Chapter II: Part 2

Designers were thus getting farther away from Gothic architecture. The political and religious events of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries revolutionized old beliefs. Time-honoured faiths were not only given up, but were viewed with positive distrust. The powers that had swayed the people of the Middle Ages, the mysticism, ideals, and poetry of their lives, were unrealities to the great majority of seventeenth-century Hollanders; such doctrines fell meaningless upon their senses, and were to them but unintelligible and empty forms. They not unnaturally turned from a creed in whose name loathsome crimes had been committed and countless lives had been sacrificed. It was a time of new life and faith. This change in the trend of thought is amply reflected in the domestic architecture. The Gothic tradition, already more or less alienated from the public sympathies, had almost spent itself. Its vitality was gone and only as a survival, a mere shadow of former glory, was it carried on. The old order gave place to the new. But it was long before a fresh system of planning came to be generally accepted and mediæval methods of construction and workmanship still persisted. Classic motives, however, were increasingly applied to the elevations. All the features, and the entire decoration of many of the houses, were often the direct outcome of Renaissance influences. In some few cases--such as the gateway at Arnhem of 1642 (page 53)--the whole schemes were conceived in the Classic spirit and were evidently designed by men of advanced intelligence, who were able to comprehend the significance of the style in which they worked.

Rembrandt's house at Amsterdam (page 54) is an able achievement, sober and dignified. The walls are built of ochre-coloured bricks, with stone used for the dressings. The date of 1606 appears on the upper storey. It has no gabled front, but a projecting cornice and pediment make division between the roof and wall surface. Above are two dormers placed in balanced order; while the roof, steeply rising and hipped and having a chimney at each end of the ridge, completes the studied arrangement. So far the work is in the style of the Renaissance, and it is only by the windows below that earlier influences are recalled: but the two themes are so well blended as to be perfectly harmonious. The net result is simple and reasonable and by no means lacking in scholarship. Very different is the Guild Hall at Zwolle (page 55), erected thirty-five years earlier. Its too fussy elaboration is in sharp contrast with the comparative restraint of Rembrandt's house, just mentioned. Classicism was applied without the Classic spirit and with little understanding of its real import. The general effect is rich and complex, but the composition lacks breadth and is overladen with ornament. Some of the details disclose good craftsmanship, notably the frieze which runs across the entire front at the first floor level, carved with cupids on horseback, old men with tridents, satyrs and flowing foliage, and broken at intervals by lion-heads worked on the bases of the pilasters. At the second storey is a Doric frieze, with sculptured circular ornaments and heads of bulls appearing in the metopes between the triglyphs. The gable, mediæval in feeling, is curly in outline; it is further complicated by the introduction of reclining satyrs and lascivious demi-gods that quaintly break the skyline. The designer evidently proposed to himself the Italian ideal, but did not grasp the meaning or refinement of it. Many details came to be used in a similar way, such, for instance, as those shown from Dordrecht (page 50) and Flushing (page 56), but, although often of admirable workmanship, they were never coherent parts of a self-evolved whole.

A house of somewhat unusual appearance is that in the Voorstraat at Dordrecht, dated 1626 and illustrated on page 57. At the top is an open arcade constructed wholly in bricks, with the exception of the stones upon which the arches rest. The brick walls are relieved by stonework, while projecting pilasters separate the large lead-glazed and shuttered windows.

Houses that depended upon dormers for their controlling architectural idea were common in the seventeenth century. The front wall is usually only one storey high and the dormers rise from it at the line of the eaves. When the frontage is wide and the building long and low, as is the case at Kampen (page 59), these features--shaped and carved and fundamentally valuable in lighting the rooms of the roof--show with good effect. A smaller house in the same town, given on page 58, has a single dormer only. It contributes the necessary interest to what would otherwise be a very dull effort of building. On the frieze at its base is a carved stone representation of the Nativity, while below appears the inscription "IN BETHLEHEM 1631."

Those principles that imparted to the domestic architecture of Holland its picturesqueness, and so gave to it its most valued possession, were strained to the uttermost as the freshness of the Transitional style declined. The influences bequeathed from former ages were running out. Extreme freedom of design, although showing certain originality and character, was not accompanied by necessary restraint. Architects sometimes cast aside all the limitations of their art and gave themselves up to unreasonable over-elaboration and the grotesque; they ignored the fact--true for all time--that construction must form the basis for ornamental detail. But it must not be thought that this was always so. There is, however, certain work of this period that cannot seriously be accepted as good. Brickwork and stone continued to be employed and were still associated with excellent workmanship, as was the carpentry. There was evidently yet, as the many dated buildings prove, a large body of men who had complete mastery of their particular crafts, men versed in that traditional skill which had come down unbrokenly from mediæval days. Prominence was given to the numerous door and window openings, which were heavily moulded and often surmounted by pediments. Gables were shaped in endless ways and upon them almost every conceivable combination of curves was employed. Pilasters and cornices, swags and festoons, with strap ornament, scrolls and ornate iron wall-ties, all generally of debased Renaissance character, contributed to the rich profusion.

