Chapter IX: Part 9

Males of _spinifer_ are sexually mature when the plastron is 9.0 to 10.0 centimeters in length (some when 8.0 long), whereas those of _muticus_ are sexually mature at 8.0 to 9.0 centimeters. In the mentioned size range, the smaller adult males are probably in their fourth growing season, and the larger males in their fifth. Most females of _spinifer_ are sexually mature at a plastral length of 18.0 to 20.0 centimeters and are probably in their ninth year; the smaller individuals probably are in their eighth. Females of _muticus_ are sexually mature when the plastron is 14.0 to 16.0 centimeters long. Most of these are seven years old but some are only six years old. Some large females contain immature ovaries. The near-maximum length of carapace of _spinifer_ is 18 inches, and such turtles are perhaps 60 years old; _ferox_ perhaps attains a length of two feet.

_T. ferox_ deposits eggs from late March to mid-July, whereas northern populations of _spinifer_ and _muticus_ usually deposit theirs from mid-June to mid-July. Sandy sites are preferred for nests, although movement to other sites occurs if the preferred sandy sites are submerged or otherwise rendered unusable. _T. muticus_ limits its nest sites to the open areas of sand bars and does not lay inland where it must traverse vegetated areas, as does _spinifer_. Nests of _ferox_ and _spinifer_ seem to differ from those of _muticus_ in being flask-shaped.

The seasonal reproductive potential is perhaps less in northern populations (averaging 20 eggs per clutch and only one clutch per season) than in southern populations (averaging about 10 eggs per clutch, but three clutches per season). Larger females deposit more eggs than smaller females. Eggs laid in northern latitudes are slightly smaller than those laid farther south. In any latitude the incubation period probably is at least 60 days. Hatchlings presumably leave nests at dusk, nighttime or dawn, and may winter over in eggs or nests.

Man is a great enemy of softshells. Predation on eggs probably accounts for most mortality. Physical conditions of the environment (overcrowding of nest sites, inadequate hibernation sites) and probably some kinds of parasitism contribute to mortality. Softshells are eaten locally and sometimes appear in the market of large cities, but over most of their range, there probably is no general demand and no special efforts are made to capture them. Fish, mostly minnows, comprise a small proportion of the diet. There is no evidence that softshells are active predators on any kind of fish, but their known food habits suggest that they compete with game fishes for food. Softshells are scavengers.

Fossil material was not studied in detail. The fossil softshells indicate a more widespread, former distribution. Some osteological characters and their variation in the living species are mentioned as an aid to future workers concerned with an assay of fossil remains. Fossils occur in marine, brackish and fresh-water deposits, and many are much larger than the living species; the oldest American fossils are of Upper Cretaceous age.

The interrelationships of the living species and subspecies suggest that the species _spinifer_, _ater_, and _muticus_ are derivatives of a _ferox_-like ancestor, and that they differentiated in North America; most differentiation occurs in southwestern Texas and northern México where characters of some populations indicate alliance with _ferox_. It is hypothesized that aridity in the late Tertiary effected specific differentiation by the modification and isolation of aquatic habitats. Pluvial periods in the Pleistocene provided for confluence of aquatic habitats and expansion of geographic ranges, and coupled with physiographic changes, conceivably caused or enhanced some of the subspecific variation.

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1939. Herpetological notes from Indiana. Amer. Midl. Nat.,
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1952. The reptiles of Venango County, Pennsylvania. Amer. Midl.
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1920. Philippine turtles. Philippine Jour. Sci., 16(2):111-44, 7
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1933. Observations on the courtship of turtles. Univ. Kansas Sci.
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1935. Arkansas amphibians and reptiles in the Kansas University
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1952. A herpetological survey in the vicinity of Lake Shipp, Polk
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TIHEN, J. A., and SPRAGUE, J. M.

1939. Amphibians, reptiles, and mammals of the Meade County State
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1958. The systematics and ecology of the _Sternothaerus carinatus_
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1937. Ecological observations on amphibians and reptiles collected
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_Transmitted June 8, 1961._

_Trionyx ferox_, juveniles. _Top_--UMMZ 76755 (× 1) dorsal and
ventral views; Lake Griffin, Lake County, Florida. _Bottom_--TU
13960 (× 3/4), dorsal and ventral views; Hillsborough River,
_ca._ 20 mi. NE Tampa, Hillsborough County, Florida.]

_Top_--_Trionyx ferox_, female, UMMZ 90010 (× 2/9); east edge
Okefinokee Swamp, Charlton County, Georgia. _Bottom_--Left,
_Trionyx ferox_, adult male, UMMZ 102276 (× 1/5), 14 mi. SE Punta
Gorda, Lee County, Florida; right, _Trionyx sinensis_, female, KU
39417 (× 3/10), 5 mi. ESE Seoul, Korea. All dorsal views; note
resemblance of two species in having longitudinal ridging and
marginal ridge of carapace.]

