Chapter VI: Part II (1)

We will assume that our collecting for the year has come to a close; that the long evenings are beginning, and that our dried plants have been brought together from their temporary resting-places to be revised and selected from, so that they may be intercalated in their places in the herbarium, if we already possess one, or, if we are as yet quite novices, that they may form a nucleus around which the whole British flora shall be gathered in due course. First of all, we must make all necessary preparation for--

_Mounting_, the first essential to which is paper. Much of the neatness of a herbarium depends upon its uniformity, so that it is desirable to lay down a definite plan at the beginning and to act up to it consistently. Amateurs often spoil specimens which they have collected and preserved with considerable care by transferring them from one sheet to another; from books--but it is only _very_ amateur botanists who keep their plants in this way!--to loose sheets, from small paper to large, and so on; each change being attended with some slight damage to the specimen so treated. It is, I believe, the common practice on the Continent to keep the specimens loose in folded sheets of paper; but this plan is not followed in England, and although advantageous, as permitting the fullest examination of the plant, it is attended with much risk to the specimens in the way of breakage; so that we may consider it settled that we are going to fasten our plant down upon a sheet of paper. This must be rather stout, and large enough to admit the full representation of the species. The sheets used at the Kew Herbarium are 16-1/2 inches long by 10-1/3 inches wide; those employed at the British Museum are 17-1/2 inches by 11-1/4 inches; but the former will be found amply sufficient for our purpose. The next consideration is the means by which the specimens are to be secured, which are more various than might at first be supposed. Some persons sew them to the paper; others place straps over them, which are secured with small pins; but the choice practically lies between fixing the whole specimen to the paper with gum, paste, or glue, or securing it with straps of gummed paper. The former plan, which is that adopted at our great public herbaria, is certainly better for specimens which are likely to be much consulted; but the latter is in some respects more satisfactory, if somewhat tedious, as it admits the removal of the plant to another sheet if necessary, and delicate portions, such as thin petals or leaves, are not injured as they are when gummed down. At the British Museum and Kew a mixture of gum tragacanth and gum-arabic (the former dissolved in the latter), in about equal parts, is used for this purpose; but very coriaceous specimens are secured with glue at the last-named establishment, while in the former the stems and ends of branches are usually also secured with straps. When the specimen is entirely gummed down, it is a good plan to keep a few extra flowers or fruits in a small capsule attached to the sheet: these will be useful if it is required to dissect such portions, and the specimen need not be injured for such purpose.

_Poisoning._--Some persons are in the habit of employing a solution of corrosive sublimate for the purpose of washing over their plants when mounted, and so preventing the development of animal life. The solution in use at the Kew Herbarium is composed of one pound of corrosive sublimate, and the same quantity of carbolic acid to four gallons of methylated spirit; this fulfils the purpose for which it is intended very well, but is somewhat disagreeable to use. At the British Museum it is found that the presence of camphor, frequently renewed in each cabinet, is sufficient to prevent the attacks of insects. It will soon be discovered that some plants, such, for example, as the _Umbelliferæ_ and _Grossulariaceæ_, are peculiarly liable to such attacks; and these orders must be inspected from time to time, so that any insect ravages may at once be checked. Damp is to be avoided in the situation of the herbarium, as it favours the development not only of insects but of mould, and renders the specimens rotten.

The question of _labelling_ is of some importance, especially to those who value neatness and uniformity in the appearance of their herbarium. One or two sets of printed labels for this purpose have been issued, but they cannot be recommended. They give more than is necessary, e.g. the English, or, more correctly, the book-English names, the general habitats, and definite localities of rare species, and allow very insufficient space for filling in the date and place of collecting, the name of the collector, and such remarks as occasionally occur. The plan of writing all necessary information upon the sheet itself is a good one; but those who prefer a uniform series of labels will find that a form like the following is as useful as any which they can adopt, and includes all necessary information. The size here given will be adequate for almost all requirements, and is a "happy medium" between the small tickets upon which we have animadverted, and the enormous ones with which some botanists think it necessary to accompany their specimens. Care should be taken to avoid the possibility of a misplacement of labels; many serious blunders have arisen from the neglect of due precaution in this matter.

Herb. John Smith.

Ranunculus acris, L.

& R. Steveni, Reich.

Loc. Meadows near Barchester.

Date, June 30, 1874.

Coll. John Smith.

_Arrangement._--The plants, being now affixed to their respective sheets and duly labelled, are ready to be placed in covers, and rendered available for ready reference. Each genus will require a separate cover, which may well be of somewhat stouter paper than that on which the plants are mounted; the name of the genus should be written at the left-hand corner, followed by a reference to the page of the manual by which the plants are arranged, or to the number which it bears in the "London Catalogue," if that be employed in their arrangement--a purpose for which it is very suitable. Should the species be represented by more than one sheet, it is convenient to inclose each in a cover of thinner paper, which may bear the number assigned to the plant in the right-hand corner; and it is also convenient to write the name of the plant at the bottom of each sheet, and to number it also in the right-hand corner. These details may appear trivial, but they in reality affect in no small degree the readiness with which any species may be referred to. Should the plants be arranged in accordance with the "London Catalogue," a copy should be kept with the herbarium, in which the plants should be ticked off, so that it may serve as a catalogue of the species represented.

