Chapter XVIII: Section X: Amendments to By-Laws (11)

Table II.--The Effect of Different Amounts of Drying and Different Methods of Sealing on the Storage Qualities of Pecan Kernels (Tests made at Auburn, beginning December, 1939.)

=========================================

Per cent
No. min. moisture
Methods of Sample in oven in dry
sealing [28] No. 225 deg.F kernels

Cold-seal (a) 1 0 8.4
Hot seal (b) 2 20 2.9
3 30 1.6
4 44 1.0
5 51 0.7
Steam-seal (c) 6 0 3.4
7 50 0.2
8 60 0.16
9 65 0.10
Vacuum-seal (d) 10 0 3.4
11 20 2.7
12 30 1.0

=========================================

=====================================================================

When canned After 12 mo. After 24 mo.
______________ _______________ _____________
Methods of Sample
sealing [28] No. Color Flavor Color Flavor Color Flavor
[26] [27] [26] [27] [26] [27]

Cold-seal (a) 1 1 Excellent 2 Medium 3 Medium
Hot seal (b) 2 1 Excellent 2 good 3 Very good
3 2 Very good, 2 Very Good, 3 Good,
slightly dry slightly dry slightly dry
4 2 Excellent, 3 Very good, 3 Very good,
slightly slightly slightly
toasted toasted toasted
5 2 Excellent, 2 Very good 2 Very good
toasted toasted toasted
Steam-seal (c) 6 1 Excellent 2 Fair 2 Fair
7 3 Excellent, 3 Very good, 3 Very good,
toasted toasted toasted
8 3 Excellent, 3 Good, 3 Good,
toasted toasted toasted
9 4 Excellent 4 Good, 5 Good,
toasted toasted toasted
Vacuum-seal (d) 10 1 Excellent 1 Very good 1 Good,
slightly
flat
11 1 Excellent 1 Very good 1 Good,
slightly
flat
12 2 Very good, 2 Very good, 2 Medium,
slightly dry slightly dry slightly
flat

=======================================================================

[Footnote 26: Color ratings: Nos. 1 to 5 represent different amounts of
discoloration.
1 = Normal bright yellow color of fresh kernels.
5 = Normal brown color of aged kernels.]

[Footnote 27: Flavor ratings: fair means scarcely edible.]

[Footnote 28: Methods of sealing: (a) sealed without heating; (b)
hot kernels immediately transferred from oven pans to dry, hot jars
and sealed; (c) air exhausted from jars with steam and sealed
immediately; (d) sealed under vacuum by method described under
"Procedures."]

Table III.--Effect of Moisture Content, Container, and Sealing on
Storage Quality of Schley Pecan Kernels--1940.

================================================================

Moisture content Flavor
________________ ________________________________

When[29] After 6 After 8 After 12 After 18
stored months months months months

Covered 6.00 7.00 Not edible Not edible Not edible
unsealed 4.43 6.85 Not edible Not edible Not edible
ice cream 3.50 6.75 Not edible Not edible Not edible
cartons 1.71 6.80 Not edible Not edible Not edible
________________________________________________________________

Covered 6.00 10.45[30] Not edible Not edible Not edible
unsealed 4.43 6.70 Rancid Not edible Not edible
glass 3.50 5.00 Fair Not edible Not edible
jars 1.71 4.50 Good Fair Not edible
________________________________________________________________

6.00 6.15 Rancid Not edible Not edible
Sealed 4.43 4.70 Fair Not edible Not edible
glass 3.50 3.30 Good Good Rancid
jars 1.71 1.85 Very good Very good Very good

================================================================

[Footnote 29: The cured pecan kernels had a moisture content of 4.43 at the time the tests were made. Samples with moisture contents below 4.43 per cent were oven dried at 200 deg.F for periods necessary to reach the respective moisture levels. Samples with moisture contents above 4.43 were treated in steam to obtain the desired amount of moisture.]

[Footnote 30: Excessive increase in moisture content resulted in heavy molding of product.]

A second series of processing and storage tests was started in December, 1940. These studies included tests of effect of moisture content, type of container, and sealing on storage qualities of Schley pecan kernels. Table III shows a portion of these tests together with the results obtained. It is pointed out that unsealed samples regained moisture and became rancid within 8 months in storage.

+Summary+

Results from the foregoing experiments show that pecan kernels can be kept for nine years by drying them to about 2 per cent moisture and storing them in sealed containers. The best results were obtained by drying the kernels in an oven for about 50 minutes at 200 deg.F. The exact length of the drying period may vary somewhat with the moisture content of the undried kernels and the quantity of kernels dried at one time. The temperature of the oven could probably be reduced without affecting the drying time by using a fan for circulating the air in the oven.

This method will preserve the fresh qualities of pecans for a much longer time and equally as well as such common methods as freezing and canning preserve fresh qualities of other foods. It is felt that the process offers a practical and effective method that might well be used in the home as well as in commercial plants for preserving shelled pecans for year-round use and/or for carrying over surpluses from a heavy crop year to supplement the light crops that usually follow.

+Literature Cited+

1. Blackmon, G. H., 1927, Pecan Growing in Florida. Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 191: 86.

2. Kirkpatrick, S. M., 1924. The Pecan. Alabama Pecan Growers' Association, Proceedings, May, 1924, P. 10.

3. The Encyclopedia Americana. Volume XXI: 461.

4. Bailey, I. H., and Bailey, E. Z., Hortus. Second Edition: 542.

5. The Encyclopedia Britannica, Volume XVI: 647.

6. Skinner, J. J.; Fowler, E. D.; and Alben, A. O.: 1928, Pecan Soils of the Gulf and Southeastern States and Maintenance of their Fertility, USDA Circular 492: 1.

