuatl_, the serpent, to "il membro virile, il maggio augurio di tutti gli altri." It is distinctly so shown on the 75th plate of the Codex. De la Serna states that in his day some of the Mexican conjurors used a wand, around which was fastened a living serpent. _Manual de Ministros_, p. 37.

[49-Sec.] There is abundant evidence of this in certain plates of the Codex Troano, and there is also alleged to be much in the Codex Mexicanus of the Palais Bourbon. Writing about the latter, M. Aubin said as far back as 1841--"le culte du lingam on du phallus n'etait pas etranger aux Mexicains, ce qu' etablissent plusieurs documents peu connus et des sculptures decouvertes depuis un petit nombre d'annees." His letter is in Boban, _Catalogue Raisonne la Collection Goupil_, Tom. ii, p. 207. On the frequent identification of the serpent symbol with the phallus in classical art, consult Dr. Anton Nagele's article, "Der Schlangen-Cultus," in the _Zeitschrift fuer Voelkerpsychologie_, Band xvii, p. 285, _seq._

[50-*] Cf. G. Tarayre, _Exploration Mineralogique des Regions Mexicaines_, p. 233 (Paris, 1869), and _Bulletin de la Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris_, Juin, 1893.

[50-[+]] _Sources de l' Histoire Primitive de Mexique_, p. 81.

[50-[++]] From _zo_, to join together. Compare my _Essays of an Americanist_, p. 417 (Philadelphia, 1890).

[50-Sec.] "El indio Mexicano es todavia idolatra." F. Pimentel, _La Situacion actual de la Raza Indigena de Mexico_, p. 197.

[51-*] The "holy souls" who are here appealed to by name are those of deceased _ah-kih_, or priests of the native cult.

[55-*] See the _Relation del Auto celebrado en Mexico, ano de 1659_ (Mexico, En la Imprenta del Santo Officio, 1659).

[55-[+]] J. B. Carriedo, _Estudios Historicos del Estado Oaxaqueno[TN-17]_, Tom. i, pp. 8, 9 (Oaxaca, 1849). About 1640 a number of Indians in the province of Acapulco were put to death for having buried enchanted ashes beneath the floor of a chapel! (Serna, _Manual de Ministros_, p. 52.)

[55-[++]] "Nagual ist in seiner correcten Form _naoal_ ein echtes Quiche-Wort, ein Substantivum instrumentale, vom Stamme _nao_, wissen, erkennen. _Naoal_ ist dasjenige, womit oder woran etwas, in diesem Falle das Schicksal des Kindes, erkannt wird, und hat mit dem mexikanischen _nahualli_ (Hexe), mit dem man es vielleicht in Verbindung bringen moechte, nichts zu schaffen." _Guatemala_, s. 238.

[57-*] The Abbe Brasseur observes: "Le mot _nahual_, qui vet dire toute science, ou science de tout, est frequemment employe pour exprimer la sorcellerie chez ces populations." _Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie_, 1857, p. 290. In another passage of his works the speculative Abbe translates _naual_ by the English "know all," and is not averse to believing that the latter is but a slight variant of the former.

[58-*] See an article by me, entitled "On the Words 'Anahuac' and 'Nahuatl,'" in the _American Antiquarian_, for November, 1893.

[58-[+]] _Manual de Ministros_, p. 50.

[58-[++]] Jesus Sanchez, _Glosario de Voces Castellanas derivadas del Idioma Nahuatl_, sub voce.

[59-*] "_Nagual_--el lugar, rincon, cajon, nambira, etc., donde guarda sus talismanes y trajes de encanta la bruja." Berendt, _La Lengua Castellana de Nicaragua_, MS.

[59-[+]] Emetorio Pineda, _Description Geografica de Chiapas y Soconusco_, p. 23 (Mexico, 1845).

[59-[++]] See his article "Wer-wolf," in his _Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche_, p. 62, _seq._

[59-Sec.] Richard Andree, _ibid._, ss. 63, 64.

[60-*] See Alfred Maury, _La Magie et l' Astrologie_, pp. 88, 89, 267, etc.

[61-*] In the _Notice Preliminaire_ to the second part of his work, _La Magie et l' Astrologie dans l' Antiquite et au Moyen Age_, Mr. Alfred Maury admirably sums up the scientific resources at our command for explaining the mystical phenomena of experience, without denying their reality as actual occurrences.

INDEX.

Native words explained, _in Italics_; names of Authors quoted, in SMALL CAPITALS.

