Chapter I: Pagan Poetry

1. EPIC OR HEROIC GROUP

WIDSITH

[Critical edition: R. W. Chambers, _Widsith: a Study in Old English Heroic Legend_. Cambridge, 1912.

Date: Probably late sixth or early seventh century.

Alliterative translation: Gummere, _Oldest English Epic_ (1910), p. 191.

"Widsith--'Farway'--the ideal wandering minstrel, tells of all the tribes among whom he has sojourned, of all the chieftains he has known. The first English students of the poem regarded it as autobiographical, as the actual record of his wanderings written by a _scop_; and were inclined to dismiss as interpolations passages mentioning princes whom it was chronologically impossible for a man who had met Ermanric to have known. This view was reduced to an absurdity by Haigh.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

"The more we study the growth of German heroic tradition, the more clear does it become that _Widsith_ and _Deor_ reflect that tradition. They are not the actual outpourings of actual poets at the court of Ermanric or the Heodenings. What the poems sung in the court of Ermanric were like we shall never know: but we can safely say that they were unlike _Widsith_.... The Traveller's tale is a fantasy of some man, keenly interested in the old stories, who depicts an ideal wandering singer, and makes him move hither and thither among the tribes and the heroes whose stories he loves. In the names of its chiefs, in the names of its tribes, and above all in its spirit, _Widsith_ reflects the heroic age of the migrations, an age which had hardly begun in the days of Ermanric."--Chambers, p. 4.

Lines 75, 82-84 are almost certainly interpolated. With these rejected "the poem leaves upon us," says Chambers, "a very definite impression. It is a catalogue of the tribes and heroes of Germany, and many of these heroes, though they may have been half legendary already to the writer of the poem, are historic characters who can be dated with accuracy."]

Note.--In the footnotes, no attempt is made to discuss peoples or persons mentioned in this poem unless they are definitely known and are of importance for an understanding of the meaning of the lines.

Widsith now spoke, his word-hoard unlocked,
He who traveled the widest among tribes of men,
Farthest among folk: on the floor he received
The rarest of gifts. From the race of the Myrgings
5 His ancestors sprang. With Ealhhild the gracious,
The fair framer of peace, for the first time
He sought the home of the Hraeda king,
From the Angles in the East --of Eormanric,
Fell and faithless. Freely he spoke forth:
10 "Many a royal ruler of a realm I have known;
Every leader should live a life of virtue;
One earl after the other shall order his land,
He who wishes and works for the weal of his throne!
Of these for a while was Hwala the best,
15 But Alexander of all of men
Was most famous of lords, and he flourished the most
Of all the earls whom on earth I have known.
Attila ruled the Huns, Eormanric the Goths,
Becca the Banings, the Burgundians Gifica.
20 Caesar ruled the Greeks and Caelic the Finns,
Hagena the Holm-Rugians and Heoden the Glommas.
Witta ruled the Swabians, Wada the Haelsings,
Meaca the Myrgings, Mearchealf the Hundings,
Theodoric ruled the Franks, Thyle the Rondings,
25 Breoca the Brondings, Billing the Wernas.
Oswine ruled the Eowas and the Ytas Gefwulf;
Finn Folcwalding ruled the Frisian people.
Sigehere ruled longest the Sea-Dane's kingdom.
Hnaef ruled the Hocings, Helm the Wulfings,
30 Wald the Woings, Wod the Thuringians,
Saeferth the Secgans, the Swedes Ongentheow.
Sceafthere ruled the Ymbrians, Sceafa the Lombards,
Hun the Haetweras and Holen the Wrosnas.
Hringweald was called the king of the pirates.
35 Offa ruled the Angles, Alewih the Danes:
Among these men he was mightiest of all,
But he equalled not Offa in earl-like deeds.
For Offa by arms while only a child,
First among fighters won the fairest of kingdoms;
40 Not any of his age in earlship surpassed him.
In a single combat in the siege of battle
He fixed the frontier at Fifeldore
Against the host of the Myrgings, which was held thenceforth
By Angles and Swabians as Offa had marked it.
45 Hrothwulf and Hrothgar held for a long time
A neighborly compact, the nephew and uncle,
After they had vanquished the Viking races
And Ingeld's array was overridden,
Hewed down at Heorot the Heathobard troop.
50 So forth I fared in foreign lands
All over the earth; of evil and good
There I made trial, torn from my people;
Far from my folk I have followed my travels.
Therefore I sing the song of my wanderings,
55 Declare before the company in the crowded mead-hall,
How gifts have been given me by the great men of earth.
I was with the Huns and with the Hraeda-Goths,
With the Swedes and with the Geats and with the southern Danes,
With the Wenlas I was and with the Vikings and with the Waerna
folk.
60 With the Gepidae I was and with the Wends and with the Gefligas.
With the Angles I was and with the Swaefe and with the Aenenas.
With the Saxons I was and with the Secgans and with the
Suardones.
With the Hronas I was and with the Deanas and with the
Heatho-Raemas.
With the Thuringians I was and with the Throwendas;
65 And with the Burgundians, where a bracelet was given me.
Guthhere there gave me a goodly jewel,
As reward for my song: not slothful that king!
With the Franks I was and with the Frisians and with the
Frumtingas.
With the Rugians I was and with the Glommas and with the Roman
strangers.
70 Likewise in Italy with Aelfwine I was:
He had, as I have heard, a hand the readiest
For praiseworthy deeds of prowess and daring;
With liberal heart he lavished his treasures,
Shining armlets --the son of Eadwine.
75 I was with the Saracens and with the Serings;
With the Greeks I was and with the Finns and with far-famed
Caesar,
Who sat in rule over the cities of revelry--
Over the riches and wealth of the realm of the Welsh.
With the Scots I was and with the Picts and with the
Scride-Finns.
80 With the Lidwicingas I was and with the Leonas and with the
Longobards,
With the Haethnas and with the Haerethas and with the Hundings;
With the Israelites I was and with the Assyrians,
And with the Hebrews and with the Egyptians and with the Hindus
I was,
With the Medes I was and with the Persians and with the Myrging
folk,
85 And with the Mofdings I was and against the Myrging band,
And with the Amothingians. With the East Thuringians I was
And with the Eolas and with the Istians and with the Idumingas.
And I was with Eormanric all of the time;
There the king of the Goths gave me in honor
90 The choicest of bracelets --the chief of the burghers--
On which were six hundred pieces of precious gold,
Of shining metal in shillings counted;
I gave over this armlet to Eadgils then,
To my kind protector when I came to my home,
95 To my beloved prince, the lord of the Myrgings,
Who gave me the land that was left by my father;
And Ealhhild then also another ring gave me,
Queen of the doughty ones, the daughter of Eadwine.
Her praise has passed to all parts of the world,
100 Wherever in song I sought to tell
Where I knew under heavens the noblest of queens,
Golden-adorned, giving forth treasures.
Then in company with Scilling, in clear ringing voice
'Fore our beloved lord I uplifted my song;
105 Loudly the harp in harmony sounded;
Then many men with minds discerning
Spoke of our lay in unsparing praise,
That they never had heard a nobler song.
Then I roamed through all the realm of the Goths;
110 Unceasing I sought the surest of friends,
The crowd of comrades of the court of Eormanric.
Hethca sought I and Beadeca and the Harlungs,
Emerca sought I and Fridla and East-Gota,
Sage and noble, the sire of Unwen.
115 Secca sought I and Becca, Seafola and Theodoric,
Heathoric and Sifeca, Hlithe and Incgentheow.
Eadwine sought I and Elsa Aegelmund and Hungar
And the worthy troop of the With-Myrgings.
Wulfhere sought I and Wyrmhere: there war was seldom lacking
120 When the host of the Hraedas with hardened swords
Must wage their wars by the woods of Vistula
To hold their homes from the hordes of Attila.
Raedhere sought I and Rondhere, Rumstan and Gislhere,
Withergield and Freotheric, Wudga and Hama:
125 These warriors were not the worst of comrades,
Though their names at the last of my list are numbered.
Full oft from that host the hissing spear
Fiercely flew on the foemen's troopers.
There the wretches ruled with royal treasure,
130 Wudga and Hama, over women and men.
So I ever have found as I fared among men
That in all the land most beloved is he
To whom God giveth a goodly kingdom
To hold as long as he liveth here.
135 Thus wandering widely through the world there go
Minstrels of men through many lands,
Express their needs and speak their thanks.
Ever south and north some one they meet
Skillful in song who scatters gifts,
140 To further his fame before his chieftains,
To do deeds of honor, till all shall depart,
Light and life together: lasting praise he gains,
And has under heaven the highest of honor.