7. United States Agricultural Statistics for 1941: 279.

8. Davis, P. O., 1924, Some Facts About the Pecan. Alabama Pecan Growers' Association Proceedings, May, 1924: 9.

9. Salmon, W. D., 1924, Nutritive Value of the Pecan. Alabama Pecan Growers' Association Proceedings, May, 1924: 38-40

10. Wright, R. C., 1941, Investigations on the Storage of Nuts, USDA Technical Bulletin No. 770: 1-35.

11. Medlock, O. C. 1931, Pecan Storage, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Annual Report, Volume XLII: 50-51.

12. Blackmon, G. H., 1932. Cold Storage of Pecans. Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Annual Report, 1932: 102-105.

13. Smith, C. L.; Thor, C. J. B.; and Romberg, L. D.; 1933, Effect of Storage Conditions on the Germination of Seed Pecans. Texas Pecan Growers' Association Proceedings 13: 68-71.

14. Harris, Hubert, 1937, Preservation of Pecan Kernels. Department Annual Report of the Department of Horticulture and Forestry, Alabama Experiment Station, 1937. (Unpublished).

* * * * *

President Davidson: I wonder, Professor Harris, whether those methods could be applied to other nuts in addition to pecans. Would your methods with the pecan be adaptable to other nuts or kernels?

Prof. Harris: I have not tried other nuts, but I have thought quite a bit about the black walnut, and I would like to run some experiments. It seems to me that it would be adaptable to other nuts which have constituents similar to the pecan such as black walnut, and perhaps peanuts. We intend to work some on the peanuts down there. Now, of course, in the case of the chestnut we more or less checked it out on that, because when you dry the chestnut down to low moisture content you have a hard product that is not palatable and is quite undesirable.

President Davidson: Now comes the follow-up studies on the 1946 Ohio black walnut prize winners. Mr. L. Walter Sherman has prepared something on that matter but Mr. Sterling Smith, I believe, is going to read that to us.

Follow-Up Studies on the 1946 Ohio Black Walnut Prize Winners

L. WALTER SHERMAN, Mahoning County Experiment Farm, Canfield, Ohio

In 1946 a black walnut contest was conducted in Ohio that brought out roughly 800 samples of nuts from all sections of the state. Judging on the characters of the nuts only, there were ten selected as prize winners.

Notice that I say on nut characters only. In 1950 a grand prize is to be given to the tree selected from these ten trees that has been the outstanding performer for the five year period. We want to know more about these trees. Do they produce regularly? Do the nuts fill well each year? Are the trees young or old? On what kind of soil are they located? Just what are the factors that cause them to produce such superior nuts?

In order to try to answer some of this type of questions each of the ten trees was visited in 1947 and a careful survey of each was made. This was done in August, at which time the crop prospects for 1947 could be noted. Mimeographed blanks such as the following were used to record the desired data.

Tree Name

Latitude ____________

Name of Owner ______________________ Address _____________

County _______________ State __________ State Route ______

Telephone ___________________

TREE Isolated [] ; moderately crowded [] ; dense woods []

LOCATION Types of trees in vicinity _____________________
Air drainage ___________________________________

Level [] ; Slope [] ; Direction of slope ______

TREE SIZE Circumference 4-1/2 feet from ground ___________

AND SHAPE Probable age ____ ; limb spread [] ; tall [] ; short [] ;

open-branched [] ; symmetrical [] ; irregular [] ;

SOIL Sod [] ; plowland [] ; bottom [] ; upland [] ; hillside [] ;

CONDITIONS clay [] ; alluvial [] ; loam [] ; sandy [] ; pH [] ;

Distance to subsoil ______ ; kind of subsoil ________

Humus [] ; lack of humus [] .

DRAINAGE Nearness to spring [] ; tile drain [] ; well [] ;

lake [] ; stream [] .

FERTILITY Fertilized [] ; manure [] ; commercial fertilizer [] ;

lime [] ; not fertilized [] .

PERFORMANCE CHART

Resistance to disease and insects:

Blight______; Witches' Broom______; Caterpillars______;

1947 1948 1949 1950

1947 1948 1949 1950

Bearing: G F S F

Good; Fair; Scattering; Failure.

1947 1948 1949 1950

Season: Date of leafing out

Male: Date of blossoming

Female: Date of blossoming

Date of ripening

Date of killing frost

Last in spring;
first in fall
Rate of growth

Moisture; Rainy,
dry, average

Clusters: Size 1947 1948 1949 1950
Range in number of nuts
per cluster

Production: Size of crop in proportion to size of tree

1947 1948 1949 1950

Percentage of unfilled nuts:
1947 1948 1949 1950
R*H
--------------------crop
pounds

* R = 1/2 limb spread. * H = height; lowest branch to top.

In addition to these data, photographs, both in black and white, and in color, were taken of the trees and often of the surroundings, and a map made so that the trees can be located in the future by any one wishing to do so.

For examination by any one wishing to do so, there are on the secretary's desk copies of the case histories, as written up, of the first and second prize winners, the Duke and the Burson.

A careful study of these ten trees has not revealed any single factor that can be pointed to as essential to the production of a superior walnut variety. They were found on good and on poor soils, on good and poor sites, in soils of a wide range of pH values from very acid to alkaline in reaction. Most of the trees were located in the southern part of the state at 39 deg. to 40 deg. North Latitude, but it is hard to imagine that the latitude has any specific effect on the superior qualities of the nuts.

In all cases where the trees were now standing in impoverished soils, low in humus, fertility, and in pH value, it was quite evident that the soil was probably in far better condition when the trees got their start fifty to a hundred or more years ago.