_Cabinets._--It will of course be necessary to provide some accommodation for our specimens, and for this purpose we shall find no better model than the cabinets in use in the Botanical Department of the British Museum. The accompanying figure (drawn to scale) is an exact representation of one of these. The measurements can of course be modified so as to suit the size of the herbarium sheets. Each shelf is a separate drawer, which with its contents can be taken out and replaced at will. Two cabinets such as that figured will be found amply sufficient to contain a very good British herbarium. At Kew the cabinets employed are somewhat similar, but their height is greater and the shelves are fixed.

The above are the principal points connected with the arrangement of a herbarium, considered as distinct from the work of collecting. It is possible that I may have omitted to touch upon certain details which may occur to the amateur; should such be the case, I may add that I shall be happy to supply any additional information, either by letter or by word of mouth; or to show the system adopted at the British Museum to anyone who may call upon me there for further hints upon the subject.

X.

GRASSES, ETC.

By Professor Buckman, F.G.S., etc.

Grasses form such a distinct group of plants, and their study is so often undertaken for special purposes, that a few remarks upon their collection and preservation can hardly be considered as out of place in this little manual.

Delicately as grasses are formed, yet it cannot be said that their tissues are so liable to injury, or their colours so evanescent, as those of the flowering plants which the botanist ordinarily delights in. Nor indeed are the grasses so succulent as many other herbs. In this respect they may be said to hold a place between ferns and those plants which usually are called flowers.

Again, in the dried state their organs are generally so well preserved as to present all that a botanist can wish for, for identification as well as arrangement; and the student of grasses ever finds his collection to contain beauties not only in point of rarity, but as regards delicacy of structure and grace of outline.

Viewing them in this light alone, we have often been astonished that so many students of plants pay so little attention to them, and this feeling is enhanced when the great value of the grasses is considered.

If then a few simple directions for preserving these plants shall have the effect of winning a convert to these views, we shall be delighted; and to this end we shall make our descriptions as plain as our process has ever been easy and simple, and yet complete.

In collecting grasses, as in other tribes of plants, it will be necessary that our specimens should be chosen with the view to exhibit every feature of interest. With this aim, then, it will be best in the general way to obtain as much of the plant as possible, so that it may be necessary to get them up by the roots. Still, in many species the root is not of much importance: but there are a few which possess rhizomata, or underground stems; such as the _Triticum repens_, _Poa pratensis_, _P. compressa_, _Holcus mollis_, _Agrostis stolonifera_, and others. These should always exhibit these parts; and as such examples are usually agrarian, it is easier to mark down desirable specimens and seek a fork at the neighbouring farm-buildings wherewith to completely get them out, than to carry any substitute in a smaller and less perfect implement.

Haying made these remarks, we will suppose that we are now about to sally forth in search of grasses; in which case we make the following preparations.

As we do not file our copy of the 'Times' we make use of it as collecting-paper as follows:--Each side of the paper is cut in two, or, as a Cockney would say, "in half." Each half is then folded into a double collecting-sheet, and as many of these are taken as are likely to be useful. In each of these papers is put a small slip of writing-paper, on which to note the locality and any other noteworthy fact connected with a specimen when put in the paper. These papers, separately folded, are placed with the open ends inwards in a convenient portfolio, and the collector is ready to take the field.

Of course there will be those who will advocate Bentall's drying-paper, blotting-paper, and so on, and we would not have it supposed that we despise these luxuries; but as we have found the plan advocated always to answer the purpose for grasses, we have felt independent of the more refined collecting-papers.

Now let us suppose that we have gathered fifty specimens, and have returned home. The next thing will be to put them as soon as may be in a position for drying.

Our drying apparatus then consists of half-a-dozen smoothly planed deal boards, and for our first collection we take two of these, and upon one we lay some few folds of our old 'Times' then a specimen in their papers (having previously improved their arrangement, when necessary), and then some more folds of paper, and proceed as before, until all the specimens have been placed; then put a board on the top sheet, and upon that a stone, or a 7 or 14 lb. weight, according to the size and quantity of the specimens. If another day's collection of specimens be made before the foregoing are dry, they may be arranged in the same way on the top board, and another board used and the weight replaced. The object of this is to keep partially dried from fresh specimens, the putting together of which is a fertile source of mildew and decay.

In arranging our specimens for the herbarium, we procure sheets of cartridge paper 18 inches long by 11 inches wide, using a folded sheet for each species.

In these papers the specimens are fastened down in the following manner:

Gum over a portion of the cartridge paper (so as to have the same colour) with two consecutive coats of a clean solution of gum-arabic.

This can be cut into slips of any length and breadth, making them as narrow as possible for the sake of neatness, and when the specimen is placed in its paper, a few of these slips may be made to confine it in the desired position. Each example is then to be labelled at the bottom of the sheet, and each label should set forth--_a_, Its botanical name; _b_, its trivial or local name; _c_, the locality whence it was obtained; _d_, the date when gathered; added to which, if presented, the donor's name.[H]

[H] Printed herbarium labels may be got at Messrs. Hardwicke and Bogue's, the publishers.

The sheets so prepared may be arranged in groups or genera, each being folded in convenient paper or cloth wrappers, and the whole arranged in volumes of stiff covered portfolio.

This, then, is all that seems to us necessary in the collection and preservation of grasses; but we would recommend the student, if an artist, to make a typical specimen of each sit for its portrait. In this way we have made drawings of all the species and varieties that have come in our way.