4. _Myrging._ Nothing is known with any degree of certainty about this
tribe. Chambers concludes that they dwelt south of the River Eider,
which is the present boundary between Schleswig and Holstein, and that
they belonged to the Suevic stock of peoples. See vv. 84, 85, below.

5. _Ealhhild._ See notes to vv. 8 and 97, below. Much discussion has
taken place as to who Ealhhild was. Summing up his lengthy discussion,
Chambers says (_Widsith_, p. 28): "For these reasons it seems best to
regard Ealhhild as the murdered wife of Eormanric, the Anglian
equivalent of the Gothic Sunilda and the Northern Swanhild."

7. _Hraeda king._ That is, the Gothic king.

8. _Angles._ One of the Low Germanic tribes that later settled in
Britain, and from whom the name England is derived. Their original
home was in the modern Schleswig-Holstein. _Eormanric._ See v. 88,
below, and _Deor's Lament_, v. 21. He was a king of the Goths. After
his death, about 375 A.D., he came to be known as the typical bad
king, covetous, fierce, and cruel. According to the Scandinavian form
of the story, the king sends his son and a treacherous councillor,
Bikki (the Becca of v. 19) to woo and bring to the court the maiden
Swanhild. Bikki urges the son to woo her for himself and then betrays
him to his father, who has him hanged and causes Swanhild to be
trampled to death by horses. Her brothers revenge her death and wound
the king. At this juncture the Huns attack him, and during the attack
Eormanric dies.

11. The proverb, or "gnomic verse," is very common in Old English poetry.

14. _Hwala_ appears in the West Saxon genealogies as son of Beowi, son of
Sceaf (see _Beowulf_, vv. 4, 18).

15. _Alexander_ [_the Great_]. The writer speaks of many celebrities who
were obviously too early for him to know personally. This passage is
usually considered to be an interpolation.

18. _Becca._ See note to v. 8. The _Banings_ are not definitely
identified. The _Burgundians_ were originally an East Germanic tribe.
During the second and third centuries they were neighbors of the Goths
and lived in the modern Posen. Later they moved west, and finally
threatened Gaul, where in the middle of the fifth century they were
defeated by the Roman general, Aetius. Shortly afterward they were
defeated by the Huns. The remnant settled in Savoy, where they
gradually recovered, and by the middle of the sixth century became an
important nation. _Gifica_ (or Gibica) was traditionally spoken of as
an early king who ruled over the Burgundians while they were still in
the east, living as neighbors of the Goths on the Vistula.