+Winter Killing 1947-1948+

In 1947 scions of six of these prize winning trees were successfully grafted into established ten year old black walnut seedling trees at the Mahoning County Experiment Farm at Canfield, Ohio, location 41 deg. north latitude. The scions grew nicely in 1947 but all were winter killed during the winter of 1947-1948 with the exception of one scion of Kuhn and one of Davidson. Two scions of Duke, two of Kuhn, one of Athens, one of Orth, seven of Jackson perished during the first winter after grafting. This severe killing of 1947-48 apparently indicates that winter injury to these varieties may be expected some years when they are planted under conditions similar to those at the Mahoning County Experiment Farm. The one scion of the Davidson variety came through in fine shape, so this would be the exception.

The winter of 1947-48 was unusual in the severity of the winter injury to the black walnut trees at the Mahoning County Experiment Farm. Two ten year old Stabler trees and a ten year old Jansen tree killed back to the ground level, and one year old growth of Cowle, Havice, Jansen, Murphy, Mohican, Ohio, Stambaugh, Twin Lakes, and Lisbon was badly damaged although not always completely killed.

+Winter Killing of Bench Grafts+

Bench grafts that were still in the hot bed and were not transplanted to nursery rows until spring of 1948 fared much better than the grafts growing in the established trees. As they had no winter protection but the side walls of the hot bed it is a little hard to see why they fared so much better.

One bench graft of the Duke, two of Burson, four of Kuhn, two of Davidson, three of Orth, two of Williamson, two of Penn, and six of Jackson all came through in good shape.

Indications certainly point to the conclusion that the prize winning varieties of the Ohio 1946 contest are adapted to the southern part of the state rather than to the northern part. The Davidson is a possible exception to this.

Mr. Smith: I asked Mr. Silvis why Mr. Sherman wasn't here, and he said he wasn't able to come because he was doing the same type of work this year, and it is very evidently the reason why he wasn't at the last meeting because he was preparing this work. Instead of coming and enjoying the convention, he stays home and does work that helps the Association, so I think the Association is very much indebted to him.

President Davidson: I think that is true.

That makes it possible for us to close in good time. I think this program is tops. I think it is by far the best program I remember.

Mr. McDaniel: Let's give Mr. Chase, the Program Chairman, a big hand.

(Applause.)

President Davidson: We will now adjourn.

(Whereupon, at 4:30 o'clock, p. m. the meeting was adjourned to reconvene for business session after the banquet.)

* * * * *

+Tuesday Evening Business Session+

President Davidson: There is a little business that remains to be done. In order to let Mr. Slate get away, we'd like to have a report of the Committee on Place of Meeting.

Mr. Slate: The committee consisting of Royal Oakes, myself and two others, conferred with each other. We have considered the matter of a meeting place for next year, and we think, and those we have talked with think, that perhaps Beltsville would be the best place. It does not seem feasible to have a meeting in the Middle West. The New York City region will probably be better for us a year later. The other good places we have visited rather recently. So we are recommending that the place of meeting be Beltsville.

Do you wish to consider the time of meeting now, or will we vote on the place?

President Davidson: Let's act on that now. First, may I have a motion?

A Member: I will move we hold our next convention at Beltsville, Maryland.

(The motion was seconded, vote taken and motion carried unanimously.)

President Davidson: Now, time of meeting.

Mr. Slate: It has been customary for us to have our meeting early in September, about Labor Day. Next Labor Day is the 5th of September. Now, we are not making any recommendations as to time, but if we follow our past custom we will probably meet about the 6th, 7th and 8th. Some of you might like to come later to avoid the Labor Day traffic, but that interferes with some of those who have teaching duties, registration, and so forth, at that time of the year. Personally, I do not think that the Labor Day traffic is insurmountable. It is rather unpleasant in certain areas, but we can make it all right, and we have made it. Perhaps I should recommend the dates the 6th, 7th and 8th, which are Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday.

President Davidson: You have heard the report. What shall you do with it?

Dr. MacDaniels: I move its adoption.

(The motion was seconded, vote taken and motion carried unanimously.)

President Davidson: Next, I should say, we would like to have a report of the nominating committee.

Mr. Weber: The Nominating Committee reports for the consideration of the members the following list of candidates:

For president, H. F. Stoke from Virginia. Vice-president, L. H. MacDaniels from New York. For secretary, J. C. McDaniel from Tennessee, and treasurer, Sterling A. Smith from Ohio.

President Davidson: You have heard the report of this committee. I should say that in this case nominations from the floor would be in order.

A Member: Mr. President, I move that nominations be closed.

(The motion was seconded, vote taken, and motion carried unanimously.)

President Davidson: That was on the motion that nominations be closed. What is your pleasure, shall we vote by ballot or shall we vote by--

A Member: Mr. President, I move that the secretary be instructed to cast a unanimous ballot for those nominated by the Nominating Committee.

Mr. Fisher: Second.

(A vote was taken on the motion, and it was carried unanimously.)

President Davidson: This gavel I should have called to your attention before. It is called to your attention at the end of our program, and so you know its story. The other one that has been used in our past meetings was sent to me by Mr. Reed. It is "An Historical Gavel, Northern Nut Growers Association." I understand from Mr. Reed that this was a piece of wood sent to Mr. Littlepage and turned by him and made into a gavel, and this little metallic name plate sunk in by Mr. Littlepage, who is one of the very early members of our association. So we have two historic gavels. Rather interesting, I think.