Whither events in architectural history were tending will be seen in the following illustrations. The "Goudkantoor" at Groningen (page 60), bearing a motto and date of 1635, and a house near to it of the year 1661 (page 61), have quaint gables, curiously shaped and laden with carved stone decorations. On the walls below the same complex treatment continues, especially on the "Goudkantoor," the entrance doorway of which is emphasised by the work surrounding it. At Franeker (page 62) is an extreme development of the step gable, with the four steps supporting masses of coarsely-designed ornamentation. The heavy pediments to the windows are conspicuous, as are the many stone details. Two panels are inscribed with "ANNO 1662." With the above-mentioned may be compared the two gables at Alkmaar (page 65) which betray the same source of origin. Each is crowned by a stone pediment, and the steps have carvings resting upon them. Applied to the wall of the farthermost house, and placed centrally between the windows of the second storey, is a notable iron wall-tie of much larger size than was usual. An enlarged drawing of it is reproduced on page 64. Another variation of gable outline is illustrated from 's Hertogenbosch (page 63). In this case the stone-capped sides follow the lines of sweeping curves, and on them, facing outwardly, are little carved bunches of fruit and flowers. The front face of this building is remarkable for the use of pilasters. They are boldly carried up from bases to the head of the gable. The pillars, executed in unrelieved brickwork, have stone capitals of the Ionic order which carry an entablature. There appears the date of MDCLXXI. The bricks are 2 inches wide by 9 inches long and are laid about five courses to one foot.

It eventually came to pass that the gabled treatment, which had been the guiding principle of house design for so many generations, was given up. And with the disappearance of it there went that which had given character to the architecture of Holland. The links of the tradition were broken. The old sources of inspiration no longer served. Inherited ability and skill, originality and vigour, were being lost, and the last traces of native ideas are to be found in inconspicuous buildings such as that given from The Hague (page 66). Although hipped roofs, wide projecting cornices and other Renaissance features were employed, as is shown by the drawings from Velsen (page 67), and Zutphen (page 69), a pure Renaissance domestic architecture did not become established. When the traditional style, owning both Gothic and Renaissance motives, had ceased to hold its ground, the stream of design--which until then had flowed continuously --ebbed low, and houses became uninteresting and commonplace. Away in the country the town architecture is mirrored in the brick buildings of the numerous villages. Less pretentious in appearance, their style is well suited to the simpler conditions that there obtain; for the crowded activity of the town waterways is absent on the calm canals that wind between meadows, and give communication from village to village; on the quays life moves placidly. Spaarndam (page 71) furnishes a typical village view, with its gabled brick and white-fronted houses, screened by delicate greenery. The Ferry House, near Gennep (page 73), has more ornate gables, curved and stepped, and on the front is diaper brickwork.

There also developed a type of building peculiar to the countryside. It is shown by the many farmhouses and cottages. Their outward forms were determined by constructional principles, and added adornment was but little employed. They are unobtrusive examples of honest work, not claiming especial distinction, yet in thorough harmony with their natural environment. They were brought into being by prevailing needs, and are the local representatives of that phase of native art which is to be found in almost every country. Such village homes exist in all parts of Holland. The style of them shows little variation in the different localities. They are equally suited to the windswept Friesland landscape, the watered provinces of North and South Holland, or the beautiful country of North Brabant, with its hedgerows and woods and distant hills. Grouping, perchance, around old brick churches and sheltered by trees, as at Spaarwoude (page 68), they are pleasant and rustic to see.

Under one great thatched or tiled roof all the covered accommodation necessary for farm life is contained. One side of the building is occupied by living apartments, the remainder providing a huge barn, stalls for cattle, and other conveniences for the farmer's work. These buildings were solidly constructed on a timber basis in the manner shown by the sectional view from Halfweg (page 70), where centre and side aisles are divided from each other by the stout upright timbers. Extreme durability was the keynote and the materials were employed according to their quality. This traditional form of building, practised for many generations, continues in use to the present day. An illustration of the exterior of a similar homestead to that mentioned above, and from the same village, also appears on page 70. The great roof, hipped at each end and covered with pantiles, will be observed. Beneath the eaves are the domestic rooms, in this instance all upon the ground floor; often they extend to a second storey in the roof, which is then lighted by dormers. The cottages follow the same general constructive principles as the farms, and have similar low walls and large roofs. A lean-to was frequently added to give an additional room, and the main roof brought down over it at a less steep pitch. The roof space, valuable as a store, is in many cases reached from the exterior by a ladder. In addition to the customary steeply-pitched roofs, those of the Mansard pattern occur less frequently, as is exemplified by the drawing from Schooten (page 72).