20. _Caesar_, was the name given to the Emperor of the East--the "Greek
Emperor." The Finns were at that time located in their present home in
Finland.

21, 22. _Hagena, Heoden, Wada._ These heroes all belong to one
myth-cycle, which was told in Europe for many centuries. It is
difficult to reconstruct the story as it was known at the time
_Widsith_ was written, for it has received many additions at the hands
of subsequent writers. The essential parts of the tale seem to be
these: Heoden asks his servant, the sweet-singing Heorrenda, for help
in wooing Hild, the daughter of Hagena. Heorrenda, enlisting the
services of Wada, the renowned sea-monster (or sea-god) goes to woo
Hild. By means of Wada's frightful appearance and skill in
swordsmanship they attract Hild's attention, and Heorrenda then sings
so that the birds are shamed into silence. They then woo Hild and flee
with her from her father's court. Hagena pursues, and Heoden, after
marrying Hild, engages him in battle. Each evening Hild goes to the
battlefield and by magic awakens the warriors who have fallen, and
they fight the same battle over day after day without ceasing.
_Heorrenda_, the sweet singer of the Heodenings (i.e., of the court of
Heoden) is mentioned in _Deor's Lament_, vv. 36 and 39. _Wada_ is a
widely-known legendary character. He had power over the sea. He was
the father of Weland, the Vulcan of Norse myth (see _Deor's Lament_,
and _Waldhere_, A, v. 2). The _Holm-Rugians_ and the _Haelsings_ were
in the fourth century on the Baltic coast of Germany. The _Glommas_
are unknown.

24. _Theodoric_, son of Chlodowech, king of the Franks, is meant, and not
the famous Gothic king. Cf. v. 115, below.

25. _Breoca_: the same as Breca, prince of the Brondings, the opponent of
Beowulf in his famous swimming match (_Beowulf_, vv. 499-606).

27, 28. _Finn Folcwalding_ was the traditional hero of the Frisians. For
fragments of the stories connected with him, see _Beowulf_, vv.
1068-1159, and the fragmentary poem, _The Fight at Finnsburg_ (p. 34,
below). _Hnaef_, son of Hoc (hence ruler of the _Hocings_) also figures
in the Finn story. Hnaef's sister marries Finn. For a summary of the
story see the Introduction to _The Fight at Finnsburg_.

30. _Thuringians._ These people dwelt near the mouths of the Rhine and
the Maas.

31. _Ongentheow_, the king of Sweden, is frequently mentioned in
_Beowulf_ (e.g., vv. 2476 and 2783). _The Secgans_ are unknown, but
they are mentioned in v. 62, below, and in _The Fight at Finnsburg_,
v. 26.

32. The ancient home of the _Longobards_ (or Lombards) was between the
Baltic and the Elbe.

35. _Offa_: a legendary king of the Angles, while they still lived on the
continent toward the end of the fourth century. Legends of him are
found in Denmark and in England. Chambers concludes that the Danish
form is perhaps very near that known to the author of _Widsith_. Offa,
the son of the king, though a giant in stature, is dumb from his
youth, and when the German prince from the south challenges the aged
king to send a champion to defend his realm in single combat, Offa's
speech is restored and he goes to the combat. The fight was held at
Fifeldore, the River Eider, which was along the frontier between the
Germans and the Danes. Here Offa fought against two champions and
defeated them both, thus establishing the frontier for many years.
Note that the author of _Widsith_, who is of the Myrging race, is here
celebrating the defeat of his own people.

44. _Swabians_ probably refers to the Myrgings, who were of the stock of
the Suevi.

45. _Hrothwulf and Hrothgar._ See _Beowulf_, vv. 1017 and 1181 ff.
Hrothgar is Hrothwulf's uncle, and they live on friendly terms at
Heorot (Hrothgar's hall). Later it seems that Hrothwulf fails to
perform his duties as the guardian of Hrothgar's son, thus bringing to
an end his years of friendliness to Hrothgar and his sons. The fight
referred to is against Ingeld, Hrothgar's son-in-law who invaded the
Danish kingdom. (See _Beowulf_, vv. 84, 2024 ff.)

57. See v. 18, above.

58. The _Geats_ were probably settled in southern Sweden. They were the
tribe to which Beowulf belonged.

60. The _Gepidae_ were closely related to the Goths and were originally
located near them at the mouth of the Vistula River. The _Wends_ were
a Slavonic tribe who finally pressed up into the lands vacated in the
great migrations by the Germans between the Elbe and the Vistula.

61. _Angles._ See vv. 8 and 44, above. _Swaefe._ See line 44, above.

62. The _Saxons_, who with the Angles and Jutes settled Britain in the
fifth and sixth centuries, lived originally near the mouth of the
Elbe.

63. The _Heatho-Raemas_ dwelt near the modern Christiania in Norway. See
_Beowulf_, line 518, in which Breca in the swimming match reaches
their land.

65. _Burgundians._ See v. 19.

66. _Guthhere_ was a ruler of the Burgundians (v. 19). He was probably at
Worms when he gave the jewel to Widsith. Guthhere, because of his
great battle with Attila and his tragic defeat, became a great
legendary hero. (See _Waldhere_, B, v. 14.)

67. The _Franks_ and the _Frisians_ are spoken of together in _Beowulf_
(vv. 1207, 1210, 2917), where they together repulse an attack made by
Hygelac. The Frisians probably dwelt west of the Zuider Zee.

68. The _Rugians_ and the _Glommas_. See note to v. 21, above.

70. _Aelfwine:_ (otherwise known as Alboin), the Lombard conqueror of
Italy. He was the son of Audoin (Eadwine).

