Chapter III: The Later Researches (3)

I place within this group lithium, potassium, rubidium, fluorine, and manganese, because of their similarity in internal composition. Manganese has fourteen spikes, arranged as in the iron group, but radiating from a central globe. Potassium has nine, rubidium has sixteen, in both cases radiating from a central globe. Lithium (Plate IV, 2) and fluorine (Plate IV, 3) are the two types which dominate the group, lithium supplying the spike which is reproduced in all of them, and fluorine the "nitrogen balloon" which appears in all save lithium. It will be seen that the natural affinities are strongly marked. They are all monads and paramagnetic; lithium, potassium and rubidium are positive, while fluorine and manganese are negative. We seem thus to have a pair, corresponding with each other, as in other cases, and the interperiodic group is left interperiodic and congruous within itself.

LITHIUM (Plate IV, 2 and Plate XIX, 1) is a striking and beautiful form, with its upright cone, or spike, its eight radiating petals (_x_) at the base of the cone, and the plate-like support in the centre of which is a globe, on which the spike rests. The spike revolves swiftly on its axis, carrying the petals with it; the plate revolves equally swiftly in the opposite direction. Within the spike are two globes and a long ovoid; the spheres within the globe revolve as a cross; within the ovoid are four spheres containing atoms arranged on tetrahedra, and a central sphere with an axis of three atoms surrounded by a spinning wheel of six.

LITHIUM: Spike of 63 atoms 63
8 petals of 6 atoms 48
Central globe of 16 atoms 16
----
Total 127
----
Atomic weight 6.98
Number weight 127/18 7.05
POTASSIUM (Plate XIX, 2) consists of nine radiating lithium spikes, but has
not petals; its central globe contains one hundred and thirty-four atoms,
consisting of the "nitrogen balloon," encircled by six four-atomed spheres.

POTASSIUM: 9 bars of 63 atoms 567
Central globe 134
----
Total 701
----
Atomic weight 38.94
Number weight 701/18 38.85
(The weight, as determined by Richards [_Nature_, July 18, 1907] is
39.114.)

RUBIDIUM: (Plate XIX, 3) adds an ovoid, containing three spheres--two triplets and a sextet--to the lithium spike, of which it has sixteen, and its central globe is composed of three "balloons."

RUBIDIUM: 16 spikes of 75 atoms 1200
Central globe 330
----
Total 1530
----
Atomic weight 84.85
Number weight 1530/18 85.00
The corresponding negative group consists only of fluorine and manganese,
so far as our investigations have gone.

FLUORINE (Plate IV, 3, and Plate XVII, 1) is a most peculiar looking object like a projectile, and gives one the impression of being ready to shoot off on the smallest provocation. The eight spikes, reversed funnels, coming to a point, are probably responsible for this warlike appearance. The remainder of the body is occupied by two "balloons."

FLUORINE: 8 spikes of 15 atoms 120
2 balloons 220
----
Total 340
----
Atomic weight 18.90
Number weight 340/18 18.88
MANGANESE (Plate XVII, 2) has fourteen spikes radiating from a central
"balloon."

MANGANESE: 14 spikes of 63 atoms 882
Central balloon 110
----
Total 992
----
Atomic weight 54.57
Number weight 992/18 55.11
* * * * *

IX.

We have now to consider the breaking up of the octahedral groups, and more and more, as we proceed, do we find that the most complicated arrangements are reducible to simple elements which are already familiar.

CARBON (Plate III, 5, and XV, 1).

Carbon is the typical octahedron, and a clear understanding of this will enable us to follow easily the constitution and disintegration of the various members of these groups. Its appearance as a chemical atom is shown on Plate III, and see XV, 1. On the proto level the chemical atom breaks up into four segments, each consisting of a pair of funnels connected by a single atom; this is the proto element which appears at the end of each arm of the cross in titanium and zirconium. On the meta level the five six-atomed "cigars" show two neutral combinations, and the truncated "cigar" of five atoms is also neutral; the "leaves" yield two forms of triplet, five different types being thus yielded by each pair of funnels, exclusive of the linking atom. The hyper level has triplets, duads and units.