Our drawings are life-size, usually lined in with Indian ink with a fine "lithographic pen." These we partially colour on the spot.

The anatomical details are much enlarged and always fully coloured. To this end our _impedimenta_ for a day among the grasses consist of, besides the collecting portfolio, a sketching block, large octavo size, and a small box of soft colours. Armed with these we have made many a drawing of a grass under the shade of a tree, or in the parlour of some contiguous inn.

Lastly, we would venture to remark, if, besides the interest which grasses should have for the student of botany, these plants be viewed, as they have ever been by us, as indicators of the nature of soil and the value and capabilities of the land on which they grow, the collector should not fail to make notes connected with the soil, situation, and other practical facts connected with the habitats of Grasses.

XI.

MOSSES.

By Dr. Braithwaite, F.L.S., etc.

In making a collection of the vegetable productions of a country we find considerable differences in the structure of the various groups of plants, and in the tissues of which they are composed; and hence special manipulation is requisite in dealing with certain orders. Some are of so succulent a nature, or have a framework so easily disintegrated, that they contain within themselves the elements of destruction, and present the greatest difficulty in satisfactory preservation, while others are so slightly acted on by external agents, that little trouble is required to prepare specimens of permanent beauty.

The Ferns and Lycopods, being generally appropriated by the collector of flowering plants, will be treated on with the latter, and following these come the Mosses, to which we will now direct attention, taking the alliance in its broadest sense, as including the three groups of Frondose Mosses, Bog Mosses, and Liver Mosses, or Hepaticæ, all of which are readily collected and preserved, and yield an endless fund of instructive entertainment to the microscopist. But it may be asked, Where is the game to be found? Where are the pleasant hunting-grounds in which they most do congregate? We answer, everywhere may some species or other be met with; yet, though many are cosmopolitan, the majority have their special habitats, and some their special seasons, both being considerably influenced by the presence of moisture.

_Collecting._--The bryologist has one advantage over the phænogamous botanist, for it is not imperative that mosses should be laid out and pressed immediately; and hence less care is required in collecting them, than is bestowed on flowering plants; the necessary apparatus is confined to a pocket-knife, to remove specimens from stones or trees, a stock of stout waste paper, and a vasculum, or, better still, a strong bag, in which to carry the packets. When collecting the plants, it is well to remove any superfluous earth or stones, or to squeeze out the water from those found in bogs; and then each is to be wrapped separately in paper, and the locality marked outside; or the more minute species may, for greater safety, be placed in chip boxes. On reaching home, if we do not prepare the specimens at once, we must not leave the parcels packed together in their receptacle, or mould will soon attack them and spoil the whole; but we must spread them out on the floor until quite dry, and then reserve them to a convenient opportunity to lay out; as in the dry state they may be kept for years unchanged.

It often happens that our line of study is developed by some fortuitous circumstance. A neglected flowerpot in the corner of the garden attracts attention by its verdant carpet of moss, or, peeping over the wall, we see the crevices between the bricks bristling with capsules of _Tortula muralis_, the red twisted peristome freshly brought to view by the falling away of the lid, and, taking a bit indoors to submit to the microscope, we are so captivated therewith that we then and there determine to become a bryologist. Nor is this all that a journey round the garden will disclose: the neglected paths yield other species not less worthy of examination, and old apple-trees are not unfrequently tenanted by mosses.

Extending our walks to the commons, lanes, and woods, we may find on the ground and banks, in bogs and on the stumps and trunks of trees, a number of species greatly extending our list; while others again are only met with on the clay soil of stubble-fields, as various species of _Pottia_ and _Ephemerum_: appearing in October, their delicate texture is developed by the constant moisture of winter, and with it also they vanish, to appear no more until the succeeding season. Travelling yet farther away, we find that each locality we visit yields some novelty: old walls and rocks of sandstone or slate, limestone districts, and, above all, a mountainous country, are rich in species we seek in vain elsewhere. Here peat bogs, and rocks dripping with water, ever supplied by the atmosphere, or the tumbling streams everywhere met with, are the chosen homes of these little plants, and thither must the collector resort, if he would reap his richest harvest. Winter and spring in the lowlands, and a later period in the elevated districts, will be found most productive of fruiting plants.

_Preparation of Specimens._--So rapidly does the cellular texture of the mosses transmit fluid, that, when soaked in water, we see them swell up and expand their little leaves, and in a short time look as fresh as when growing; hence a basin of water, a towel, and drying-paper are all we require to prepare our specimens for the herbarium. If the tufts are large, we must separate them into patches sufficiently thin to lie flat, and by repeated washing, get rid of adherent earth, mud, or gravel. This is conveniently accomplished by holding the tuft in the palm of the hand, under a tap, and allowing a stream of water to pass through it; then by pressure in the folding towel we remove superfluous moisture and immediately transfer to paper, arranging the plants as we wish them to lie permanently, and placing with each a ticket bearing the name: a moderate weight is sufficient to dry them, as with great pressure the capsules split, and thus the value of the specimen is decreased. It not unfrequently happens that two or three species grow intermixed: these must be carefully separated at the time of soaking, and any capsules required to show the peristome must also be removed before the plants are submitted to pressure.