75-87. Most scholars agree that these lines are interpolated, since they
do not fit in with the rest of the poem.

75. _Serings:_ possibly Syrians.

78. _Welsh:_ a term applied to the Romans by the Old English writers.

79. The _Scride-Finns_ were settled in northern Norway--not in Finland,
where the main body of Finns were found. They are perhaps to be
identified with the modern Lapps.

80. _Lidwicingas:_ the inhabitants of Armorica. _Longobards._ See v. 32.

81. The _Hundings_ are also mentioned in line 23.

84, 85. _Myrging._ See line 4.

86. _East Thuringians._ Probably those Thuringians dwelling in the sixth
century east of the Elbe.

87. _Istians._ Probably the Esthonians mentioned in the _Voyage of
Wulfstan_. (See p. 194, line 151, below.) The _Idumingas_ were
neighbors of the Istians. Both were probably Lettish or Lithuanian
tribes.

88. _Eormanric._ See note to v. 8, above.

93. _Eadgils_ was king of the Myrgings.

97. _Ealhhild._ See note to v. 5, above. She was (v. 98) daughter of
Eadwine, King of the Lombards (v. 74). The meaning here is not
absolutely clear, but Chambers makes a good case for considering her
the wife of Eormanric. He thinks that she followed her husband's gift
to Widsith by a gift of another ring, in return for which Widsith
sings her praises.

112, 113. _Emerca_ and _Fridla_, the _Harlungs_, were murdered by their
uncle, Eormanric. _East-Gota_, or Ostrogotha, the king of the united
Goths in the middle of the third century, was a direct ancestor of
Eormanric.

115. _Becca._ See note to v. 8. _Seafola_ and _Theodoric_: probably
Theodoric of Verona and his retainer, Sabene of Ravenna. On the other
hand, the references may be to Theoderic the Frank. (See v. 24.)

116. _Sifeca:_ probably the evil councillor who brought about the murder
by Eormanric of his nephews, the Harlungs. (See vv. 112, 113, note.)

117-119. These names are all very obscure.

120. _Hraedas:_ the Goths.

121. The struggle between the Goths and the Huns did not actually occur
in the Vistula wood, but after the Goths had left the Vistula.

124, 130. _Wudga_ and _Hama_. The typical outlaws of German tradition.
Hama appears in _Beowulf_ (v. 1198) as a fugitive who has stolen the
Brising necklace and fled from Eormanric. Wudga, the Widia of
_Waldhere_ (B, vv. 4, 9) came finally to be known for his treachery.
He was connected with the court of Theodoric and received gifts from
him, but he is later represented as having betrayed the king. The
traditions about both of these men are badly confused.

135-143. One of the passages that give us a definite impression of the
scop, or minstrel, and his life. It serves very well for the
conclusion of a poem descriptive of the life of a minstrel.

DEOR'S LAMENT

[Critical text and translation: Dickins, _Runic and Heroic Poems_, Cambridge University Press, 1915, p. 70.

Alliterative translation: Gummere, _Oldest English Epic_ (1910), p. 186.

The metrical arrangement of this poem into strophes with a constant refrain is very unusual in the poetry of the Anglo-Saxons, though it is common among their Scandinavian kinsmen. This fact has led some scholars to believe that we have here a translation from the Old Norse. Professor Gummere, however, makes a good case against this assumption.

The first three strophes refer to the widely known story of Weland, or Wayland, the Vulcan of Norse myth. The crafty king, Nithhad, captures Weland, fetters him (according to some accounts, hamstrings him), and robs him of the magic ring that gives him power to fly. Beadohild, Nithhad's daughter, accompanied by her brothers, goes to Weland and has him mend rings for her. In this way he recovers his own ring and his power to fly. Before leaving he kills the sons of Nithhad, and, stupefying Beadohild with liquor, puts her to shame.]

To Weland came woes and wearisome trial,
And cares oppressed the constant earl;
His lifelong companions were pain and sorrow,
And winter-cold weeping: his ways were oft hard,
5 After Nithhad had struck the strong man low,
Cut the supple sinew-bands of the sorrowful earl.
That has passed over: so this may depart!

Beadohild bore her brothers' death
Less sorely in soul than herself and her plight
10 When she clearly discovered her cursed condition,
That unwed she should bear a babe to the world.
She never could think of the thing that must happen.
That has passed over: so this may depart!

Much have we learned of Maethhild's life:
15 How the courtship of Geat was crowned with grief,
How love and its sorrows allowed him no sleep.
That has passed over: so this may depart!

Theodoric held for thirty winters
The town of the Maerings: that was told unto many.
20 That has passed over: so this may depart!

We all have heard of Eormanric
Of the wolfish heart: a wide realm he had
Of the Gothic kingdom. Grim was the king.
Many men sat and bemoaned their sorrows,
25 Woefully watching and wishing always
That the cruel king might be conquered at last.
That has passed over: so this may depart!

Sad in his soul he sitteth joyless,
Mournful in mood. He many times thinks
30 That no end will e'er come to the cares he endures.
Then must he think how throughout the world
The gracious God often gives his help
And manifold honors to many an earl
And sends wide his fame; but to some he gives woes.
35 Of myself and my sorrows I may say in truth
That I was happy once as the Heodenings' scop,
Dear to my lord. Deor was my name.
Many winters I found a worthy following,
Held my lord's heart, till Heorrenda came,
40 The skillful singer, and received the land-right
That the proud helm of earls had once promised to me!
That has passed over: so this may depart!

1. _Weland_, or Wayland; the blacksmith of the Norse gods. He is
represented as being the son of Wada (see _Widsith_, v. 22, note).