One other matter. The question has come up in view of the fact that the next annual report will be larger than normal and also in view of the fact that the membership dues have been raised to $3.00, whether it should not be wise and fitting to charge $3.00 for the coming 1948 report instead of the old price of $2.

Mr. McDaniel: $2.00 is the current price for the last two issues of the report to non-members. If that is allowed to continue the man who purchases a report without becoming a member will get it for one-third less than the members do.

President Davidson: What is your wish?

Mr. Weber: Mr. President, I say that they should not be given any more preference than the members, so let them pay $3.00 like the rest of us. I make it in the form of a motion.

A Member: Second.

President Davidson: Moved and seconded that the charge for the forth-coming report of this Association be made $3.00 to non-members. Of course, that report goes to all members, as you know. Are there any remarks on this motion?

Mr. Slate: Mr. President, what about the matter of supplying reports to libraries? In the past we supplied libraries at $1.00 a copy. I don't know whether Mr. McDaniel has had any special requests.

Mr. McDaniel: I haven't had any orders from libraries during the past year.

President Davidson: Shall we make a difference for libraries? What is your feeling?

Dr. MacDaniels: Mr. Chairman, if we have had a differential before I think that might be continued. I will propose a motion that libraries be allowed to purchase the proceedings for $2.00.

President Davidson: Do you make that in the form of an amendment?

Dr. MacDaniels: Yes.

Mr. Weber: I accept that amendment.

A Member: It meets the second's approval.

President Davidson: The motion is then that a charge for the forth-coming report shall be $3.00 to non-members, except that the charge shall be $2.00 to libraries and similar organizations, if that is satisfactory.

(A vote was taken on the motion, and it was carried unanimously.)

Mr. McDaniel: I have a report to read, as follows:

+Report of the Auditing Committee+

The Auditing Committee has examined the records of our treasurer, D. C. Snyder, for the fiscal year just closed and has found them correct as reported and commends him for his excellent service to our Association. [Signed] R. P. Allaman, Royal Oakes, _Auditing Committee_.

President Davidson: You have heard the report. What will you do with it?

A Member: I move that the report be accepted.

A Member: Second.

(A vote on the motion was taken, and it was carried unanimously.)

Dr. Crane: Mr. President, members of the Association: Most of the thunder that the Resolutions Committee had has been taken care of either tonight or at various meetings that we have had. These resolutions have been rather spontaneous at these meetings. However, the Resolutions Committee, for a matter of record, does make the following report:

+Report of the Resolutions Committee+

The Northern Nut Growers Association in its annual meeting assembled at Norris, Tennessee, September 13th to 15th, 1948, adopts the following resolutions:

That, our sincere thanks be extended to Mr. George F. Gant, General Manager of Tennessee Valley Authority, the members of his staff, especially to Mr. Willis G. Baker, Director of the Division of Forest Relations, Mr. Spencer Chase, Mr. Thomas G. Zarger, and others, for the courtesies extended and for making-the necessary arrangements for holding the meetings and caring for the needs of those in attendance.

That we extend thanks and appreciation to Mrs. Willis G. Baker and the other ladies of her committee who provided and served the refreshments on Sunday evening and assisted in arrangements for the banquet.

That we extend thanks to Mr. Spencer Chase and the other members of the committee for the very interesting and instructive program.

May we extend our thanks to those who presented papers and otherwise took part in the program.

We greatly appreciate the very fine work being done by our Secretary, J. C. McDaniel. _Resolutions Committee_, Stoke, Silvis, Sterling Smith, and Crane.

President Davidson: You have heard this report, and I think it is well that we have had it in the form so that it could be a part of our record. What will you do with it?

Dr. MacDaniels: Move the acceptance of the report.

Mr. McDaniel: Second.

(Vote taken on motion, carried unanimously.)

President Davidson: I have here a telegram that I should like to read to you, and this is the way it is worded: "Your generously worded telegram is greatly appreciated. I am grateful beyond all words. My greetings to everyone present tonight. C. A. Reed." We are glad to have the word from Mr. Reed.

Our business meeting is now adjourned.

(Whereupon, the program and business sessions of the Thirty-ninth Annual Meeting of the Northern Nut Growers Association were closed.)

(On September 15, the members were conducted on a tour of the nursery, arboretum, and experimental nut plantings of the Tennessee Valley Authority near Norris.)

Odds and Ends

DR. W. C. DEMING, West Hartford, Connecticut

I would like to suggest, especially to the younger members of the association, three horticultural projects that I believe promise to be of importance, and on which nobody that I know of is doing any work. Only one of these projects has to do with a nut.

1. Utterly neglected and wasted, the fruit of the horsechestnut or buckeye, "said, to have been formerly used as food or medicine for horses," still might become an abundant food for animals, and perhaps for man, if a way could be found to deprive it of its disagreeable bitter taste and reputed, probably exaggerated, poisonous quality.[31]

There is one late flowering horsechestnut, _Aesculus parviflora_, a dwarf species from the Southeast, and commonly seen in Connecticut as an ornamental on lawns, which bears a nut entirely free from bitterness, and is sometimes known as the edible horsechestnut. The possibilities in crossing this with the bitter horsechestnut tree species are evident and fascinating. [Several hybrid horsechestnuts are cultivated, but none of these apparently involves any _A. parviflora_ parentage.--Ed.]

2. In temperate zones there are, so far as I have learned, no _perennial_ legumes the seeds of which are used as food. All our immensely valuable edible leguminous seed crops are annually planted. The only exception I think of is the honeylocust, the pods of which, under favorable conditions, are sometimes used as fodder for horses and cattle. But there are thousands of leguminous plants and trees, many of them hardy. I mention the herbaceous _Baptisia australis_, several hardy perennial peas, such as _Lathyrus sylvestria_, _L. maritimus_ etc., _Caragrana_ the pea tree, and species of _Robinia_, _Cercis_; _Cymocladus_ and _Wistaria_. A collection of these, with as many more as one might wish, would be a fascinating group in which to spend hours with brush and forceps.