_Examination of Specimens._--We have very much to learn about a moss before we can become masters of all the characters that pertain to it as a specific individual. We must observe its branching, the mode of attachment of the leaves to the stem, and their direction; the form and structure of a separate leaf, the position of the male flowers, and, lastly, the position and structure of the fruit. For the efficient determination of these we require a microscope (the simple dissecting microscope is amply sufficient), a couple of sharp-edged, triangular needles fixed in handles, and a few glass slides and covers. Having soaked our specimen in water, we lay it on a slide, and by cutting through the stem with one of the needles, close to the attachment of a leaf, we can readily remove the leaf entire, and two or three may be transferred to another slide, and placed in a drop of water under a cover: the same thing may be roughly accomplished by scraping the stem backwards with one of the needles; but in this way the leaves are often torn.

_a._ Leaf and its areolation. _b._ Capsule. _c._ Calyptra. _d._ Lid. _e._ Male flower. _f._ Antheridia and paraphyses.]

By examination of a leaf we notice its form, the condition of its margin, whether entire or serrated or bordered; the presence and extent of the nerve; and lastly, and most important of all, the form and condition of its component cells; and for this a higher power is required. With a 2/3-inch object-glass and C eyepiece we can observe their form, and whether their walls are thickened so as to render them dot-like; their contents, whether chlorophyllose or hyaline; and their surface, whether smooth or covered with papillæ; for often these points are so characteristic, that by them alone we can at once refer a barren specimen to its proper family or genus.

_Preservation of Specimens._--This may be discussed under two heads: 1st, as microscopic objects; 2nd, for the herbarium.

1. The parts required for microscopic examination are the capsules and peristome, entire specimens of the smaller species, and detached leaves. The capsules having to be viewed by condensed light, must be mounted dry as opaque objects; and for this purpose I use Piper's wooden slides, with revolving bone cover; and in one of these we may fix a capsule with the lid still attached, another laid on its side, but showing the peristome, and a third with the mouth of the capsule looking upward, a position very useful for the species of _Orthotrichum_, as we are thus enabled to see the inner peristome; and with them also may be placed the calyptra: should the cost of these be an object, a cheaper substitute may be found in shallow pill-boxes, blackened on the inside.

To preserve the leaves in an expanded state we may employ the fluid media used for vegetable tissues, or, when time is of consequence, Rimmington's glycerine jelly is a convenient material in which to mount them, a ring of dammar cement being first placed on the slide, and within this the liquefied jelly, to which the expanded specimen is quickly transferred, and the cover securely sealed by gold size. Preparations of this kind are of the highest value as types for comparison with actual specimens we may have for determination.

_a._ Male plant. 1. Leaf and its areolation. 2. Capsule. 3. Calyptra 4. Two teeth of the peristome.]

2. In mounting specimens for the herbarium we must be guided by the limits which we have fixed on for the extent of the same; and I may first describe the method adopted for my own collection. Every species has a separate leaf of cartridge-paper measuring 14-1/2 × 10-1/2 inches, and on this the specimens are fixed, each mounted by a little gum on a piece of toned paper; thus 4 or 6 to 12 specimens, according to size, are attached to each leaf,--varieties have one or more additional leaves; and to each is also fixed a triangular envelope, inclosing loose capsules and leaves for ready transfer to the microscope, and also a label indicating the name, habitat, and date of collection. A pink cover for each genus includes the species, and a stout millboard cover embraces the genera of each family, with the name of which it is labelled outside, the whole shutting up in a cabinet.

Another form is that seen in Rabenhorst's Bryotheca Europæa, quarto volumes of 50 specimens, one occupying each leaf, and so arranged that the specimens do not come opposite to each other. Others again use loose sheets of note-paper, within each of which a single specimen is mounted; but this, from their size, is very cumbersome. Or we may take a single well-chosen typical specimen and arrange many species on a page, as is seen in the beautiful volume of Gardiner's 'British Mosses' or McIvor's 'Hepaticæ Britannicæ.' Whatever plan we adopt, our specimens, once well dried and kept in a dry place, are unchangeable, and are always looked upon with pleasure, each recalling some pleasing associations, or perchance reminding us of some long-lost friend, in companionship with whom they were collected or studied. A stock of duplicates must also be reserved, from which to supply our friends, or exchange with other collectors for desiderata in our own series: these may be kept in square cases of various sizes, cut so as to allow the edges of the top and sides to wrap over the other half folded down on the specimens.

The Hepaticæ of the family Jungermanniaceæ are treated precisely as mosses, the capsules, however, show but little diversity, and will not require separate preservation; but the elaters, or spiral threads accompanying the seeds, are elegant microscopic objects. The Marchantiaceæ must be pressed when fresh, as they do not revive with the same facility as other species, owing to their succulent nature and numerous layers of cells.

_Classification._--On this I have fully treated elsewhere ("The Moss World," 'Popular Science Review,' Oct., 1871), and it may suffice here simply to indicate the families of British mosses and their mode of arrangement. The cell-texture of the leaf takes an important place in the characters, and in accordance with this principle the Cleistocarpous or Phascoid group is broken up and distributed in various families. We have two orders; one indeed, comprising only the genus _Andreæa_, is distinguished by the capsule splitting into four valves united at apex; the other, including the bulk of the species, has in most cases a lid, which separates transversely, and usually discloses a peristome of tooth-like processes. The structure of these teeth again enables us to form three divisions. In the first they consist of a mass of confluent cells; in the second, of tongue-shaped processes, composed of agglutinated filaments; and in the third, of a double layer of cells, transversely articulated to each other, the outer layer composed of two rows of firm coloured cells, the inner of a single series of vesicular hyaline cells, on which the hygroscopic quality of the tooth depends.