Country work does not exhibit a great variety of building materials. Bricks, being made from the natural product and consequently readily available, were principally used for the walls. Rather than left in their normal state, they were often thinly coated with plaster on the outer face, and the lower parts, for about two feet upwards from the ground, were tarred. Houses and cottages of this description together form a characteristic group in the country architecture of Holland. They were built upon a traditional system which grew out of the accumulated experience that was transmitted from generation to generation. Customary examples are shown in the two drawings from Beek (pages 74 and 76), and by that from Broek in Waterland (page 78). The farmhouse from Brigdamme (page 75) is of a similar character; at the entrance are two stone gate-piers, dated 1622. Two influences are to be traced in the farm at Bloemendaal (page 77). The main building has the white plastered walls and large roof--which in this case comes forward to cover an open verandah--while the adjoining gable is of natural coloured bricks and more in the style of town work.

Houses with wooden walls are prevalent, especially in North Holland. Upon a low brick wall, tarred, and varying in height from 18 to 30 inches, the timber frame was erected. Boards were simply nailed to it and the framing was commonly left exposed to view on the exterior. The boarding was well coated with paint or tar for protection against the weather. A roof of thatch or tiles, well projecting at the eaves, covered the whole. There was thus provided, by simple and economical means, a type of building well suited for its purpose. The village of Broek has many examples of timber houses, such as those here given on page 79; while near by, at Monnikendam, Volendam, and on the Island of Marken, are numerous others.

An extravagant use of paint is conspicuous in the country as well as the towns. It is renewed at frequent intervals and, in the main, it is well applied. Shutters and doors and window frames, and frequently the whole house front, are freely covered with it. But the effects are not unpleasing. They give to the villages an air of gaiety and freshness. Plain schemes of colour are wisely adhered to, while throughout a district one general note will be followed. On the island of Walcheren it is apple-green and white; north of Amsterdam bluey-green and cream; while the woodwork of the house at Beek (page 81) is painted in the tones of buff that find favour in the locality of Nijmegen.

There are many other domestic features worthy of note to be seen in the villages of Holland; quaint appliances for wells, ingeniously worked (page 80), or little bridges that span dividing dykes, and connect homesteads with the highways. One from Zuiderwoude, near the edge of the Zuider Zee, is illustrated on this page. It is built of brick relieved by a little stonework. On the keystone of the arch appears the date of 1799. The wooden gates above give access to the farm and the fields. The Dutch, too, have a marked fondness for natural beauty, as is demonstrated by the skill they display in laying-out open spaces. All towns can show flower gardens and lawns, or old fortifications overlooked by gaunt watch-towers, transformed into pleasant parks. Nijmegen and Arnhem are noteworthy in this respect. Very charming, too, are the village streets, of which that at Brigdamme (page 18) is a typical instance. They are lined with many trees that afford kindly shade in summer and shelter from the wind, and gratify the eyes with traceries of green.

DIVISION II

EXTERIOR FEATURES--DOORS, WINDOWS, GABLES & ORNAMENTS

From the time when Dutch houses were built in a definite recognised style the features were always treated with skill and care. The many and crowded openings were accentuated. Doorways became imposing through the enrichment that surrounded them and windows were similarly emphasised. Panels, carvings, and ironwork decorated the walls, while the crowning gables, crow-stepped or curved, completed the richness of the buildings. Upon all these details, whether for a public building or private dwelling, great labour was expended. A careful examination of them discloses much inventive readiness and meritorious execution.

Particular prominence was given to external doorways. The manner of their treatment varied widely. They were regarded as more than mere ways of access and upon them the best skill of the craftsmen was frequently concentrated. A personal note would be added by the introduction of the owner's arms or initials, the date of the work, or some quaint conceit of peculiar and subtle meaning. Among the examples extant, those of the early period incline to greatest simplicity. They were based on the current forms that were employed in ecclesiastical and civic architecture. The openings are spacious and are surrounded by mouldings. The arches at the heads are pointed, trefoil, or elliptic shapes. When there are label-mouldings above they follow the curves of the arches and support or surround the arms, panels, or other decorations.

The doorway at Delft (page 87) is a good example of work dictated by Gothic influences. From carved stops at each side spring the simple mouldings that extend round the opening. It is surmounted by a label, near the centre of which is a three-sided space, enclosed by mouldings and filled by a winged cherub's head carved in relief, while the label is terminated by a finial. The wooden door is noteworthy. It is composed of six boards and upon the outer face of each are shallow grooves running continuously from top to bottom. Projecting nailheads arranged in vertical lines, together with other ironwork, give further interesting ornamentation. Another doorway from the same town (page 88) is built of stone and moulded bricks. The space at the head, contained within a trefoil arch, has carved upon it a shield--lacking armorial bearings--supporters, and a scroll with the date of 1547. The semi-circular arch which surrounds the trefoil is one of the series that repeat across the building. That other early type of house, peculiar for its windowed ground floor front constructed in wood, such as is given from Veere on page 44, had its entrance doorway made with three plain stout timbers, one at each side and one across the top as a lintel. An elaboration of the simple wooden doorway occurs at Leiden (page 89). It is crowned by mouldings, below which appears an ogee arch shaped in wood. The parti-coloured effect of the door itself is achieved by the application of contrasting tints of paint.