_Trionyx spinifer spinifer_, juveniles, dorsal views.
_Top_--UMMZ 74518 (× 1-2/5); Portage Lake, Washtenaw County,
Michigan.
_Bottom_--TU 16132 (× 1-1/5); Sevierville, Sevier County,
Tennessee.]

_Trionyx spinifer spinifer_, dorsal views.
_Top_--Adult male, UMMZ 54401 (× 3/7), Portage Lake,
Livingston County, Michigan.
_Bottom_--Female, UMMZ 81699 (× 2/7), Ottawa County, Michigan.]

_Trionyx spinifer hartwegi_, dorsal views.
_Top_--Juveniles; left, KU 40210 (× 9/10), 12-1/2 mi.
S, 1-1/4 mi. W Meade, Meade County, Kansas; right, KU 16531
(× 1), Smoky Hill River, 3 mi. SW Elkader, Logan County, Kansas.
_Bottom_--Adult Males; left, KU 18385 (× 2/5), Arrington,
Comanche County, Kansas; right, KU 3758 (× 3/10),
Little Salt Marsh, Stafford County, Kansas.]

_Trionyx spinifer hartwegi._
_Top_--Juveniles; left, TU 13885, dorsal view (× 3/4),
Little Vian Creek, 1 mi. E Vian, Sequoyah County, Oklahoma;
right, KU 3732, ventral view (× 5/7), Independence,
Montgomery County, Kansas.
_Bottom_--Adult female, TTC 719, dorsal view (× 2/7), 10 mi. S,
2 mi. W Gruver, Hansford County, Texas.]

_Trionyx spinifer asper_, juveniles, dorsal views.
_Top_--Left, male, KU 50839 (× 9/10), Flint River, 1-1/2 mi. S
Bainbridge, Decatur County, Georgia; right, female, TU 15661
(× 9/10), Blackwater River, 4.3 mi. NW Baker, Okaloosa County,
Florida.
_Bottom_--Left, male, TU 13623 (× 7/9), Yellow River, 3.1 mi. W
Hammond, Tangipahoa Parish, Louisiana; right, female, TU 14362
(× 4/5), Hobolochito Creek, 1 mi. N Picayune, Pearl River County,
Mississippi.]

_Trionyx spinifer asper_, dorsal views.
_Top_--Left, adult male, TU 15869 (× 1/2), Escambia River, 1.2 mi. E
Century, Escambia County, Florida; right, female, TU 14673.3
(× 1/2), Black Warrior River, 17-1/2 mi. SSW Tuscaloosa,
Tuscaloosa County, Alabama.
_Bottom_--Left, adult male, TU 17117 (× 1/4), Pearl River,
Varnado, Washington Parish, Louisiana; right, female, TU 16584
(× 1/5), locality same as TU 15869.]

_Trionyx spinifer pallidus_, new subspecies, dorsal views.
_Top_--Juveniles; left, TU 481 (× 2/3), Caddo Lake, Caddo Parish,
Louisiana; right, KU 50832 (× 9/10), mouth of Caney Creek, 4 mi.
SW Kingston, Marshall County, Oklahoma.
_Bottom_--Adult males; left, holotype, TU 484 (× 1/3), locality
same as TU 481; right, TU 1122 (× 2/9), Lacassine Refuge,
Cameron Parish, Louisiana.]

_Trionyx spinifer pallidus_, new subspecies, dorsal views.
_Top_--Females; left, TU 13213 (× 1/4), Sabine River, 8 mi. SW
Negreet, Sabine Parish, Louisiana; right, TU 13266 (× 2/9),
Sabine River, 8 mi. SW Merryville, Beauregard Parish, Louisiana.
_Bottom_--Left, adult male, SM 2889 (× 1/4), Groveton, Trinity
County, Texas; right, female, TU 14402 (× 1/5), Trinity River,
near junction with Big Creek, Liberty County, Texas.]

_Trionyx spinifer guadalupensis_, new subspecies, dorsal views.
_Top_--Juveniles; left, ANSP 16717 (× 1), no data; right, KU
50834 (× 1-1/10), Hondo Creek, 4 mi. W Bandera, Bandera County,
Texas.
_Bottom_--Adult males; left, holotype UMMZ 89926 (× 1/3), 15 mi.
NE Tilden, McMullen County, Texas; right, SM 659 (× 3/10),
Colorado River, near Austin, Travis County, Texas.]

_Trionyx spinifer guadalupensis_, new subspecies, dorsal views.
_Top_--Adult females; left, TU 16036.1 (× 1/5), Llano River,
2 mi. W Llano, Llano County, Texas; right, TU 10160 (× 1/5),
Guadalupe River, 9 mi. SE Kerrville, Kerr County, Texas.
_Bottom_--Left, female, CM 3118 (× 3/4), Black Bayou, Victoria
County, Texas; right, male, TU 14419.6 (× 5/9), San Saba River,
11 mi. NNW San Saba, San Saba County, Texas.]