Sub-Class SPHAGNINÆ.
Bog Mosses.
Fam. 1.--Sphagnaceæ.

Sub-Class BRYINÆ.
Frondose Mosses.

Order 1.--Schistocarpi.
Fam. 1.--Andreæaceæ.

Order 2.--Stegocarpi.
Div. 1.--Elasmodontes.
Fam. 2. Georgiaceæ.
Div. 2.--Nematodontes.
Fam. 3.--Buxbaumiaceæ.
Fam. 4.--Polytrichaceæ.
Div. 3.--Arthrodontes.
Subdiv. 1.--Acrocarpici.
*Distichophylla.

Fam. 5. Schistostegaceæ. | Fam. 6. Fissidentaceæ.
**Polystichophylla.

Fam. 7. Dicranaceæ. | Fam. 12. Splachnaceæ.
" 8. Leucobryaceæ. | " 13. Funariaceæ.
" 9. Trichostomaceæ. | " 14. Bryaceæ.
" 10. Grimmiaceæ. | " 15. Mniaceæ.
" 11. Orthotrichaceæ. | " 16. Bartramiaceæ.

Subdiv. 2.--Pleurocarpici.
Fam. 17. Hookeriaceæ. | Fam. 20. Leskeaceæ.
" 18. Fontinalaceæ. | " 21. Hypnaceæ.
" 19. Neckeraceæ. |

Sub-Class HEPATICINÆ.
Liver Mosses.

Fam. 1. Jungermanniaceæ. | Fam. 3. Anthocerotaceæ.
" 2. Marchantiaceæ. | " 4. Ricciaceæ.

Among species which may be generally met with by beginners on the look-out for mosses, we may enumerate the following:

_On Walls._--Tortula muralis and revoluta, Bryum capillare and cæspiticium, Grimmia pulvinata, Weisia cirrhata.

_In Clay Fields._--Phascum acaulon, Pottia truncatula and Starkeana.

_On Waste Ground and Heaths._--Ceratodon purpureus, Funaria hygrometrica, Campylopus turfaceus, Bryum argenteum, nutans, and pallens, Pleuridium subulatum, Dicranella heteromalla and varia, Physcomitrium pyriforme, Pogonatum aloides, Polytrichum commune, piliferum, and juniperinum, Tortula unguiculata and fallax, Bartramia pomiformis, Jungermannia bicuspidata, Lepidozia reptans, Ptilidium ciliare, Frullania tamarisci.

_Shady Banks and Woods._--Catharinea undulata, Weisia viridula, Tortula subulata, Mnium hornum, Dicranum scoparium, Hypnum rutabulum, velutinum, cupressiforme, prælongum, purum, and molluscum, Plagiothecium denticulatum, Pleurozium splendens and Schreberi, Hylocomium squarrosum and triquetrum, Thuyidium tamariscinum, Fissidens bryoides, Plagiochila asplenioides, Jungermannia albicans, Lophocolea bidentata.

_In Bogs._--Sphagnum cymbifolium and acutifolium, Gymnocybe palustris, Hypnum cuspidatum, stellatum, aduncum, and fluitans, Jungermannia inflata.

_Rocks and by Streams._--Grimmia apocarpa, Tridontium pellucidum, Hypnum serpens, filicinum, commutatum, and palustre, Scapania nemorosa, Metzgeria furcata, Marchantia polymorpha, Pellia epiphylla, Fegatella conica.

_On Trees._--Ulota crispa, Orthotrichum affine and diaphanum, Cryphæa heteromalla, Homalia trichomanoides, Hypnum sericeum, Isothecium myurum, Frullania dilatata, Radula complanata, Madotheca platyphylla.

Small as this list is, it will be found to yield ample store for investigation, and if true love for the study be thereby excited, the circle of forms will be found to widen with every new locality visited. If we have contributed in any way to facilitate the pursuit, then is our object fulfilled, and we may conclude with the words of Horace:

Vive, vale! si quid novisti rectius istis,
Candidus imperti, si non, his utere mecum.

XII.

FUNGI.

By Worthington G. Smith, F.L.S.

With the fogs and rains of autumn the fungologist's harvest begins. A few fungi (large and small) appertain to the spring, and some species may be found in every month of the year; but it is not till September has well set in, or October is reached, that the glut of fungi is really upon us. Fungi may generally be met with in abundance for three months of the year; viz. from the latter half of September till the middle of December, the month of October taking pre-eminence for producing the greatest abundance of species. A season of moderate heat and rain is the most productive, for an excessive amount of either dryness or moisture appears to destroy the fecundity of the mycelium, which it must always be remembered is alive and at work (underground) the whole of the year; for, as a matter of course, this year's fungi is produced from last year's spores. These spores are set free in autumn, and at once vegetate and form masses of mycelium, from which next years crop must spring; just as the seeds of our wild annuals are self-sown at the fall of each year and first germinate at that season. It is a great mistake to suppose that Agarics and Boleti wait till the leaves fall, so that they may prey upon them; for, as a rule, the larger fungi never live upon the leaves of the same year as that in which they (the fungi) come up; fungi live upon the fallen leaves of the previous autumn. The spring and summer months will sometimes prove very productive, especially after stormy weather; but the collector must always bear in mind that fungi, like all other things, have their _seasons_. I have known the fungus harvest quite over by the end of August, and I have also known it not come in before December: it depends entirely upon a certain amount of atmospheric heat and moisture. A damp summer and stormy August will produce the crop at the beginning of September; but a dry autumn, without much rain till November, will delay the fungus crop till Christmas. Some species appear regularly _twice_ a year from the same mycelium; once after the rains of March and April, and again in October. This is the case with _Coprinus atramentarius_, which I have growing (originally from spores) in a bed of my own garden.