The circular arch followed the pointed although simultaneously a modified form of the latter, of which that from Haarlem (page 89) is an instance, continued to be used. Of circular-arched doorways there are endless examples which were erected in a manner that became general and customary. They were usually built in stone and bricks. Those from Leiden (below), Flushing (page 91), and Leeuwarden (page 86) are characteristic. The Leiden doorway of 1615, with moulded opening and carved archstones, is doubtless the earliest of the three and most nearly allied to the work of the preceding century. The two remaining examples incline to later influences, particularly to be observed in the enrichment of the jambs.

Changing taste brought a new treatment to external doorways. They were affected by the same forces that altered the outward character of late sixteenth and seventeenth-century houses. Renaissance detail gradually became established and doorways of the seventeenth-century were frankly treated in a Classic way, rich in pilasters, capitals, friezes, pediments and mouldings, with an especial preference for an adapted form of the Ionic order. Stone was now almost exclusively used for this feature, unaccompanied by brick. "Delvitt's Poort" at Woudrichem (page 85) shows a rather advanced development for the period of 1611 to which it belongs. The whole of it is painted, with the carved details picked out in different colours. Two doorways illustrated here are well designed and proportioned. They are distinguished by the elaboration that appears at their heads. Upon the frieze immediately above the arch of the Kampen example (page 93) will be seen the inscription and date of 1665, over which is a broken pediment surmounted by particularly well-rendered armorial bearings carved in stone. The frieze at Leeuwarden (page 89) is similarly inscribed, the date in this case being 1675, while within the heavily moulded pediment is a coat of arms. Less complicated is the doorway from Leiden of 1655 (page 96). It is crowned by mouldings and decorated below by festoons in relief. The above will show the fashion of the time, tending towards correctness in design, with details carefully thought out and well executed.

Many eighteenth-century doorways were unduly florid and may well be described as rococo. That from Marssum in Friesland (below), belonging to the year 1713, is of this kind. The overladen ornament and peculiarities of design suggest the unreality of a poor stage-setting, rather than serious architecture; while the incongruity of the work can only be appreciated by an inspection of the original, situated as it is among cottages in a quiet village street. Later in the century French influence was predominant. Details, such as are noticeable in the Arnhem doorway (page 94), were based on the Louis XV. style which not only affected the work of the towns but permeated into the heart of the country. The small cottage doors and doorways in villages such as Broek have all the attributes of the then prevailing mode.

The wooden doors were much enriched either with applied ironwork, or mouldings and panels. Metal locks, bolts, hinges and nails are conspicuous in the early specimens. The use of ironwork on the door from Dordrecht (page 95) is carried to an extreme degree; but, be it noted, all the fittings have a practical purpose. It was only after needs had been provided for that embellishment was added, discernible in the shaping of the lock-plates and hinges and the arrangement of the nailheads. The centre of the more recent example from Haarlem (page 95) is occupied by a large sunk panel surrounded by mouldings, a section of which is given. A good piece of woodcarving is that appearing on the lintel, having for its subject a ship sailing on rough water.

Windows of houses were almost always square-headed. They appear so in existing examples belonging to the Gothic period. The traceries and pointed heads, usual in early civic buildings, were rarely adopted for house windows, although arched spaces, filled with tracery, were not uncommonly built over them. A fine series of such window-heads is to be seen on the stone front of the "Scotch House" at Veere (page 97); there are others at Kampen and on a house in the Groenmarkt at Dordrecht. Except in cases where the openings were small, they were divided vertically by mullions and transversely by cross-bars. The lower windows were closed by wooden shutters. Two examples, from Nijmegen and Dordrecht (page 99), both of Gothic design and of sixteenth century workmanship, are illustrated. The Dordrecht shutter is constructed of beautifully grained pieces of oak, jointed and pegged together.

Late Gothic windows have also pointed and elliptical arches over the heads unenriched by decoration. They were customarily built in brickwork, with the window spaces flush, or set back from the face of the walling. Pointed arches ceased to be generally used after the coming of the Renaissance. The elliptical shape, however, continued, and the establishment of the circular arch was but a short and natural step in development. These two forms obtained for many succeeding years. Instances of either type are presented in the drawing from Zwolle (page 101), and innumerable others are shown by the illustrations in this volume. They were not given up until displaced by classic pediments, or the overhead feature was altogether abandoned. The gabled front at Gorinchem (page 103), built in stone and brick, has circular arches appearing over the windows. The enclosed spaces are richly decorated by stone carvings, and the character of the work seems to be advanced for the period to which it apparently belongs. Much interesting sculpture is also distributed over the gable and walls of this building.

Windows were first glazed with leaded lights. Small squares of glass, as at Dordrecht (page 98), or diamond panes were used. But during the seventeenth century the employment of wooden bars became universal and leadwork went out of fashion. The openings were divided centrally by transoms, the lower windows receding inwards considerably more than the upper ones.