8. _Beadohild_ was violated by Weland, and this stanza refers to the
approaching birth of her son Widia (or Wudga). (See _Widsith_, vv.
124, 130, and _Waldhere_, B, vv. 4-10.)

14. The exact meaning of the third strophe as here translated is not
clear. To make it refer to the story of Nithhad and Weland, it is
necessary to make certain changes suggested by Professor Tupper
(_Modern Philology_, October, 1911; _Anglia_, xxxvii, 118). Thus
amended, this stanza would read: "Of the violation of (Beadu)hild many
of us have heard. The affections of the Geat (i.e., Nithhad) were
boundless, so that sorrowing love deprived him of all sleep." This
grief of Nithhad would be that caused by the killing of his sons and
the shame brought on his daughter. Thus the first three stanzas of the
poem would refer to (1) Weland's torture, (2) Beadohild's shame, and
(3) Nithhad's grief.

18. Strophe four refers to Theodoric the Goth (see _Widsith_, v. 115, and
_Waldhere_, B, v. 4, note). He was banished to Attila's court for
thirty years.

19. _Maerings:_ a name applied to the Ostrogoths.

21. _Eormanric_ was king of the Goths and uncle to Theodoric. He died
about 375 A.D. He put his only son to death, had his wife torn to
pieces, and ruined the happiness of many people. For an account of his
crimes see the notes to _Widsith_, v. 8.

36. See, for the connection of the _Heodenings___ and the sweet-singing
_Heorrenda_, the note to _Widsith_, v. 21.

WALDHERE

[Critical text and translation: Dickins, _Runic and Heroic Poems_, p. 56.

Date: Probably eighth century.

Information as to the story is found in a number of continental sources. Its best known treatment is in a Latin poem, _Waltharius_, by Ekkehard of St. Gall, dating from the first half of the tenth century. Ekkehard's story is thus summarized in the _Cambridge History of English Literature_: "Alphere, king of Aquitaine, had a son named Waltharius, and Heriricus, king of Burgundy, an only daughter named Hiltgund, who was betrothed to Waltharius. While they were yet children, however, Attila, king of the Huns, invaded Gaul, and the kings seeing no hope in resistance, gave up their children to him as hostages, together with much treasure. Under like compulsion treasure was obtained also from Gibicho, king of the Franks, who sent as hostage a youth of noble birth named Hagano. In Attila's service, Waltharius and Hagano won great renown as warriors, but the latter eventually made his escape. When Waltharius grew up, he became Attila's chief general; yet he remembered his old engagement with Hiltgund. On his return from a victorious campaign he made a great feast for the king and his court, and when all were sunk in their drunken sleep, he and Hiltgund fled laden with much gold. On their way home they had to cross the Rhine near Worms. There the king of the Franks, Guntharius, the son of Gibicho, heard from the ferryman of the gold they were carrying and determined to secure it. Accompanied by Hagano and eleven other picked warriors, he overtook them as they rested in a cave in the Vosges. Waltharius offered him a large share of the gold in order to obtain peace; but the king demanded the whole, together with Hiltgund and the horses. Stimulated by the promise of great rewards, the eleven warriors now attacked Waltharius one after another, but he slew them all. Hagano had tried to dissuade Guntharius from the attack; but now, since his nephew was among the slain, he formed a plan with the king for surprising Waltharius. On the following day they both fell upon him after he had quitted his stronghold, and, in the struggle that ensued, all three were maimed. Waltharius, however, was able to proceed on his way with Hiltgund, and the story ends happily with their marriage."

Both our fragments, which are found on two leaves in the Royal Library at Copenhagen, refer to a time immediately before the final encounter. The first is spoken by the lady; the second by the man. We cannot tell how long this poem may have been. What we have may be leaves from a long epic, or a short poem, or an episode in a long epic.]

A

. . . . . . . . . . she eagerly heartened him:
"Lo, the work of Weland shall not weaken or fail
For the man who the mighty Mimming can wield,
The frightful brand. Oft in battle have fallen
5 Sword-wounded warriors one after the other.
6 Vanguard of Attila, thy valor must ever
Endure the conflict! The day is now come,
9 When fate shall award you one or the other:
10 To lose your life or have lasting glory,
Through all the ages, O Aelfhere's son!
No fault do I find, my faithful lover,
Saying I have seen thee at sword-play weaken,
Yield like a coward to a conqueror's arms,
15 Flee from the field of fight and escape,
Protect thy body, though bands of the foemen
Were smiting thy burnies with broad-edged swords;
But unfalt'ring still farther the fight thou pursuedst
Over the line of battle; hence, my lord, I am burdened
20 With fear that too fiercely to the fight thou shalt rush
To the place of encountering thy opponent in conflict,
To wage on him war. Be worthy of thyself
In glorious deeds while thy God protects thee!
Have no fear as to sword for the fine-gemmed weapon
25 Has been given thee to aid us: on Guthhere with it
Thou shalt pay back the wrong of unrighteously seeking
To stir up the struggle and strife of battle;
He rejected that sword and the jewelled treasure,
The lustrous gems; now, leaving them all,
30 He shall flee from this field to find his lord,
His ancient land, or lie here forever
Asleep, if he . . . . . . . ."

1. The speaker is Hildegyth (the Old English form for Hiltgund).

2. _Weland:_ the blacksmith of Teutonic myth. See _Deor's Lament_,
introductory note, and notes to vv. 1 and 8.

3. _Mimming_ was the most famous of the swords made by Weland.

28. Waldhere had offered Guthhere a large share of the treasure as an
inducement for him to desist from the attack, and Guthhere had refused
it.