TITANIUM (Plate III, 6, and XV, 2, 3).

On the proto level, the cross breaks up completely, setting free the pairs of funnels with the linking atom (_a_ and _b_), as in carbon, the four bodies marked _c_, the twelve marked _d_, and the central globe marked e. The latter breaks up again, setting free its five intersecting cigar-bearing tetrahedra, which follow their usual course (see Occultum, p. 44). The eight-atomed body in the centre makes a ring of seven atoms round a central one, like that in occultum (see p. 44, diagram B), from which it only differs in having the central atom, and breaks up similarly, setting the central atom free. The ovoid _c_ sets free its four contained globes, and the ovoid _d_ sets free the three within it. Thus sixty-one proto elements are yielded by titanium. On the meta level, _c_ (titanium 3) breaks up into star-like and cruciform bodies; the component parts of these are easily followed; on the hyper level, of the four forms of triplets one behaves as in carbon, and the others are shown, _a_, _b_ and _f_; the cruciform quintet yields a triplet and a duad, _c_ and _d_; the tetrahedra yield two triplets _g_ and _h_, and two units; the septet, a triplet _k_ and a quartet _j_. On the meta level, the bodies from _d_ behave like their equivalents in sodium, each _d_ shows two quartets and a sextet, breaking up, on the hyper level, into four duads and two triads.

ZIRCONIUM (Plate XV, 2, 5).

Zirconium reproduces in its _c_ the four forms that we have already followed in the corresponding _c_ of titanium, and as these are set free on the proto level, and follow the same course on the meta and hyper levels, we need not repeat them. The central globe of zirconium _c_ sets free its nine contained bodies; eight of these are similar and are figured in the diagram; it will be observed that the central body is the truncated "cigar" of carbon; their behaviour on the meta and hyper levels is easily followed there. The central sphere is also figured; the cigar follows its usual course, and its companions unite into a sextet and an octet. The _d_ ovoid liberates five bodies, four of which we have already seen in titanium, as the crosses and sextet of sodium, and which are figured under titanium; the four quartets within the larger globe also follow a sodium model, and are given again.

SILICON (Plate XVI, 1).

In silicon, the ovoids are set free from the funnels on the proto level, and the truncated "cigar," playing the part of a leaf, is also liberated. This, and the four "cigars," which escape from their ovoids, pass along their usual course. The quintet and quartet remain together, and form a nine-atomed body on the meta level, yielding a sextet and a triplet on the hyper.

GERMANIUM (Plate XVI, 2, 4).

The central globe, with its two "cigar"-bearing tetrahedra, need not delay us; the tetrahedra are set free and follow the occultum disintegration, and the central four atoms is the sodium cross that we had in titanium. The ovoids (XVI, 4) are liberated on the proto level, and the "cigar," as usual, bursts its way through and goes along its accustomed path. The others remain linked on the meta level, and break up into two triangles and a quintet on the hyper.

TIN (Plate XVI, 3, 4).

Here we have only the spike to consider, as the funnels are the same as in germanium, and the central globe is that of titanium, omitting the eight atomed centre. The cone of the spike we have had in silver (see p. 729, May), and it is set free on the proto level. The spike, as in zinc, becomes a large sphere, with the single septet in the centre, the remaining six bodies circling round it on differing planes. They break up as shown. (Tin is Sn.)

IRON (Plate IV, I, and XVII, 3).

We have already dealt with the affinities of this peculiar group, and we shall see, in the disintegration, even more clearly, the close relationships which exist according to the classification which we here follow.

The fourteen bars of iron break asunder on the proto level, and each sets free its contents--a cone and three ovoids, which as usual, become spheres. The twenty-eight-atomed cone becomes a four-sided figure, and the ovoids show crystalline contents. They break up, on the meta level as shown in the diagram, and are all reduced to triplets and duads on the hyper level.