It is useless to go out specially to collect fungi, either during the dry hot weather of summer or the frosts of winter; it sometimes, however, happens that odd fungi may be found here and there, in out-of-the-way places, such as the sides of open cellars and sawpits, under bridges, on prostrate logs in streams, in damp outhouses, or about old water-butts, &c.; therefore I never go out without two or three old seidlitz-powder boxes, some thin paper, and a strong knife, in case any waifs and strays should fall in my way. I have sometimes found good species in a friend's dustbin or cistern, or upon the sides of the open cellar of a public-house. I once found an agaricus on the cornice of London Bridge, to secure which I had to get over the parapet, and was nearly being taken into custody as one tired of life; another time I found a colony of _Coprinus domesticus_ upon a friend's scullery wall, and a _Peziza_ upon my brother's ceiling. Moral: Fungologists' pockets should, _at all times_, contain one or two small boxes for securing stray and erratic members of the fungus family.

The equipment for a fungus foray differs with the nature of the fungi to be collected. If the plants sought for are wholly microscopic, a small vasculum, knife, pocket-lens, and package of thin paper will be found sufficient; but if Agarics, Boleti, the larger Polyporei, &c., are to be brought home, a more complete set of things will be required, which should include a very small garden-trowel or carpenter's gouge (any saddler or bootmaker will make a suitable leather case for the blades for a shilling or two), a strong knife--such as gardeners use for pruning trees, a few sheets of thin paper, a lens, pocket-compass, and some string. If truffles are desired, a rake is necessary, and the best plan is to carry the iron-toothed end separately in a leather case, and made to screw on to the end of a walking-stick; when not in use, this end can be carried in the pocket with the trowel, &c. It is requisite that the vasculum be large, with straps to carry it over the shoulders; and the collector should be provided with a set of cardboard boxes, large and small, to go inside the vasculum, and to contain the more delicate or choice spoils of the day. Leather gloves and a thin great-coat are good things for the chilly days of early winter--this coat should be provided with at least four large pockets; and, if the weather is inclement, strong boots and waterproof leggings will be found serviceable. An old felt hat and large cotton umbrella are also desirable, for it is only a piece of folly to go into the wet dripping woods with good clothes. As for the umbrella, it should be one of the Mrs. Gamp pattern, of good size, and with a (removable) ring at the end farthest from the handle, so that it may be suspended from branches of trees, &c., whilst the fungi are sorted or examined below, or a frugal luncheon is discussed (perhaps during a passing storm of rain). The string will be found useful for tying up the larger Polyporei; these are frequently of great size, and often weigh many pounds. In collecting, all Agarics should be kept separate as much as possible; for this purpose thin paper, such as is used by stationers and milliners, is indispensable; every specimen should be wrapped very lightly in a piece of thin paper before boxing, as the elasticity of the paper not only prevents breaking and bruising, but it also prevents the spores of one species being scattered over another. In carrying fungi about, or sending fresh specimens from one place to another, nothing is so good as this thin paper interspersed here and there with fronds of the common bracken. Sawdust, hay, or wool, should never, on any account, be used: such things totally destroy the plants; but with careful packing with paper and bracken-fronds, fungi may be transported for any distance, by rail or otherwise, perfectly intact and undamaged. In packing the vasculum, see that the heavier plants are at the bottom and the lighter ones at the top; for if packed otherwise any fragile species will be certainly destroyed. I have known a good collection of Agarics rendered worthless by a loose puff-ball being placed with them, which has rolled about with every movement of the collector's body, and damaged big and little species alike, when a piece of paper or a fern-frond or two, to prevent rolling, would have kept all quite safe.

It is hardly necessary to specify localities, because fungi abound everywhere. If leaf fungi are sought for, hedge-sides will produce an abundant crop; if the Agaricini and Polyporei, forests and woods must be ransacked; if the edible species are wanted, rich open pastures (with few exceptions) must be traversed: the various species of truffles must be looked for principally in leafy glades--many prefer a calcareous subsoil, but at times they may be met with even in hedge-sides, town parks, or elsewhere.

When the collection of the day is complete, no species must be allowed to remain in the collecting-cases all night; for if the boxes are not carefully opened and the contents laid out, it will probably be found in the morning that some will have dissolved into an inky fluid, others will have got into the treacle state, whilst a third lot will be overrun with mould, or the smaller ones perhaps entirely eaten up by slugs or larvæ. Few things decompose so rapidly as fungi, especially the full-grown Boleti; these, though apparently perfectly sound one day, will sometimes be a horrible mass of foetid treacle the next. I have sometimes received large parcels by rail or post when this horrible stinking matter has been dripping out, perhaps all over the carter's hands or down the postman's trousers; for _ladies_ always _will_ send Boleti in bonnet-boxes, tied with thin twine. Should any extra charge be demanded, on the ground of the insufficiently prepaid postage, or the parcels be unpaid, I invariably refuse to take them in, to the disgust of the parties bringing them. I shall not soon forget an ill-tempered postman who brought me two of these dripping treasures at the same time last autumn, with a demand for extra postage, and his look of silent disrelish as he walked off with one twine-suspended bonnet-box in each hand, the fragrant Boleti-treacle meanwhile manifesting itself upon the pavement. Even when quite fresh, the odour of some species is disgusting in the extreme; for instance, a single specimen of _Phallus impudicus_ in the collecting-box will affect a whole railway carriage with the most horrible and sickening stench; whilst the curious truffle _Melanogaster ambiguus_ is perhaps worse still, for its abominable odour is perfectly insufferable.