Wooden shutters, opening outwards, were still customary. They were occasionally large enough to cover the whole window, but usually only the lower half was furnished with them. Seventeenth-century shutters are not comparable, in point of carved enrichment, with those of Gothic times; the woodwork, frequently devoid of ornament, is fastened to the window-frames by iron strap-hinges, and fitted with bolts and catches. They are, however, brightly painted and are interesting in consequence, giving colour to the architectural groups. Many harmonious schemes are to be observed; green and white; white, green and red; yellow and black; red and black; and numerous others. The coloured drawing from Nijmegen (opposite) shows shutters painted in red and black; while several specimens, from North and South Holland, are given (pages 98 to 100). The glazing of windows was first enclosed by casements, with hinges to open and shut. After casements came sash windows, which were substituted for the older form. There are many shown in the illustrations. Those from Flushing (page 105), appearing on a house dated 1625, differ somewhat from the usual type, being surrounded by mouldings and carvings. Dormer windows also, as has already been stated, became much-developed features during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Three characteristic specimens are given: two from Kampen, of the years 1626 and 1634, and a later dormer, from Marssum, belonging to the eighteenth century, all shown on page 102.

The distinguishing gables--so often mentioned, and intimately associated with house development--exhibit infinite varieties of treatment. Between the early stepped shapes, and the fantastic outlines of later days, there is an innumerable succession. They followed the trend of design prevalent at the time of their erection. Thus, the two gables, from Kampen (page 104) and Dordrecht (page 107), are in keeping with the current forms of the late Gothic period. They are both built of stone and decorated on the face with sunk panels and carvings. The Kampen gable has pinnacles rising from the coping of the steps, usual features in work of the time; while the twisted finials at Dordrecht, associated with the first quarter of the sixteenth century, are worthy of notice.

It is impossible to consider here in detail the numerous vicissitudes through which the development of the gable passed during the many years that Gothic and Renaissance motives were acting together as guiding influences. Roughly and briefly, mediæval character was observed in respect to construction and general management of masses--evident by the stepped and curved gables--with a marked tendency to Classic feeling in the handling of details. Work was carried out wholly in brick, or in brick relieved by stone. Among the large number of different outlines that are in evidence, those based on the original stepped form show predominantly. But the spirit of the times is discernible in the culminating pediments, mouldings, and stone decorations. Four typical gables, all sketched in North Holland, are illustrated (pages 106 and 109). A good example of shaping, achieved by the use of oppositive curves, is that from Arnhem (page 108), and the stonework of the copings extends to the strapwork ornament.

Two gables from Leiden (page 109) are well carried out in brickwork. How effectively window-heads and copings were handled, yet withal in a perfectly workmanlike way, is demonstrated by the larger drawing; the brickwork is flush and obliquely tailed into the horizontal courses of the wall.

Long sweeping curves were much employed in the shaping of later gables. The house opposite the bridge in the Franeker illustration (page 113) has such a gable, and it is dated 1735. Another, from Amsterdam (page 110), has similar characteristics. Both are enriched with stone representations of fruit and flowers, vases and festoons, all quite in the spirit of late seventeenth and eighteenth-century work.

The sides of the gables of farmhouses and country cottages, straight and unshaped, are not uncommonly protected by barge-boards. The two timbers, running from base to apex, may have mouldings worked at the edge of them; or the undersides are diversified by repeating curves, with pendants appearing at the lower ends. Both methods are figured in detail in drawings 1, 2, and 4 on page 111. Fascia-boards, applied to overhanging stories of wooden houses, are similarly decorated; two are exemplified in numbers 6 and 7. The wooden finials, which are planted on the outer faces of the gables at their highest points, are variously shaped and perforated, and the details numbered 1, 2, 3 and 5 give four examples of them.

There is an absence of interesting chimneys in Holland, for the gable ends of the high and narrow-fronted houses, bordering the street, obscured from view these objects of usefulness. Solely utilitarian, therefore, they generally remained, shafts of the simplest form, serving the purpose for which they were devised, owing nothing to beauty or ornament and little to precedent. When hipped roofs were employed, instead of gables, chimneys came into greater prominence. But even then--with an absence of developed, traditional forms to give the basis for the evolution of a settled type--they did not constitute important decorative factors in the architectural scheme. Many stacks have neither mouldings nor other projection at the top. Chimneys a little more elaborate than was usual are shown by the two illustrations from Hoorn and Zutphen (page 112). They deviate somewhat from the plain rectangular shape, and both have moulded heads; while the Hoorn example has a pyramidal hood covered with lead and supported by four metal uprights.

Isolated stone ornaments are numerous. They were inserted into walls with freedom and wheresoever caprice or fancy suggested--high up on gables, around doorways, over windows, or distributed on what would otherwise have been unrelieved spaces. The rich appearance of the buildings is in no small measure due to the extravagant use of these details. That bizarre kind of ornament, known by the name of strapwork, and well shown in the Arnhem gable (page 108), was freely used, as was carved work based upon Italian motives. Among the latter may be mentioned the more or less conventional representation of human forms, fruit and flowers, birds, fishes and beasts, with prominence given to heads of lions, or the complete animal in the attitude sejeant, popularly used as a gable termination.