COBALT (Plate XVII, 4).

The ovoids in cobalt are identical with those of iron; the higher ovoids, which replace the cone of iron, show persistently the crystalline forms so noticeable throughout this group.

NICKEL (Plate XVII, 5).

The two additional atoms in a bar, which alone separate nickel from cobalt, are seen in the upper sphere of the central ovoid.

RUTHENIUM (Plate XVIII, 1).

The lower ovoids in ruthenium are identical in composition, with those of iron, cobalt and nickel and may be studied under Iron. The upper ones only differ by the addition of a triplet.

RHODIUM (Plate XVIII, 2).

Rhodium has a septet, which is to be seen in the _c_ of titanium (see _k_ in the titanium diagram) and differs only in this from its group.

PALLADIUM (Plate XVIII, 3).

In palladium this septet appears as the upper sphere in every ovoid of the upper ring.

OSMIUM (Plate XVIII, 4).

We have here no new constituents; the ovoids are set free on the proto level and the contained globes on the meta, all being of familiar forms. The cigars, as usual, break free on the proto level, and leave their ovoid with only four contained spheres, which unite into two nine-atomed bodies as in silicon (see above).

IRIDIUM (Plate XVIII, 5.)

The twenty-one-atomed cone of silver here reappears, and its proceedings may be followed under that metal (see diagram, p. 729, May). The remaining bodies call for no remark.

PLATINUM (Plate XVIII, 6).

Again the silver cone is with us. The remaining bodies are set free on the proto level, and their contained spheres on the meta.

LITHIUM (Plate IV, 2, and XIX, 1).

Here we have some new combinations, which recur persistently in its allies. The bodies _a_, in Plate XIX, 1, are at the top and bottom of the ellipse; they come to right and left of it in the proto state, and each makes a twelve-atomed body on the meta level.

The five bodies within the ellipse, three monads and two sextets, show two which we have had before: _d_, which behaves like the quintet and quartet in silicon, after their junction, and _b_, which we have had in iron. The two bodies _c_ are a variant of the square-based pyramid, one atom at the apex, and two at each of the other angles. The globe, _e_, is a new form, the four tetrahedra of the proto level making a single twelve-atomed one on the meta. The body _a_ splits up into triplets on the hyper; _b_ and _d_ follow their iron and silicon models; _c_ yields four duads and a unit; _e_ breaks into four quartets.

POTASSIUM (Plate XIX, 2).

Potassium repeats the lithium spike; the central globe shows the "nitrogen balloon," which we already know, and which is surrounded on the proto level with six tetrahedra, which are set free on the meta and behave as in cobalt. Hence we have nothing new.

RUBIDIUM (Plate XIX, 3).

Again the lithium spike, modified slightly by the introduction of an ovoid, in place of the top sphere; the forms here are somewhat unusual, and the triangles of the sextet revolve round each other on the meta level; all the triads break up on the hyper level into duads and units.

FLUORINE (Plate IV, 3, and Plate XVII, 1).

The reversed funnels of fluorine split asunder on the proto level, and are set free, the "balloons" also floating off independently. The funnels, as usual, become spheres, and on the meta level set free their contained bodies, three quartets and a triplet from each of the eight. The balloons disintegrate in the usual way.

MANGANESE (Plate XVII, 2).

Manganese offers us nothing new, being composed of "lithium spikes" and "nitrogen balloons."

* * * * *

X.

VI.--THE STAR GROUPS.

We have now reached the last of the groups as arranged on Sir William Crookes' lemniscates, that forming the "neutral" column; it is headed by helium, which is _sui generis_. The remainder are in the form of a flat star (see Plate IV, 4), with a centre formed of five intersecting and "cigar"-bearing tetrahedra, and six radiating arms. Ten of these have been observed, five pairs in which the second member differs but slightly from the first; they are: Neon, Meta-neon; Argon, Metargon; Krypton, Meta-krypton; Xenon, Meta-xenon; Kalon, Meta-kalon; the last pair and the meta forms are not yet discovered by chemists. These all show the presence of a periodic law; taking an arm of the star in each of the five pairs, we find the number of atoms to be as follows :--

40 99 224 363 489 47 106 231 370 496 It will be observed that the meta form in each case shows seven more atoms than its fellow.