To dry and preserve a collection of fresh fungi is at times a very difficult task; for instance, some species are so entirely covered with a tenacious gluten that if they were at once put between drying-papers, it is certain they would never come out again with the least chance of being recognized by even the most acute fungologist; others are so deliquescent that in an hour or two they would dissolve into a watery mass, soak through all the paper, and leave a mere dirty stain between the sheets where the plant was originally placed. As a contrast, some of the Polyporei (as the young state of _Polyporus igniarius_) are so hard that nothing but a steam-hammer would have any chance of flattening them. There is considerable difficulty in ridding the plants from the larvæ with which they are often infested. A few drops of the oil of turpentine will, however, generally drive them from Agarics and other fleshy fungi; and, in regard to the woody Polyporei, a good plan is to place the plants in an oven, or on a hob for a short time, where the heat is not too powerful to destroy the plants, but still sufficiently potent to drive the larvæ from their holes. If this is not done, the collector's experience will probably be the same as mine has more than once been; viz. on opening a package (which should contain some choice dried fungus), to find only a stain, a few skins of dead maggots, and a little dirt--in fact, some of the species in my herbarium, though mostly poisoned with corrosive sublimate, get entirely devoured by rapacious and poison-proof larvæ, mites, and minute beetles.

In addition, however, to the mere drying, certain notes and particulars are required, without which the best dried specimens are worthless; and, again, for the larger fungi to be of real service, the spores of each species must be separately preserved. As regards the drying of the fleshy fungi themselves, the process to observe is as follows:--Lay all ordinary Agarics out separately in a dry place, or in a current of dry air from six to twelve, or even twenty-four hours, according to the species, so that they may part with their superfluous moisture, and thus facilitate drying. In the case of species with glutinous pilei, it will be found that the gluten will more or less set, if carefully attended to, in a dry warm place. If the larger fleshy fungi are inadvertently placed under a propagating-glass, or left on a lawn or grassy place, or kept in damp air from over-night till next morning, the chances are that they will never properly dry at all. When the superfluous moisture has evaporated they may be put gently between drying-papers, but the weight put upon them must at first be of the slightest kind; ordinary books, more or less light, will be found quite sufficient; and few, or perhaps no other plants, require such frequent changing as Agarics. An hour, or often less, suffices for the first pressure, when care must be taken to supply them with fresh and perfectly dry paper, or they will immediately mould. It is a good plan, when the plants are half dry, to take them out of the papers and put them in dry air, or in a sunny place for a short time (the length of time being determined by experience and the nature of the species), to part with more of their moisture: so, with constant attention and frequent changing of the papers, very presentable specimens may at last be obtained. These dried fungi will now be found very useful for showing the more superficial characters of the plants; but without sections, spores, and proper notes, they will be next to useless. In Agarics it is of the first importance to show the nature of the attachment of the gills to the stem: and should the stems be furnished with a volva or annulus, this must be preserved with the greatest care--young specimens, too, in different stages of growth, are often of great value. If possible, it is well to have a series of dried specimens of each species; one, as in Fig. 38, A, to display the nature of the tubes in Boletus and the gills in the Agaricini, whether they are thick or thin, crowded together or distant from each other, plain or serrated, free or annexed; another, as at B, to show the pileus, whether smooth or floccose, plain, warted, or zoned, and the nature of the margin, whether striate, bullate, or plain; a third, as at C, to show the attachment of pileus to stem in infancy; and, fourthly, a section or thin slice removed from the exact middle of the young plant from top to bottom, as at D: this will show the nature of the veil (if present), and whether universal or not; and if absent, whether the margin is at first straight, incurved, or involute. A similar section through the mature plant is also required, E and F (Fig. 39): this will give the attachment of gills to stems (a character of great importance), and the nature of the stem itself, whether solid, stuffed, or hollow. Great care and experience are required to cut a thin and perfect slice from the middle of a tender Agaric or Boletus; for there is often a sort of articulation at the point G, which causes the slice to fall in two. As for preserving fungi in fluids, I think it in all ways undesirable. It may more or less answer for single or unique specimens, or for large museums, where space is of no consequence; but for all purposes of constant reference and private study, any process of this sort is worthless. Few persons, I imagine, would care to have hundreds (or I might say thousands) of tolerably large glass bottles of fluids in their houses. It is essential that the spores should be secured, as their colour and size are very important. They may be preserved in various ways: if coloured, they are best kept on white paper, and if white, on black glazed paper, such as is supplied to photographers; or they may be at once deposited and kept on glass slides and covered, or between thin sheets of mica, such as photographers use. I prefer the spores free on paper, as they can easily be transferred to glass for examination by breathing on a corner of a glass slide and just touching it on to the dry spores; thousands will attach themselves to the glass, and, moreover, the supply from one fungus appears to be perfectly inexhaustible. To secure a good batch of spores, it is not sufficient to let the Agaric merely rest in the position shown at H (Fig. 40), for the spores will not properly fall when this plan is adopted; a far better one is to cut a small hole, about the size of the diameter of the stem of the fungus, in the centre of the paper on which the spores are to be deposited: slip the stem through the hole, carefully draw up the paper collar, and support the fungus in a small pot, glass, or dry phial (placed under a propagating-glass to keep the plant fresh) as shown in Fig. 41. If it is wished to fix the spores, let the paper be first washed with a thin solution of gum-arabic, which must be allowed to get perfectly dry; the spores may now fall upon the dry gummed paper; and after the deposition the gummed surface must be breathed upon to moisten the gum, and when it has dried for the second time the spores will be fixed, and not readily rubbed off.