Achiutla, 40

ACOSTA, J., 9, 34

AGUILAR, P. S., 32

_Ahau_, 35

_Ah Kih_, 26, 51

_Ah-toc_, 45

Aissaoua, the, 60

Alaghom Naom, a goddess, 56

_Alom_, deity, 50

ALVA, B. DE, 8, 46, 47

_Anahuac_, 58

ANCONA, E., 30, 31

ANDAGOYA, P. DE, 33

ANDREE,[TN-18] R., 59

Antichrist, appealed to, 28

_Apehualco_, 44

AUBIN, M., 48, 49

Ay, Antonio, 30

Aztecan language, 5, 11

Aztecs, 7

_Baal-che_, 9

BAEZA, P., 9, 25

BALBOA, P., 10

BANCROFT, H. H., 13, 32, 36

BANDELIER, A., 39

Baptism, 27, 43

Baptism by fire, 37

BARBA FIGUEROA, 29

BAUTISTA, J., 6

BERENDT, C. H., 50, 59

"Black King," the, 39

Blowing, as a rite, 19, 20

BOBAN, M., 48

"Books of Chilan Balam", 45

BOURKE, Capt., 44

BRASSEUR (de Bourbourg), 25, 28, 29, 32, 33, 37, 57

_Buk xoc_, 45

BURGOA, P., 16

CABRERA, Dr. P. F., 4

Cakchiquel language, 20, 23

Calendar, the native, 13-16, 45, 53

California, 10

Cancuc, town, 29

Candelaria, Maria, 35

Can Ek, Jacinto, 30

Carpio, Bernardo del, 55

CARRIEDO, J. B., 15, 30, 38, 46

Cave God, the, 38, 41

CAVO, P., 28, 32, 40

Ceiba tree, 47

Cerquin, province, 4, 5, 34

_Chac Mool_, 31

_Chacuaco_, 10

Chalcatongo, 40

_Chalchihuitl_, 39, 46, 47

Chalcos, 12

Chalma, place, 38

_Chanes_, 49

CHARNAY, D., 13

Chi, Andres, 31

Chi, Cecilio, 30

Chichimecs, 7, 54

_Chilan Balam_, 31, 45

Chontales, 17, 32

Chorti dialect, 5 n.

Chotas, tribe, 41

Clairvoyance, 9

_Coamizagual_, 34

_Coanamoa_, 41

Coatlan, 40

_Coaxihuitl_, 8

_Cohuacihuatl_, 34

_Cohuatl_, sign of, 49 n.

Codex cruciformis, 48

COHEN, H., 45

Copan, ruins of, 5 n.

_Copavitoos_, 30

CORDOVA, J., 14, 15

COTO, P., 23, 35, 42

Coyopy, king, 15

_Cozaana_, 38, 50

Cross, as symbol, 42, 43, 48

Cuculchan, 17, 19, 42

"Dark House," the, 38, 39

Dawn, as deity, 41

Dionysos Pyrigenes, 45

DELPINO, 26

Drum, the sacred, 31, 38

Drunkenness, god of, 44

DURAN, D., 44, 45, 48

Earth, as deity, 41, 53

"Essays of an Americanist," 4, 31, 45, 49, 50

FERGUSON, DAVID, 55

"Field mass," the, 25

Fingers, names for, 54

Fire worship, 28, 43, 45, 53, 54

Four Winds, Lord of, 43

Frog, symbol, 46

FUENSANTA DEL VALLE, 9

FUENTES Y GUZMAN, 22, 35

GAGE, THOMAS, 24, 39

GAGERN, C., 10

Galindo, Ig., 35

"Ghost dance" of Mayas, 31

Gnosis, the, 57

Goupil collection, 48

Green stones, 46

_Gspoxil_, 20

Guatemala, 24, 39

Gucumatz, king, 24, 42

Hand, as deity, 54

"Heart of the Hills", 41, 46

"Heart of the Maguey", 41

"Heart of the Towns", 38, 39, 47

HERNANDEZ, F., 7, 10, 28, 43

HERRERA, A. DE, 4, 5, 11, 16, 33, 34, 40, 42

_Hicalahau_, 21, 39

"Hoddentin", 44

HOLMES, W. H., 48

Honduras, 4, 34

Huasteca dialect, 58

Huehuetan, town, 28, 39

_Huehueteotl_, 46

_Huijatoos_, 30

_Ical ahau_, 21, 39

IGLESIAS, A., 13

Inquisition, the, 54

Intoxicants, 7, 9

Istlavacan, town, 25

Jadeite, 46

JUARROS, P., 36

Justlahuaca, 41

_Kab_, the hand, 54

KINGSBOROUGH, Lord, 48

LABARTHE, CH., 12

Lacandons, tribe, 59

LANDA, D., 49

LARA, P., 19, 20

LEON, Dr. N., 9

LEON, N. DE, 6, 43, 45

Life, ideogram of, 48

Life, tree of, 48

Lingam, the, 49

Maguey, Heart of the, 41

_Maitl_, the Hand, as deity, 54

MALER, T., 35, 47

Mallinalco, town, 34, 38

MANSO DE CONTRERAS, 32

Mappe Quinantzin[TN-19], 48

MARIA DE MOXO, B., 29, 49

MAURY, A., 60, 61

Mayan stock, 5, 16, 24

Mayas, 9, 20, 25, 45

Mayas, revolts of, 30, 31

Mexican language, 5

Michoacan, 10

Milky Way, as deity, 53

_Mixcohuatl_, 19

Mixes, tribe, 13, 17, 32, 42

Mixtecs, tribe, 15, 16

MOLINA, A., 6

Monopostiac, Cerro de, 41

MONTJAU, M., 27

MORO, Sr., 14

MOTOLINIA, P., 42

MUeHLENPFORDT, E., 13

Mushrooms, intoxicating, 28

_Na_, the root, 5, 11 n.[TN-20] 57

NAGELE, A., 49

Nagual, 4, 11, 17, 22, 58

Nagualism, 4, 16

Nagualist, 4, 17, 18

_Nahual_. See _Naualli_.

_Nahualtia_, 58

Nahuatl language, 5, 12, 14, 41, 46, 57, 58

_Nana hualtin_, 5, 6, 10

Nanahuatl, a deity, 54

_Naualac_, 13

_Naualcuauhtla_, 12

_Naualli_, 5, 10, 11, 12, 57, 58

_Nauallotl_, 5, 57

_Naualteteuctin_, 12

Navajas, Cerro de las, 49

Nayerit, Sierra de, 41

Nezahualpilli, king, 34