B

" . . . . . . . . a better sword
Except that other, which also I have
Closely encased in its cover of jewels.
I know that Theodoric thought that to Widia
5 Himself he would send it, and the sword he would join
With large measure of jewels and many other brands,
Worked all with gold. This reward he would send
Because, when a captive, the kinsman of Nithhad,
Weland's son, Widia, from his woes had released him--
10 Thus in haste he escaped from the hands of the giants."
Waldhere spoke, the warrior brave;
He held in his hand his helper in battle,
He grasped his weapon, shouting words of defiance:
"Indeed, thou hadst faith, O friend of the Burgundians,
15 That the hand of Hagena had held me in battle,
Defeated me on foot. Fetch now, if thou darest,
From me weary with war my worthy gray corselet!
It lies on my shoulder as 'twas left me by Aelfhere,
Goodly and gorgeous and gold-bedecked,
20 The most honorable of all for an atheling to hold
When he goes into battle to guard his life,
To fight with his foes: fail me it will never
When a stranger band shall strive to encounter me,
Besiege me with swords, as thou soughtest to do.
25 He alone will vouchsafe the victory who always
Is eager and ready to aid every right:
He who hopes for the help of the holy Lord,
For the grace of God, shall gain it surely,
If his earlier work has earned the reward.
30 Well may the brave warriors then their wealth enjoy,
Take pride in their property! That is . . . ."

1. The opening of the second fragment finds the two champions ready for
the final struggle. Guthhere is finishing his boast, in which he
praises his equipment.

3. The meaning of this passage is obscure, but the translation here given
seems to be the most reasonable conjecture. He probably refers to a
sword that he has at hand in a jewelled case ready for use.

4. Stopping thus to give a history of the weapon calls to mind many
similar passages in the Homeric poems. The particular story in mind
here is the escape of Theodoric from the giants. He loses his way and
falls into the hands of one of the twelve giants who guard Duke
Nitger. He gains the favor of Nitger's sister, and through her lets
his retainers, Hildebrand, Witige, and Heime know of his plight. They
defeat the giants and release him. Witige and Heime are the Middle
High German forms for the old English _Widia_ (see _Deor's Lament_, v.
8, note), or Wudga and Hama (see _Widsith_, vv. 124, 130, note).

14. _Friend of the Burgundians:_ a usual old English expression for
"king." Guthhere was king of the Burgundians in the middle of the
fifth century (see _Widsith_, vv. 19, 66, notes).

15. Hagena is now the only one of Guthhere's comrades that has not been
killed by Waldhere. Cf. _Widsith_, v. 21.

THE FIGHT AT FINNSBURG

[Edition used: Chambers, _Beowulf_, p. 158. See also Dickins, _Runic and Heroic Poems_, p. 64.

Alliterative translation, Gummere, _Oldest English Epic_, p. 160.

The manuscript is now lost. We have only an inaccurate version printed by Hickes at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Many difficulties are therefore found in the text. For a good discussion of the text, see an article by Mackie in _The Journal of English and Germanic Philology_, xvi, 250.

This fragment belongs to the epic story of Finn which is alluded to at some length in _Beowulf_ (vv. 1068-1159). The saga can be reconstructed in its broad outlines, though it is impossible to be sure of details. One of the most puzzling of these details is the position in which the "Fight" occurs. In the story are two fights, either one of which may be the one described in the fragment. The weight of opinion seems to favor the first conflict, that in which Hnaef is killed. As summarized by Moeller, the Finn story is briefly as follows:

"Finn, king of the Frisians, had carried off Hildeburh, daughter of Hoc (_Beowulf_, v. 1076), probably with her consent. Her father Hoc seems to have pursued the fugitives, and to have been slain in the fight which ensued on his overtaking them. After the lapse of some twenty years, Hoc's sons Hnaef and Hengest, were old enough to undertake the duty of avenging their father's death. They make an inroad into Finn's country and a battle takes place in which many warriors, among them Hnaef and a son of Finn (1074, 1079, 1115), are killed. Peace is therefore solemnly concluded, and the slain warriors are burnt (1068-1124).

"As the year is too far advanced for Hengest to return home (1130 ff.), he and those of his men who survive remain for the winter in the Frisian country with Finn. But Hengest's thoughts dwell constantly on the death of his brother Hnaef, and he would gladly welcome any excuse to break the peace which had been sworn by both parties. His ill concealed desire for revenge is noticed by the Frisians, who anticipate it by themselves taking the initiative and attacking Hengest and his men whilst they are sleeping in the hall. This is the night attack described in the "Fight." It would seem that after a brave and desperate resistance Hengest himself falls in this fight at the hands of Hunlafing (1143), but two of his retainers, Guthlaf and Oslaf, succeed in cutting their way through their enemies and in escaping to their own land. They return with fresh troops, attack and slay Finn, and carry his queen, Hildeburh, off with them (1125-1159)."--Wyatt, _Beowulf_, (1901), p. 145.

Professor Gummere finds in the fragment an example bearing out his theory of the development of the epic. "The qualities which difference it from _Beowulf_," he says, "are mainly negative; it lacks sentiment, moralizing, the leisure of the writer; it did not attempt probably to cover more than a single event; and one will not err in finding it a fair type of the epic songs which roving singers were wont to sing before lord and liegeman in hall and which were used with more or less fidelity by makers of complete epic poems."]