3. All over America thousands of "tired business men," and school boys who ought to be tending to their baseball, have to spend weekends and holidays pushing lawn-mowers. If an acceptable ground cover could be found that would have to be mowed only half as often, or one quarter as often, or maybe only once a year, or even (glory be) not at all, what a saving of time it would be for good healthy sport and non-depressing exercise.

There are many promising plants. _Pachysandra_ and _Vinca_, don't quite fill the bill but have their good points, such as growing in the shade. There is a little round-leafed plant common in Florida and, apparently, found in the north. There are many plants that could be grown experimentally in patches a yard square. Why have we so tamely limited ourselves to grasses and clover? What a chance for a man to immortalize himself by discovering variants for grasses and clover for lawns and thus become a benefactor to millions of lawn-mower slaves!

[Footnote 31: (_See letter from the American Medical Association on next page.--Ed._)]

COUNCIL ON PHARMACY AND CHEMISTRY

of the

AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION
Office of the Secretary,
535 N. Dearborn Street, Chicago 10, Illinois

January 5, 1949

Doctor W. C. Deming
31 South Highland Street
West Hartford, Connecticut

Dear Doctor Deming:

This is in reply to your inquiry of December 28, 1948, regarding the toxicity of horse chestnuts.

All six of the species of Aesculus which are native to the United States have been reported as poisonous, but specific references in the literature are infrequent. The species Aesculus hippocastanum has been studied and has been found to contain saponin, tannin, and the glycoside, esculin. Esculin is used in patent remedies in the form of ointments and pastes to protect the skin from sunburn. The saponin seems to be the toxic component.

Fruit of the horse chestnut is rich in starch and oil and is a _valuable food for livestock_. The bitter taste of the nut is removed by alcohol extraction which removes the saponin, thus rendering the nut harmless. Certain domestic animals, however, seem to be able to eat the untreated nut without suffering ill effects. [_Italics are by Dr. Deming.--Ed._]

Most of the saponins are markedly irritant to the mucous membranes. They have an acrid taste and provoke a flow of saliva, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. If injected directly into the circulation they produce hemolysis, diuresis and direct actions on the central nervous system which may be rapidly fatal. Absorption after oral administration is so poor that saponins produce only local effects. The toxicity of various saponins is ten to a thousand times higher by vein than by mouth and is generally proportional to the hemolytic action. Some saponins have a different toxicity for different species.

In experiments with rats Hindemith found that the saponin from Aesculus hippocastanum is not toxic in daily oral doses of 87.5 mg. per kg. Nonhemolytic doses injected intravenously in cats have no effect on respiration or blood pressure; hemolytic doses produce a sudden drop in pressure owing to liberation of potassium from the _erythrocytes_. The saponin increases the activity of the isolated frog heart, then stops it in systole. In frog nerve muscle preparations of this saponin reversibly interrupt stimulus transmission; recovery occurs upon washing.

For a general review of the literature you are referred to Bull. Sc. Pharmacol. 47:290 (November-December) 1940, which is available at the New York Academy of Medicine Library, 2 East 103rd Street, New York City.

Sincerely yours,

[Signed]
BERNARD E. CONLEY, R. Ph.
Administrative Assistant.

BEC:nr

The Birth of a New Walnut Cracker

B. H. THOMPSON

The home of the Thompson walnut cracker is the home of the maker, on the farm, five and a half miles northwest of Harrisonburg, in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia. I live in the upland area, 1,500 to 1,700 feet up in the hills.

A man once said he killed two birds with one stone. I went him one better in one instance. I went to the back end of the farm and picked up all the walnuts and placed them on a pile, not too far from the house. Then the squirrels came to help themselves. I got all the squirrels I wanted to eat and those that got away retreated so fast they dropped their walnut. Then I cracked what walnuts were left for cakes and candy, which we all enjoy so much.

It was while cracking these nuts with a hammer that the thought came to me: Why should there not be a faster and better way to crack nuts? Later I happened to see a walnut cracker made by a blacksmith which did a very good job of cracking, but was entirely too slow for me.

Being mechanically inclined, I have always entertained a desire to invent something worth while. I set out to perfect a cracker that would be fool-proof, easy to work, fast, simple, and strong enough to last a lifetime. This I accomplished in the Model 6. Before reaching this point, I had designed and tested five different models, made five different ways, to see which would be best. They all worked, some good, some I did not like so well. It was discouraging at times but something seemed to tell me I had the right principle.

This No. 6 walnut cracker is a success, now in its 11th season and going stronger all the time. You will find it in 37 states, from Florida to Washington State, from New Hampshire to California, from Minnesota to Texas.

Most of the crackers are sent by mail, and some of the customers mention the fact that they are members of the N.N.G.A. Others do not have trees on their premises, but collect walnuts by the roadside. One I know of has 2,000 walnut trees on his 1,200 acre farm.

Marketing of Black Walnuts in Arkansas

T. A. WINKLEMAN, Rogers, Arkansas

The Benton County Produce Company has been in the walnut business for 38 years. For the first few years we dealt only in hulled nuts, shipping carloads of them to Omaha, Chicago, several points in Nebraska, and the West Coast. About twenty years ago, as I recall, there was a large cracking plant at Kansas City and we shipped several carloads there.