_Trionyx spinifer emoryi_, dorsal views.
_Top_--Juveniles; left, UMMZ 69411 (× 3/4), Río Conchos, 9 mi.
N Linares, Nuevo León, México; right, UMMZ 69412 (× 5/6),
Río Purificación, north Ciudad Victoria, Tamaulipas, México.
_Bottom_--Adult males; left, topotype, TU 11561 (× 1/3),
Brownsville, Cameron County, Texas; right, KU 48217 (× 1/3),
Black River Village, Eddy County, New Mexico.]

_Trionyx spinifer emoryi_, dorsal views. _Top_--Left, adult male,
KU 51194 (× 2/7), Río Conchos, near Meoquí, Chihuahua, México;
right, female, KU 3119 (× 4/9), Salt River, Phoenix, Maricopa
County, Arizona.
_Bottom_--Females; left, KU 3118 (× 1/5), locality same as KU 3119;
right, TU 14453 (× 3/10), Pecos River, near junction with
Independence Creek, Terrell County, Texas.]

_Trionyx muticus muticus_, juveniles, dorsal views.
_Top_--Topotypes (× 1), Wabash River, 2 mi. S New Harmony, Posey
County, Indiana; left, INHS 7278; right, INHS 7279.
_Bottom_--Left, TU 14375 (× 3/4), Trinity River near junction with
Big Creek, Liberty County, Texas; right, KU 50845 (× 1-2/5),
4 mi. N Atwood, Hughes County, Oklahoma.]

_Trionyx muticus muticus_, dorsal views.
_Top_--Adult males; left, TU 14606 (× 3/10), White River, Cotter,
Marion County, Arkansas; right, KU 48237 (× 1/3), 8 mi. S
Hanover, Washington County, Kansas.
_Bottom_--Females (× 1/4), 2 mi. E Manhattan, in Pottawatomie
County, Kansas; left, KU 48229; right, KU 48238.]

_Trionyx muticus calvatus_, dorsal views.
_Top_--Juvenile, TU 17303 (× 1-2/5), Pearl River, Varnado,
Washington Parish, Louisiana.
_Bottom_--Left, adult male, KU 47118 (× 3/10), Pearl River within
4 mi. of Monticello, Lawrence County, Mississippi; right, adult
female, TU 17306 (× 2/9), Pearl River, 9 mi. S Monticello,
Lawrence County, Mississippi.]

FIG. 1. Habitat of _T. s. pallidus_, Little River, 6.5 mi. S
Broken Bow, McCurtain County, Oklahoma, September 7, 1953.

FIG. 2. Habitat of _T. s. emoryi_, Río Mesquites, 2 mi. W
Nadadores, Coahuila, México, July 27, 1959. Two _emoryi_ were
trapped in hoop nets set in quiet water to left of what is
believed to be a muskrat house.]

FIG. 1. General habitat of _T. s. pallidus_ and _T. m. muticus_,
Lake Texoma, in a period of low water, 2 mi. E Willis, Marshall
County, Oklahoma, February 24, 1951.

FIG. 2. Type locality of _T. ater_, Tío Candido, 16 km. S Cuatro
Ciénegas, Coahuila, México, July 30, 1959. An adult male of
_T. s. emoryi_ was also netted here.]

FIG. 1. General habitat of _T. s. asper_ and _T. m. calvatus_,
Escambia River, 2 mi. E, 1/2 mi. N Century, Escambia County,
Florida, June 1, 1954. Three nests of _calvatus_ found on
sand bar in foreground.]

FIG. 2. Nest site of _T. m. calvatus_ (excavated by investigator)
on open sand bar shown above in Fig. 1, June 1, 1954. Note
tracks of turtle in foreground leading toward and away
from disturbed area at left.

FIG. 1. Eggs of _T. m. calvatus in situ_, June 1, 1954,
approximately six inches below surface, from nest shown in
Fig. 2, Pl. 50. Note sandy substrate and seemingly irregular
arrangement of eggs.

FIG. 2. Eggs of _T. m. calvatus in situ_, June 1, 1954; nest
located at brim of incline shown in foreground of Fig. 1,
Pl. 50. Note gravelly substrate (in foreground) and
symmetrical arrangement of eggs.]

Lectotype of _Trionyx spinifer_ Lesueur, Museum d'Histoire
Naturelle, Paris, No. 8808 (× 1/5); obtained by C. A. Lesueur
from the Wabash River, New Harmony, Posey County, Indiana.
_Top_--Dorsal view. _Bottom_--Ventral view.]

Lectotype of _Trionyx muticus_ Lesueur, Museum d'Histoire
Naturelle, Paris, No. 8813 (× 1/2); obtained by C. A. Lesueur
from the Wabash River, New Harmony, Posey County, Indiana.
_Top_--Dorsal view.
_Bottom_--Ventral view.]

Skull of holotype of _Platypeltis agassizi_ Baur (= _T. s. asper_),
MCZ 37172 (× 1), Savannah River, Georgia.
_Top_--Dorsal view.
_Bottom_--Ventral view.]

28-7818

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MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

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*Vol. 2. (Complete) Mammals of Washington. By Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 1-444, 140
figures in text. April 9, 1948.