HELIUM (Plate III, 5, and Plate XX, 1) shows two "cigar"-bearing tetrahedra, and two hydrogen triangles, the tetrahedra revolving round an egg-shaped central body, and the triangles spinning on their own axes while performing a similar revolution. The whole has an attractively airy appearance, as of a fairy element.

HELIUM: Two tetrahedra of 24 atoms 48
Two triangles of 9 atoms 18
Central egg 6
----
Total 72
----
Atomic weight 3.94
Number weight 72/18 4.00
NEON (Plate XX, 2 and 6) has six arms of the pattern shown in 2, radiating
from the central globe.

NEON: Six arms of 40 atoms 240
Central tetrahedra 120

----
Total 360
----
Atomic weight 19.90
Number weight 360/18 20.00
META-NEON (Plate XX, 3 and 6) differs from its comrade by the insertion of
an additional atom in each of the groups included in the second body within
its arm, and substituting a seven-atomed group for one of the triplets in
neon.

META-NEON: Six arms of 47 atoms 282 Central tetrahedra 120 ---- Total 402 ---- Atomic weight ---- Number weight 402/18 22.33 ARGON (Plate XX, 4, 6 and 7) shows within its arms the _b_ 63 which we met in nitrogen, yttrium, vanadium and niobium, but not the "balloon," which we shall find with it in krypton and its congeners.

ARGON: Six arms of 99 atoms 594
Central tetrahedra 120
----
Total 714
----
Atomic weight 39.60
Number weight 714/18 39.66
METARGON (Plate XX, 5, 6 and 7) again shows only an additional seven atoms
in each arm.

METARGON: Six arms of 106 atoms 636
Central tetrahedra 120
----
Total 756
----
Atomic weight ----
Number weight 756/18 42

KRYPTON (Plate XXI, 1 and 4, and Plate XX, 6 and 7) contains the nitrogen "balloon," elongated by its juxtaposition to _b_ 63. The central tetrahedra appear as usual.

KRYPTON: Six arms of 224 atoms 1344
Central tetrahedra 120
-----
Total 1464
-----
Atomic weight 81.20
Number weight 1464/18 81.33
META-KRYPTON differs only from krypton by the substitution of _z_ for _y_
in each arm of the star.

META-KRYPTON: Six arms of 231 atoms 1386
Central tetrahedra 120
-----
Total 1506
-----
Atomic weight -----
Number weight 1506/18 83.66
XENON (Plate XXI, 2 and 4, and Plate XX, 6 and 7) has a peculiarity shared
only by kalon, that _x_ and _y_ are asymmetrical, the centre of one having
three atoms and the centre of the other two. Is this done in order to
preserve the difference of seven from its comrade?

XENON: Six arms of 363 atoms 2178
Central tetrahedra 120
-----
Total 2298
-----
Atomic weight 127.10
Number weight 2298/18 127.66
META-XENON differs from xenon only by the substitution of two _z_'s for _x_
and _y_.

META-XENON: Six arms of 370 atoms 2220
Central tetrahedra 120
-----
Total 2340
-----
Atomic weight -----
Number weight 2340/18 130
KALON (Plate XXI, 3 and 4, and Plate XX, 6 and 7) has a curious cone,
possessing a kind of tail which we have not observed elsewhere; _x_ and _y_
show the same asymmetry as in xenon.

KALON: Six arms of 489 atoms 2934
Central tetrahedra 120
----
Total 3054
----
Atomic weight ----
Number weight 3054/18 169.66
META-KALON again substitutes two _z_'s for _x_ and _y_.