Of a more homely and personal character are the frequently occurring panels bearing, in well-cut figures and letters, dates, mottoes, and inscriptions; four are exemplified by the accompanying drawings from Zutphen (page 115) and Haarlem (pages 114 to 116). Equally symbolic of pride of home are the carved coats-of-arms which keep green, by visible sign, the memory of the builder and the honour of his house. One such armorial decoration from Workum, dated 1644, is illustrated on page 115. All these little enrichments, so constantly seen, are more than mere examples of craftsmanship; they essentially express the sentiments of the man who caused the stones to be laid.

Things to be observed in everyday life naturally furnished subjects for carvings in stone. The forces of Nature, greatly influential in Holland--that is to say, water and wind and all that resulted therefrom--were turned to for inspiration. Decoratively treated water, with ships, windmills, and other appliances relevant to human convenience or suggestive of enterprise, were especially favoured. A windmill from Sneek, high in relief and painted black, red, gold and white, together with a ship from Haarlem appearing in an oval panel surrounded by a scrollwork frame, are illustrated (page 115). Interesting is the wall-panel at Franeker (page 114), with a scene from local history depicted upon it; there is much spirit shown in the carving of the men and horses, while the water, drawbridge, and distant houses are well managed. The house known as "Inde Steenrotse," situated on the Dwars Quay at Middelburg, dated 1590, is noteworthy for its large panels in high relief. It was built by a wealthy mason. Five of the carved subjects portray various episodes connected with the working of stone and two are here given (page 116); others, higher up the building, represent biblical scenes from the Book of Exodus.

The mosaic decorations are of unusual interest, for they are of a kind more or less peculiar to this country. They were formed by inlaying small pieces of brick and stone set together to make repeating patterns or panels. As was customary, materials were used with just regard for their suitable adaptability to purpose; not employed unreasonably, or strained to accomplish that for which they were not fitted. The units were simple and results legitimate. This ornamental work was principally used to enrich the arched spaces over window-heads; less frequently it appears in bands carried horizontally across the buildings.

The houses at Woudrichem (page 117)--inscribed "Iden Salamander 1606" and "Zuden Gulden Engel 1593"--have notable examples of mosaics in the window-heads. Two of the patterns are shown in detail on page 118, together with two others from a house near by. All were achieved by manipulating little shaped pieces of brick to form devices, especially noticeable being the starlike figures with radiating points. Work of a similar kind appears on the house at Zwolle, dated 1609, and illustrated on page 119. An enlarged drawing of one of the window-heads (page 118) gives the precise arrangement of the brick and stonework. There is quite a Moorish feeling evident in this design, with the two main portions of inlay enclosed by arch-shaped lines curved horseshoe fashion. The horseshoe arch was essentially a product of Morocco, and the analogy with the East is further strengthened by the fact that mosaic was a medium extensively used by Byzantine and Saracenic artists. These circumstances all suggest the origin of the employment of such work in Holland.

On page 118 is represented a small section of the horizontal mosaic band that appears over the archway at Nijmegen (page 41). Simpler patterns were also formed with ordinary narrow bricks and mortar. Two examples are here given, both carried out in red and yellow bricks,--a frieze at the first storey level of a house at Workum and shaped spaces from Franeker (page 120).

Turning to external metalwork the most characteristic objects are the iron wall-ties. They were applied to walls to give them stability. But the possibilities for artistic treatment which the wall-ties offered were by no means overlooked, as is demonstrated by the many and varied forms produced by the blacksmiths, who regarded these accessories, before all things, as the particular field for the display of their skill. Endless varieties are to be found, certain patterns being local to specific districts. Upon ordinary houses--and they were practically invariably used--they are usually no more elaborate than might be achieved by direct work on the anvil; of honest but unambitious appearance and shaped in simple ways, such as are shown by the illustrations on page 121. But the wall-ties of more important buildings are often complicated affairs; beautiful examples of design and craftsmanship which were wrought with labour. They are rich in scrolls and curves with foliated ornament, and one of the examples here given (page 123) has the date of 1798 worked within it. Iron letters and figures also decorate the fronts of many houses. Each is detached and secured to the wall by a single stay. They are arranged to denote dates or monograms. An example has already been seen at the base of a gable at Middelburg (page 35); another specimen, from St. Anna, near Nijmegen, is reproduced on page 122.

Other wrought ironwork was used for various purposes on doors and windows, as well as to heighten the effect of certain features. A good instance of its application is demonstrated by the key-escutcheon, with supporting iron decorations, from Middelburg (page 123). The workmanship is of a traditional kind, with Gothic forms recalled by the cusps on the pierced plates. The iron door-knocker, appearing on the same page, is an interesting example of curious design and belongs to the sixteenth or seventeenth century. For windows, ironwork was used in the stout stay-bars and stanchions, instances of which, fitted to an oval opening, are furnished from Leiden (page 122).