Eventually we began to receive small orders for kernels. We filled them and the number of orders increased. This led us finally to the decision that we should get out of the hulled nut business and sell only kernels, and with few exceptions, that's what we have been doing for the past 25 years. During this time the production of kernels throughout the walnut region has gone up tremendously. As you know, many plants using mechanical cracking machines have become established. We have stuck to hand-operated crackers; but even so, we were able one year to turn out 13,000 pounds of kernels. At present we ship kernels to practically every state in the Union.

Millions of pounds of walnuts are available from Arkansas, Missouri and Tennessee. Here the walnut tree seems to make its best growth. It has been our experience that the better nuts come from upland trees. Those produced in the bottomlands along the larger streams lack the rich flavor typical of those coming from higher elevations. This means we get our best nuts from the Ozarks in northern Arkansas and southern Missouri. So far, few walnut trees are grown commercially. Practically all of the nuts come from wild trees. But recently there seems to be a trend toward planting grafted walnut trees and grafting native seedlings to improved varieties. The nurseries in this area now have walnut seedlings for sale and some landowners are setting out considerable acreages. It seems like a good investment. The trees grow fast, bear nuts at an early age, and eventually yield additional income in the form of logs. We believe walnut offers better prospects for commercial production than pecan, owing mainly to the value of the walnut wood for cabinet uses.

Not much has been done here with improved varieties. There are some Thomas trees in the region and they yield very well. You get about 20 pounds of kernels from 100 pounds of hulled Thomas nuts as against an average of 12 pounds from our wild native nuts. We anticipate that within three or four years the Thomas will attain commercial importance here. In my opinion, however, _Thomas kernels do not have the flavor that the wild nuts have_; the percentage of oil seems to be less. I have also been told that wood from the Thomas trees has little value in the furniture trade. Why this should be true, or whether it is true, I don't know.

Shells are a problem with us as they are with most concerns in the walnut cracking business. We sent some samples to Iowa State College for testing and got a pretty favorable report. If available in sufficient quantity, the shells apparently can be used for gas production, oils and for other purposes.

Walnut in this region has few enemies; but one, the walnut _Datana_ caterpillar, does considerable damage. We need federal or state aid in controlling this dangerous pest.

Further Notes on Nut Tree Guards for Pasture Plantings

OLIVER D. DILLER, project Supervisor, Hillculture Research, Soil Conservation Service, Wooster, Ohio

In an article entitled, "Nut Trees for Ohio Pastures," which appeared in the 37th annual report of the Northern Nut Growers Association[32], the writer called attention to the advantages of nut trees planted in fence rows and in the interior of permanent pastures and the need for a more satisfactory cattle guard to protect the trees during their period of establishment.

The writer has for several years studied various types of cattle guards and in 1946 suggested the possible use of an electric guard along permanent fence lines. This set-up worked fairly well during the first growing season, but it was found that a considerable amount of maintenance is necessary and therefore electric guards may not be practicable over a period of years.

During the summer of 1947 a prominent wire fence manufacturing company was contacted concerning the availability of a welded wire fabric which might be used as a substantial yet economical tree guard. The company made available for test purposes two 150-foot rolls 72 inches high. One roll was galvanized, 11 gauge wire, with 2 x 4 inch staves, while the other was ungalvanized 10 gauge, with 4 x 4 inch spacing between the staves. These rolls were cut into lengths of 13.7 feet, resulting in a circular guard 4.36 feet in diameter (shown in picture). The guards were installed along a permanent fence on the pasture research farm of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station at Wooster during the summer of 1947. Observations made during July, 1948, indicate that these guards have not been damaged in any way by the dairy cattle on this farm during the current season, and that the trees are being adequately protected. No guards have as yet been installed in the interior of the pasture, but it would seem that only one standard fence post would be required to support such a guard.

The wire company was not able to give the exact cost of this material to the farmer, but suggested a quotation of $3.90 per hundred square feet for the galvanized wire, 2 x 4 inch spacing, 11 gauge, as compared to $3.00 per hundred square feet for the ungalvanized wire, 4 x 4 inch spacing, 10 gauge.

Assuming that the ungalvanized wire would serve the purpose for a period of ten years, the cost would be approximately $2.50 per guard if it were attached to a line fence; If placed in the interior of a field, the cost of a standard fence post would have to be added. While this cost may appear to be rather high, it is believed that it will compare favorably with another type guard which will provide equal service. The chief advantages of this guard seem to be its apparent sturdiness and ease of installation.

[Footnote 32: Diller, O. D. "Nut Trees for Ohio Pastures," Northern Nut Growers Association, Inc., 37th Annual Report. 1946, pp. 62-64.]

A Pecan Orchard in Gloucester County, Virginia

MRS. SELINA L. HOPKINS, River's Edge Flower Farm, Nuttall, Virginia

Mr. Reed has asked me to tell you of our experience with pecans in Gloucester County, very near Chesapeake Bay, on North River, a tidewater estuary of Mobjack Bay. Our house is about 20 feet from the shore, so we call it "River's Edge," which describes it very well. The pecan trees are on the lawn, in the barnyard, and in an adjoining field.

The orchard was planted by my late husband about 1915. The trees came from at least two nurseries as there are two distinct sets of varieties. There are eight varieties from the North and eight from the South. Of the northern sorts there are Busseron, Butterick, Indiana, Kentucky, Major, Niblack, Posey, and Warrick. These came from the nursery of R. L. McCoy, Lake, Spencer County, Indiana.

The southern varieties are Delmas, Frotscher, Georgia (Georgia Giant), Hale, Schley, Stuart, Teche, and Van Deman. Hale trees have been the slowest to come into bearing, and there are several which appear to be Hale which are not yet in fruit.