META-KALON: Six arms of 496 atoms 2976
Central tetrahedra 120
----
Total 3096
----
Atomic weight ----
Number weight 3096/18 172
Only a few atoms of kalon and meta-kalon have been found in the air of a
fair-sized room.

It does not seem worth while to break up these elements, for their component parts are so familiar. The complicated groups--_a_ 110, _b_ 63 and _c_ 120--have all been fully dealt with in preceding pages.

* * * * *

There remains now only radium, of the elements which we have, so far, examined, and that will be now described and will bring to an end this series of observations. A piece of close and detailed work of this kind, although necessarily imperfect, will have its value in the future, when science along its own lines shall have confirmed these researches.

It will have been observed that our weights, obtained by counting, are almost invariably slightly in excess of the orthodox ones: it is interesting that in the latest report of the International Commission (November 13, 1907), printed in the _Proceedings of the Chemical Society of London_, Vol. XXIV, No. 33, and issued on January 25, 1908, the weight of hydrogen is now taken at 1.008 instead of at 1. This would slightly raise all the orthodox weights; thus aluminium rises from 26.91 to 27.1, antimony from 119.34 to 120.2, and so on.

* * * * *

XI.

RADIUM.

Radium has the form of a tetrahedron, and it is in the tetrahedral groups (see article IV) that we shall find its nearest congeners; calcium, strontium, chromium, molybdenum resemble it most closely in general internal arrangements, with additions from zinc and cadmium. Radium has a complex central sphere (Plate XXII), extraordinarily vivid and living; the whirling motion is so rapid that continued accurate observation is very difficult; the sphere is more closely compacted than the centre-piece in other elements, and is much larger in proportion to the funnels and spikes than is the case with the elements above named; reference to Plate VIII will show that in these the funnels are much larger than the centres, whereas in radium the diameter of the sphere and the length of the funnel or spike are about equal. Its heart consists of a globe containing seven atoms, which assume on the proto level the prismatic form shown in cadmium, magnesium and selenium. This globe is the centre of two crosses, the arms of which show respectively three-atomed and two-atomed groups. Round this sphere are arranged, as on radii, twenty-four segments, each containing five bodies--four quintets and a septet--and six loose atoms, which float horizontally across the mouth of the segment; the whole sphere has thus a kind of surface of atoms. On the proto level these six atoms in each segment gather together and form a "cigar." In the rush of the streams presently to be described one of these atoms is occasionally torn away, but is generally, if not always, replaced by the capture of another which is flung into the vacated space.

Each of the four funnels opens, as usual, on one face of the tetrahedron, and they resemble the funnels of strontium and molybdenum but contain three pillars instead of four (Plate XXIII). They stand within the funnel as though at the angles of a triangle, not side by side. The contained bodies, though numerous, contain forms which are all familiar.

The spikes alternate with the funnels, and point to the angles of the tetrahedron as in zinc and cadmium; each spike contains three "lithium spikes" (see Plate XIX) with a ten-atomed cone or cap at the top, floating above the three (Plate XXIV). The "petals" or "cigars" of lithium exist in the central globe in the floating atoms, and the four-atomed groups which form the lithium "plate" may be seen in the funnels, so that the whole of lithium appears in radium.

So much for its composition. But a very peculiar result, so far unobserved elsewhere, arises from the extraordinarily rapid whirling of the central sphere. A kind of vortex is formed, and there is a constant and powerful indraught through the funnels. By this, particles are drawn in from without, and these are swept round with the sphere, their temperature becoming much raised, and they are then violently shot out through the spikes. It is these jets which occasionally sweep away an atom from the surface of the sphere. These "particles" may be atoms, or they may be bodies from any of the etheric levels; in some cases these bodies break up and form new combinations. In fact lithium seems like a kind of vortex of creative activity, drawing in, breaking up, recombining, shooting forth--a most extraordinary element.

RADIUM: 4 funnels of 618 atoms 2472
4 spikes of 199 atoms 796
Central sphere 819
----
Total 4087
----
Atomic weight ----
Number weight 4087/18 227.05

* * * * *