The magnificent wrought vanes of Holland, surmounting lofty belfries on public buildings, are justly famous and are reflected in the less elaborate shapes that adorn the roof points or gable terminations of business and dwelling-houses. One, from Middelburg (page 122), is a beautiful example of an iron terminal. The crowning figure and fleur-de-lis are gilded, while signs and symbols of the Zodiac are worked around the outer and inner open-framed globes. Simpler vanes are common throughout the country, attached to farmhouses or stables. That from Broek (page 122) is shaped like a swan; one may be seen at Veere which takes the form of a ship. The shaft of the weathercock from Hees (page 124) is made up of iron scrolls, welded together, and four projecting arms point to north, south, east and west.

The leadwork to be observed on domestic buildings is not of remarkable interest. There are no wonderful decorated rain-water heads such as may be seen elsewhere, and lead heads, when used at all, are for the most part comparatively plain, square projections. The examples from Zutphen, reproduced on page 122, illustrate two ordinary forms. An interesting feature, prevalent in North Holland, is the lead finial placed at the apex of a hipped roof. There are many examples in the streets of Hoorn, three of which are shown on page 124. Notice should be taken of the delicate little fretwork heads; the repoussé patterns on the upright sides; and the iron vane which surmounts one of the examples. These objects, although of little practical use, have a decorative value that well justifies their existence. In all these exterior features and details, whether executed in wood or stone, metal or brick, there is especial evidence of the type of mind that was concerned with their production; they pertinently give the key to temperament and character. Such work resulted from deliberate thought and calculation, rather than from imaginative impulse. Sometimes it verged on dulness, yet there is always traceable a certain solid strength and vigour. This is well seen in the stone carvings, here illustrated, whose subjects are often lacking in originality or follow some oft-repeated theme. They are excellently carved, however, and attain interest in consequence. For the individuality of the masons is reflected in the inanimate stone. They gave life to their work and freshness to old subjects. Each man followed his own bent. Some were a little in advance of their time, some behind it, so there are endless variations to patterns that superficially agree. A new turn was given to a scroll here, a different arrangement there; just small things that served to raise work from the conventional and commonplace.

The olden craftsmen respected tradition. Forms that became established by custom were handed down from generation to generation. Certain ornaments continued to be used, almost unaltered, over a very long period. Not that patterns were slavishly followed; on the contrary, each man gave his own interpretation of what he knew had served so well, and fashioned his work in his own way. But he remembered something of that which had gone before. Traditions of ornamentation were just as much founded upon accumulated experience as were the main styles of architecture. The worker saw around him the forces of Nature, active yet unchanging, the abiding waterways, the ancient churches standing as they had done in times long past, and it was in a spirit of respect for the permanence of spiritual and material things that he pursued his craft. This was altogether good. Methods of workmanship, the treatment of features, and types of enrichment, were gradually evolved. They were governed by ordered principles that slowly grew together and became established, principles that served to check the introduction of inharmonious innovations which would have been out of sympathy with all those forms that, as a whole, were customary and usual.

Doorways, windows, gables and ornaments, therefore, by their particular appearance, mark various steps in a long-continued process of development. Period followed period. After the pointed-arched doorways came the circular-headed; gables of simple outline in course of time became more complex; fashions in the shaping of wall-ties changed. But nothing happened suddenly. Craftsmen were content to solve their own problems without any show of haste. It was by such methods that incongruities were avoided.

The national temperament always asserted itself and each individual as he carved his stone, laid his bricks, worked his wood, or wrought his iron, did his small part to keep alive the inherited traditions, and pass them on so that they should be vigorous to meet the needs of future generations.

The ornamental features that appear on the exterior walls impart to the buildings of Holland much of that quaintness for which they are distinguished. Although the decorations are so plentifully applied, they do not often appear misplaced or offend the eye. For the natural conditions of the country have always been peculiar. The low-lying lands and ever-present water demand a special type of architecture which shall be in thorough sympathy with the surroundings, as well as outwardly express the character of those people who live amongst them. Much is possible and good in Holland which would be out of place, or even bad, elsewhere. The many houses, appearing where they do, are admirably conceived. Rich with ornaments, date panels, little carvings, mosaics and ironwork--such as are shown by the illustrations in this section--with coloured bricks fashioned in many ways, and doorways and windows highly decorated, they cannot fail to appeal to those who see them in their natural environment. There is a personal note about each dwelling. They are houses that look like homes, places to be treasured by succeeding generations. And the evidences of pride of possession to be seen in the isolated panels carved with arms, dates and inscriptions, or similar motives worked around doorways, especially give to the brick and stone-built walls a home-like and fireside quality. Students of English architecture will have observed how homely ideas affected the appearance of the houses of Holland just as they did those of England. Similar sentiments obtained in both countries and indirectly brought kindred features to the buildings.