+Nut Crops Scanty+

The trees near the house, both on the lawn and in the barnyard are set irregularly but those in the orchard are in rows, 65 feet each way. They are beautiful in appearance, being from 40 to 55 feet tall, and are very healthy.

However, they do not bear well. We had a pretty good crop in 1943, about 500 pounds, which we sold for 30 and 35 cents per pound. Since then we have had very few nuts, as the flowers have evidently been killed each year by frost.

Most of the nuts we have had have come from trees near the river, where the air is tempered by salt air coming in at high tide. At this writing, early August, there seems to be more nuts than at any time since 1943. There was no frost that I could detect after the trees flowered, but there are few nuts on the trees farthest from the river.

The fruit trees back in the county, on what we call "the highlands," have no fruit this year. Apparently our northern varieties of pecan do not stand the cold any better than the southern sorts. In the last few years, there have been more nuts of the southern varieties. I suppose the flowers of the northern varieties came out at a time when they were more easily frozen.

We have several trees that are evidently seedlings, as they grew up from the ground after the tops died, They usually bear well, producing sweet nuts, well-flavored but small.

We have six Persian walnuts that have had only about ten nuts in all these years. One tree has a black walnut coming up from the root on which it was grafted. It is of the same size as the Persian top. Two years ago, this tree had about 30 nuts on the Persian side and 50 on the black. It is not easily accessible and I have not been to it this year.

+Behavior of Pecans+

The Posey trees are in an east-west row about one-third the distance from the north end of the orchard. Most of the Major and Busseron trees are farther south, some as much as 200 yards. A few trees of both varieties are directly south, within 100 yards, while others are the same distance away off and some farther southwest. It is stated in a recent bulletin of the Virginia Agricultural Extension Service that Posey is needed to pollinate Busseron and Major.

Since reading the bulletin, I have been thinking of our crops in the past. I remember that trees of these two varieties farthest from the Posey, do not bear as well. Until now, I have attributed this to the fact that the soil was less fertile and the trees are smaller and less vigorous. Also the trees are farther from the frost-tempering river. I am not sure yet that this is not the reason.

We are not alone in our experience of an uncertain crop, as other pecan growers in the county tell the same tale. There are a number of large old trees in this general section of Virginia, as well as a good many seedlings. In addition, there are native, bitter, large-growing water hickory (_Carya aquatica_), which is not uncommon in lowlands. (These hybridize freely with true pecans, producing beautiful trees but astringent nuts. Ed.)

One of the largest orchards was set out a few years before ours, by the late Dr. Wm. C. Stubbs, on a farm that had been in his family for many generations. It is on York River, about 15 miles from our place. It was he who encouraged my husband to set out our orchard. Dr. Stubbs was for many years Director of the Louisiana Experiment Station near New Orleans. He spent his summers at his old home. His trees were probably the best started and cared for during his life, as he knew how to do it. I drove to see the farm recently, and talked with the present owner, who bought it in 1942. The next year, when I also had my good crop, he nearly paid for the place with proceeds from the nuts.

However, like ourselves, he has had practically no nuts since, and is so much discouraged that he plans to take out some of the trees. The varieties there are mostly Moneymaker, Schley and Success. The same varieties are also in a small orchard of another neighbor, who reports that Success does best. The trees owned at one time by Dr. Stubbs seem not to be cultivated at all, but are grazed and mowed, and the orchard is now rather a tangle of briers and weeds.

+We Grow Bulbs with Pecans+

As this is primarily a daffodil farm, and the trees have the best land, it is also used for bulb growing. The daffodils are a much surer crop with us than pecans. We sell both flowers and bulbs. The season for daffodils is in March and April which is well ahead of the pecans. The pecans do not leaf out early enough to shade the daffodils, and I can't see that they injure them in any way except in very dry years. Bulbs near the trees do just as well as those in the open field and sometimes bloom earlier.

All cultivation and fertilization that the trees get is what is accorded the bulbs. As soon as the season is ended for bulbs, we begin cultivating. We go over the bulbs about three times before the tops die back to the ground, in late May. In late July, we mow the weeds, which are high by that time. We frequently mow again later in the fall. We take up the bulbs every two or three years in June, cure them in trays in airy buildings, grade them, sell some, and replant what we need to keep up our supply. When a plot is dug, we plant it with soybeans, turn them under in late summer and replant with a winter cover crop, rye or clover usually. That crop is turned under the following late April when the rye is usually waist high. We replant again with beans which are turned under in July.

If we think the soil needs more humus, we repeat the process another year. During this rotation we apply 0-14-7 at least twice, usually with the first two plantings. The land is limed only at long intervals, as daffodils like a soil rather on the acid side. Of course, during this cultivation and planting, we plow rather close to the trees, within about four feet, and sometimes cut the roots. You may well think that this accounts for their not bearing well, but in this neighborhood there is the same story with trees that are not plowed around. I have wondered at times if they are not too near salt water, and maybe the roots go down to water, yet the trees nearest the river bear best. We have a Teche tree only about 20 feet from high tide line, and it is our surest bearer, having never missed a crop.

Our only varieties that scab to any extent are the one Georgia and the two trees of Delmas, but the man on Dr. Stubbs' place says that both varieties scab although I forgot to ask which variety was worst. (Delmas is one of worst scabbing varieties in the South.--Ed.)

Indiana Nut Shows Have Educational Value

W. B. WARD, Extension Horticulturist, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.

A few days ago I had a letter from Professor George L. Slate, of the Geneva station, requesting that I send you some information concerning our recent nut shows and a couple of pictures to be used in the current report.