It is necessary to prepare the woody specimens in a different manner. They must first be perfectly dried before the fire, or in the sun, and then a thin slice must be sawn (or cut with a powerful knife) out of the middle. This slice may be poisoned, as described hereafter, and mounted on the herbarium sheets at once. If the Polyporus is very thin, it may be mounted in company with the slice, but more than one specimen is desirable, as it is indispensable to have both surfaces handy for examination. If the specimens are very large, they are best kept in wooden boxes, and labelled according to the genera and sub-genera they contain; or they may be kept in drawers, the drawers being divided by partitions if large, and labelled outside. If boxes are used, they should all be the same depth; the height and width may be doubled or halved according to the nature of the plants: the plan will be better understood by reference to the diagram, Fig. 42. If this plan is adopted, there will be no waste space, and the boxes will stand evenly upon a sideboard or against a wall.

Before the specimens are transferred to the herbarium they may or not be poisoned, according to the wish or convenience of the collector. Some of my plants which have never been poisoned remain perfectly uninjured, whilst others, which have been treated with a strong solution of corrosive sublimate, have been devoured by larvæ, &c., introduced, I presume, since the plants were put away. A solution of corrosive sublimate in pyroligneous naphtha, carefully washed over the specimens, has been recommended; but the ordinary poison is oil of turpentine, mixed with finely-powdered sublimate, well shaken before applied. If the specimens are to be glued down, they should be mounted as shown in Figs. 38 and 39, so as to display all their characters, and fixed with poisoned gum tragacanth; but some botanists, and myself amongst the number, prefer to have the specimens _free_. For this purpose I have envelopes gummed to the herbarium sheets, and the specimens (including a small paper containing the spores) are free within the envelopes. Some mites are very fond of the spores of certain fungi, whilst they will not touch the spores of others: therefore, if the specimens are to be kept perfectly intact, gummed paper must be used, or they may be kept between little slips of mica. As to the labelling of the herbarium sheets, I shall not touch upon that, as the plan universally followed is similar to the one used for flowering plants, and described in this volume. Some sub-genera of Agaricus, however (as Tricholoma), are so numerous in species that it will be found requisite to have several wrappers for one sub-genus.

Now as to the necessary notes to be made on the sheets: the points in discriminating fungi differ considerably from those used in naming flowering plants. It is presumed the spores have been preserved by the collector. Now, if he has time, the next best thing is to measure and note them at once, in decimals of an inch and millimetre: a second and essential thing is a note as to the taste of the fungus, whether it is mild, acrid, bitter, &c. This point will be found very useful, as some species are tasteless, insipid, or extremely acrid, bitter, or poisonous: it is only necessary to taste a small piece; but as so little is really known of the qualities of fungi, unless this is done no advance will be made. I invariably taste every fungus new to me, and have notes to this effect of all the species which have passed through my hands: in some species the effect is very peculiar, sometimes (as in _Agaricus melleus_) it causes a cold sensation at the back of the ears, and swelling of the throat; at others (as in _Marasmius caulicinalis_), the taste proves to be intensely bitter; some are so fiery (as in _Lactarius turpis_, _blennius_, and _acris_), that the smallest piece placed upon the tongue resembles the contact of a red-hot poker. Often, when I have been out botanizing with young men and amateurs, when a dubious _Russula_ or _Lactarius_ has been shown me to name, I have requested the inquirer to taste it, as, if mild or pungent, the taste might at times decide the species; I have generally found, however, that though certain persons are anxious enough to acquire _names_, they will not burn their tongues to secure them. No fungi that I am acquainted with are really pleasant raw, unless it is _Hydnum gelatinosum_, though many are very good when cooked. A very important thing to note is the odour in the larger fungi: many are very pleasant, like meal; a few are sweet; some resemble stinking fish (as _Agaricus cucumis_); one, mice (as _A. incanus_); another, camphor, whilst _Marasmius foetidus_ and _impudicus_ are like putrid carrion; others are like burnt flannel, garlic, rotten beans, and almost every imaginable disagreeable thing. The habitat is of great importance: if the plant grows upon trees, the tree should be named; or if parasitic upon any other material, the matrix should be named with the place. The viscidity, dryness, or bibulosity must be given, and in the _Agaricini_, any notes that may suggest themselves as to the presence or absence of a veil, volva, or trama, and whether the gills have a habit of separating from the stem, as at J (Fig. 39), must be carefully noted.