". . . . . . . . Are the gables not burning?"
Boldly replied then the battle-young king:
"The day is not dawning; no dragon is flying,
And the high gable-horns of the hall are not burning,
5 But the brave men are bearing the battle line forward,
While bloodthirsty sing the birds of slaughter.
Now clangs the gray corselet, clashes the war-wood,
Shield answers shaft. Now shineth the moon,
Through its cover of clouds. Now cruel days press us
10 That will drive this folk to deadly fight.
But wake at once, my warriors bold,
Stand now to your armor and strive for honor;
Fight at the front unafraid and undaunted."
Then arose from their rest, ready and valiant,
15 Gold-bedecked soldiers, and girded their swords.
The noble knights went now to the door
And seized their swords, Sigeferth and Eaha,
And to the other door Ordlaf and Guthlaf,
And Hengest who followed to help the defense.
20 Now Guthere restrained Garulf from strife,
Lest fearless at the first of the fight he rush
To the door and daringly endanger his life,
Since now it was stormed by so stalwart a hero.
But unchecked by these words a challenge he shouted,
25 Boldly demanding what man held the door.
"I am Sigferth," he said, "the Secgan's prince;
Wide have I wandered; many woes have I known
And bitter battles. Be it bad or good
Thou shalt surely receive what thou seekest from me."
30 At the wall by the door rose the din of battle;
In the hands of heroes the hollow bucklers
Shattered the shields. Shook then the hall floor
Till there fell in the fight the faithful Garulf,
Most daring and doughty of the dwellers on earth,
35 The son of Guthlaf; and scores fell with him.
O'er the corpses hovered the hungry raven,
Swarthy and sallow-brown. A sword-gleam blazed
As though all Finnsburg in flames were burning.
Never heard I of heroes more hardy in war,
40 Of sixty who strove more strongly or bravely,
Of swains who repaid their sweet mead better
Than his loyal liegemen to their loved Hnaef.
Five days they fought, but there fell not a one
Of the daring band, though the doors they held always.
45 Now went from the warfare a wounded chief.
He said that his burnie was broken asunder,
His precious war-gear, and pierced was his helmet.
Then questioned their chief and inquired of him
How the warriors recovered from the wounds they received,
50 Or which of the youths . . . . . . .

1. The fragment begins in the middle of a word.

2. The "battle-young king" is probably the Hengest of v. 19. Possibly he
is to be identified with Hengest, the conqueror of Kent.

5, 6. In the original these lines seem to be incomplete. The translation
attempts to keep the intended meaning.

14, 15. In the original these appear as a single greatly expanded line,
which was probably at one time two lines.

17. _Sigeferth_ (see also line 26), prince of the Secgans is probably
identical with Saeferth who ruled the Secgans in _Widsith_, v. 31.

18. _Ordlaf and Guthlaf_ appear in the account in _Beowulf_ (vv. 1148,
ff.) as Oslaf and Guthlaf. They are the avengers of Hnaef.

20. From the construction it is impossible to tell who is the speaker and
who is being restrained. But from line 33 it is seen to be Garulf who
neglects the advice and is killed. Garulf and Guthere are, of course,
of the attacking band.

26. _Sigferth_, one of the defenders. See v. 17, above.

28, 29. These lines are obscure. Probably they mean that Garulf may have
as good as he sends in the way of a fight.

35. Guthlaf, the father of Garulf (the assailant) was probably not the
Guthalf of line 18, who was a defender. If we have here a conflict
between father and son, very little is made of it.

45. It is impossible to tell who the wounded warrior was or which chief
is referred to in line 48.

2. GNOMIC GROUP

CHARMS

[Edition used: Kluge, _Angelsaechsisches Lesebuch_.

Critical edition and discussion of most of the charms: Felix Grendon, _Journal of American Folk-lore_, xxii, 105 ff. See that article for bibliography.

Grendon divides the charms into five classes:

1. Exorcisms of diseases and disease spirits.
2. Herbal charms.
3. Charms for transferring disease.
4. Amulet charms.
5. Charm remedies.

These charms contain some of the most interesting relics of the old heathen religion of the Anglo-Saxons incongruously mingled with Christian practices. They were probably written down at so late a time that the churchmen felt they could no longer do harm.]

I. For Bewitched Land

_Here is the remedy by which thou mayst improve thy fields if they will not produce well or if any evil thing is done to them by means of sorcery or witchcraft:_

_5_ _Take at night, before daybreak, four pieces of turf from the four corners of the land and mark the places where they have stood. Take then oil and honey and yeast and the milk of every kind of cattle that is on that land and a piece of every kind of tree that is grown _10_ on that land, except hard wood, and a piece of every kind of herb known by name, except burdock alone. Then put holy water on these and dip it thrice in the base of the turfs and say these words:_ Crescite, _grow_, et multiplicamini, _and multiply_, et replete, _and fill_, terram, _15_ _this earth_, in nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti sint benedicti; _and_ Pater Noster _as often as anything else_.

_Then carry the turfs to the church and have the priest sing four masses over them and have the green sides _20_ turned toward the altar. Then bring them back before sunset to the place where they were at first. Now make four crosses of aspen and write on the end of each_ Matheus _and_ Marcus _and_ Lucas _and_ Johannes. _Lay the crosses on the bottom of each hole and then say_: _25_ Crux Matheus, crux Marcus, crux Lucas, crux Sanctus Johannes. _Then take the sods and lay them on top and say nine times the word_ Crescite, _and the_ Pater Noster _as often. Turn then to the east and bow humbly nine times and say these words:_

30 Eastward I stand, for honors I pray;
I pray to the God of glory; I pray to the gracious Lord;
I pray to the high and holy Heavenly Father;
I pray to the earth and all of the heavens,
And to the true and virtuous virgin Saint Mary,
35 And to the high hall of Heaven and its power,
That with God's blessing I may unbind this spell
With my open teeth, and through trusty thought
May awaken the growth for our worldly advantage,
May fill these fields by fast belief,
40 May improve this planting, for the prophet saith
That he hath honors on earth whose alms are free,
Who wisely gives, by the will of God.