I am enclosing two pictures--one showing a display of hicans, shellbark, shagbark, bitternut, mockernut hickories and in the background a few of the miscellaneous sorts, while the other picture shows mostly the black walnuts. (Latter picture printed on next page.--Ed.)

If you will note in the pictures, we have used a saw and cut the nuts in two for display purposes. This has been one means of classifying the seedlings to find out whether or not they were worthy of further propagation, although this alone was not the final classification. It was rather surprising to the number of visitors we have had at our shows to see the difference in the interior of the nut and believe me it has done a lot toward the education of the people when it comes to locating some of the better seedlings.

The purpose of the nut program in the state of Indiana was for the betterment of native nuts and we were in hopes that we could find some very promising seedlings that would be worthy of further work. With the cooperation of the Indiana Horticultural Society and the Student Horticultural Show here at the University, we have had this nut show for the past six or eight years. Sometimes it has been in competition, other times it has been mostly for display. The show served the purpose which we had in mind for thus we have located some very nice walnuts, hickory nuts and a few good seedling pecans. After the show had been visited by some six to eight thousand annually for the past several years, we have further made displays at the annual meeting of the Indiana Horticultural Society in Indianapolis, at the A.P.S. meeting at St. Louis last winter and at the Indiana State Fair in 1948, with a display going to some of the other institutions--particularly to Oklahoma and Texas--for display at their state shows. A new collection was gathered by the students and the writer this year which, in part, will be displayed at the Indiana Horticultural Society meeting on January 19, 20 and 21 and another collection is being shown at Oklahoma A. & M. at this time. The nuts will be returned and placed in cold storage to be exhibited at the State Fair next fall and we have sufficient quantities on hand for individual displays as well as for collections.

Each plate contains from 35 to 40 nuts of seedlings or named varieties and at our recent show we had 66 plates of hickory nuts and allied species. We had 41 plates of walnuts including some very fine Persian walnuts, 16 samples of filbert seedlings, 20 plates of miscellaneous and all told 141 different plates at our show which was held on November 5, 6 and 7, 1948.

Some of our best contributors have been such as Ferd Bolten, Linton, Indiana, who sent five good Persian walnuts and one excellent black walnut. Edward Smith, of Rochester, Indiana, and Henry Buit, of Lafayette, also have found some wonderful walnut seedlings. Donald Sly, Rockport, Indiana, has produced the best seedling filberts, about eight in number, and contributed a wonderful display of the McCallister hican. Mr. J. F. Wilkinson, Proprietor of the Indiana Nut Nursery, has contributed largely to the collection of seedling and named varieties of hardy northern pecan while W. A. Owen, Poseyville, and Clem Seib, Owensville, have been consistent winners in the large shellbark hickories. O. W. Thompson, Owensville, and William Seng, of Jasper, contributed some large size thin-shelled shagbark hickories to our show. James Stall, of Brownstown, is a consistent winner in butternuts.

Each year more interest is being shown in the planting of native nuts and some of our Persian walnuts are rather outstanding. Nolan Fateley, Franklin, Indiana, has a very fine seedling Persian walnut of large size which we are hoping to propagate. (A large Carpathian tree.--Ed.)

The Importance of Stock and Scion Relationship in Hickory and Walnut

CARL WESCHCKE, St. Paul, Minnesota

Twenty-five years of practical study and living with the hickories ought to suffice to make a success in growing these trees for their delicious product. However, it is only in the twenty-eighth year of such work that I have made an important discovery about the particular hickory with which I have had the most success; I refer to the variety known as the Weschcke shagbark hickory.

I began to graft such varieties as Beaver and Fairbanks (bitternut--shagbark hybrid) hickory on Wisconsin native bitternut hickory (_Carya cordiformis_) in 1920, and some grafts are doing very well at this time, 1948, but they are practically barren of fruit. Since then I have accumulated more varieties to test from many different sources, to continue the work down to the present day. During that time I noticed, but did not appreciate, the significance of the relationship of growth between scion and root system. True, I have been very cognizant of the so-called compatibility between stock and scion in the hickory family, and have written about this matter for publication several times, but I was then more concerned with the stock and scion living together in a harmonious state of existence and health without realizing that there was something else necessary to this relationship in order to promote heavy bearing.

+Experiments in Grafting Black Walnuts+

Parallel to these early experiments, I was grafting in the same family as the hickories, known as the walnut, or _Juglandaceae_ family, using wild native butternut (_Juglans cinerea_) as a stock for grafting to such varieties as the Thomas, Ohio, Stabler and Ten Eyck black walnut (_J. nigra_). Some of these trees, so grafted, exist today, being more than 25 years old, and they have never borne more than a hatful of walnuts to a tree, even when they became large trees. Most of them are entirely barren year after year. I often remarked to persons who were interested in this phase of my work, that the black walnut was non-productive on the butternut root system, but it was very evident that there was not completecompatibility because the walnut scion greatly outgrew the butternut stock causing a marked difference in their trunk diameters just below and above the union. This great difference, the butternut being so much smaller, was no doubt the cause of a shortage of food supply elaborated through the bark circumference which limited the top to a mere growth of leaves, not leaving sufficient additional supply for the growth of fruit.

My observation among the hickories, with which I did far more experimental work than with the walnuts, was beclouded by the fact that many successful, apparently compatible varieties, grew and throve on the native bitternut stock without bearing fruit, except for just a few nuts occasionally; and yet there was no apparent difference between the scion diameter and the trunk diameter, nothing like the overgrowth of the black walnut when grafted on butternut. So it took many years and a different growth phenomenon to open my eyes as to what was the trouble in getting hickories to bear on foreign root systems.