_Then turn three times following the course of the sun, stretch thyself prostrate, and chant the litanies. _45_ Then say_ Sanctus, Sanctus, Sanctus _through to the end. Then chant_ Benedicte _with outstretched arms, and the_ Magnificat _and_ Pater Noster _three times and commend thy prayer to the praise and glory of Christ and Saint Mary and the Holy Rood, and to the honor _50_ of him who owns the land and to all those that are subject to him. When all this is done, get some unknown seed from beggars, and give them twice as much as thou takest from them. Then gather all thy plowing gear together and bore a hole in the beam and put in _55_ it incense and fennel and consecrated soap and consecrated salt. Take the seed and put it on the body of the plow, and then say:_

Erce, Erce, Erce, of earth the mother,
May he graciously grant thee, God Eternal,
60 To have fertile fields and fruitful harvests,
Growing in profit and gaining in power;
A host of products and harvests in plenty,
Bright with the broad barley harvest;
And heavy with the white harvest of wheat,
65 And all the harvest of the earth. May the Almighty Lord grant
And all his saints who are seated in heaven,
That against all of the enemies this earth may be guarded,
Protected and made proof against the powers of evil,
Against sorceries and spells dispersed through the land.
70 Now I pray to the Power who planned the creation
That no woman of witchcraft, no worker of magic,
May change or unspell the charm I have spoken.

_Then drive forth the plow and turn the first furrow and say:_

75 Hail to thee, Earth, of all men the mother,
Be goodly thy growth in God's embrace,
Filled with food as a favor to men.

_Then take meal of every kind and bake a loaf as broad as it will lie between the two hands, kneading _80_ it with milk and with holy water, and lay it under the first furrow. Say then:_

Full be the field with food for mankind,
Blossoming brightly. Blessed by thou
By the holy name of Heaven's Creator,
85 And the maker of Earth, which men inhabit.
May God who created the ground grant us growing gifts,
That each kernel of corn may come to use.

_Say then three times_, Crescite in nomine patris, sint benedicti. Amen _and_ Pater Noster _three times_.

30. Irregularities in the meter in the translations are imitations of
similar irregularities in the original.

58. _Erce:_ probably the name of an old Teutonic deity, the Mother of
Earth. This reference is all we have to preserve the name.

75. The conception of a goddess as Mother of Earth and of Earth as Mother
of Men is entirely pagan. This charm is a peculiar complex of
Christian and pagan ideas.

II. Against a Sudden Stitch

_Against a sudden stitch take feverfew, and the red nettle that grows through the house, and plantain. Boil in butter._

Loud were they, lo loud, as over the lea they rode;
5 Resolute they were when they rode over the land.
Protect thyself that thy trouble become cured and healed.
Out, little stick, if it still is
I stood under the linden, under the light shield,
Where the mighty women their magic prepared,
10 And they sent their spears spinning and whistling.
But I will send them a spear in return,
Unerringly aim an arrow against them.
Out, little stick, if it still is within!
There sat a smith and a small knife forged
15 . . . . . . . sharply with a stroke of iron.
Out little stick if it still is within!
Six smiths sat and worked their war-spears.
Out, spear! be not in, spear!
If it still is there, the stick of iron,
20 The work of the witches, away it shall melt.
If thou wert shot in the skin, or sore wounded in the flesh,
If in the blood thou wert shot, or in the bone thou wert shot,
If in the joint thou wert shot, there will be no jeopardy to
your life.
If some deity shot it, or some devil shot it,
25 Or if some witch has shot it, now I am willing to help thee.
This is a remedy for a deity's shot; this is a remedy for a
devil's shot;
This is a remedy for a witch's shot. I am willing to help thee.
Flee there into the forests . . . . . . .
Be thou wholly healed. Thy help be from God.

_30_ _Then take the knife and put it into the liquid._

1. The sudden stitch in the side (or rheumatic pain) is here thought of
as coming from the arrows shot by the "mighty women"--the witches.

21-28. These irregular lines are imitated from the original.

RIDDLES

[Critical editions: Wyatt, Tupper, and Trautmann. Wyatt (Boston, 1912, Belles Lettres edition) used as a basis for these translations. His numbering is always one lower than the other editions, since he rejects one riddle.

Date: Probably eighth century for most of them.

For translations of other riddles than those here given see Brooke, _English Literature from the Beginning to the Norman Conquest_, Pancoast and Spaeth, _Early English Poems_, and Cook and Tinker, _Selections from Old English Poetry_.

There is no proof as to the authorship. There were probably one hundred of them in the original collection though only about ninety are left. Many of them are translations from the Latin. Some are true folk-riddles and some are learned.

In the riddles we find particulars of Anglo-Saxon life that we cannot find elsewhere. The _Cambridge History of English Literature_ sums their effect up in the following sentence: "Furthermore, the author or authors of the Old English riddles borrow themes from native folk-songs and saga; in their hands inanimate objects become endowed with life and personality; the powers of nature become objects of worship such as they were in olden times; they describe the scenery of their own country, the fen, the river, and the sea, the horror of the untrodden forest, sun and moon engaged in perpetual pursuit of each other, the nightingale and the swan, the plow guided by the 'gray-haired enemy of the wood,' the bull breaking up clods left unturned by the plow, the falcon, the arm-companion of aethelings--scenes, events, characters familiar in the England of that day."]