It requires but little imagination to people once again the streets and waterways with men and women and of their lives are on every hand. The stones they lovingly caused to be carved are there; the heavy studded doors that yielded to their hands are still framed by old entrance ways. The work was done that it should last and yet it stands, solid and good. The glory of the house may have departed; yet there still remains the material record of lives well-spent and duties well-performed. And in this the carved monograms and dates are full of meaning.

DIVISION III

INTERIORS AND DECORATION

There are, within the old buildings of Holland, interior effects of rare charm. They are hidden away from the outer world behind high gabled fronts of sober houses, beyond the thresholds of country farms. These interiors are rich in memories of the past. They tell of bygone times and bring vivid pictures of civic and home life to the imagination. Solidly built, they were erected with due thought to permanence, that they should stand from generation to generation; that men's memories might be honoured by their children and their children's children. That it should be continuous and abiding was the keynote of the old work which to this day is fresh and beautiful, full of life and vitality, although the makers of it have long since gone and are forgotten. And while things were made to be durable, so also were they made to please the eye and gratify the senses. Good construction, accompanied by much enrichment, gave results tending towards extreme elaboration. Rooms became imposing by their massive ceiling beams supported by sculptured corbels; panelling, or maybe Spanish leather or tapestry, upon the walls; carved oaken doors; fireplaces in wood and stone adorned with columns, figures and other devices; coloured tiles of many patterns; cast-iron firebacks and wrought metalwork; panels of painted glass in the windows; floors of oak, veined marble, or glazed quarries; brass candelabrums hanging from the ceilings, with movable furniture and ornaments disposed in many places.

A good impression of a seventeenth-century room may be gathered from the accompanying illustration from Dordrecht (page 128). The walls are panelled in oak up to a certain height; above is a deep white frieze, admirably adapted for displaying the blue-and-white ware and pictures which rest against it. The chimney-piece is sumptuous, alternately gay and sober, charming below the mantel with brightly-coloured tiles and shining metal utensils, dignified above with panelling and projecting frieze. Forming the dividing line between mantel and fireplace is a mantel-cloth of blue material, inscribed with the homely maxim "Oost West, Thuis Best," and bearing a brace of crossed tobacco-pipes worked at each end of it. A good specimen of a brass candelabrum is attached to the central ceiling beam, while the floor is covered with matting. Solid oak furniture, massive and heavy, completes this picture of material comfort and pleasantness. Equally characteristic is the room at Leeuwarden (page 129). Similar features will be observed--panelling and carved woodwork; ceiling joists and beams, which are here supported by moulded corbels; blue-and-white ware, tiles, and a blue velvet mantel-cloth. The hearth is of squares of black and white marble. Upon it stands a copper fire-holder; behind is a cast-iron fireback adorned with an armorial subject. In the lead-glazed window are two circular panels of painted glass.

Another example of a brass candelabrum, similar to the one above-mentioned, is shown by the drawing from Haarlem (page 127). It is of a type that was customary. Many such still exist in old-world rooms, suspended from high ceilings by chains or rods. Apart from their uses for purposes of illumination, they are highly successful as centre ornaments, for it will be seen how effectively they were made, with curved decorated brackets branching from shaped shafts. Patterns are various, but there are certain essentials common to all and a general resemblance between each. Thus, a particularly beautiful candelabrum in the Town Hall at Zwolle, with an image of the Virgin and pierced, leaf-like brackets, is but an elaboration of the simple familiar form. Some carry three lights only, ordinarily there are ten or twelve; while an example noticed at Haarlem, with twenty-seven candles, probably represents the extreme capacity of this old-fashioned system of lighting.

Of interior features, first in importance come the fireplaces. Great thought was given to the decoration of them, the appearance of many being rich beyond description. Numerous kinds of materials were used for their adornment; brick and stone, wood, marble and slate, coloured tiles and terra-cotta, all giving value to the imposing compositions. And although the materials were so various, they were skilfully combined to produce harmonious results. Fireplaces were brought forward from the walls and not set back within them. The openings were of ample size, wide and high. The jambs, enriched with mouldings or appearing as columns, supported massive hoods that extended upwards to the ceiling.

The fireplace at Maastricht (page 131) is a good specimen of the late Gothic type. It belongs to the year 1510, this date being carved on the centre scroll. Upon the sandstone jambs are worked Gothic mouldings which spring from shaped stops resting on square bases. The broad frieze is rich with carvings of angels, conventional flowers, cusps, and two shields, bearing the arms of Maastricht and Liège. The rear of the opening is lined with pressed terra-cotta tiles that exhibit a variety of designs in low relief. Against it is set an iron fireback ornamented with a heraldic device. The wooden figures on the mantel-shelf are merely placed thereon and are not inherent to the design.

Details of fireplaces changed with the passing of Gothic influences, although the olden form was still retained. Classic columns, or less frequently, human figures and grotesques, were substituted for moulded jambs. They commonly supported a carved oak frieze surmounted by a projecting cornice. Such chimney-pieces are by no means rare in Holland and may generally be ascribed to the seventeenth century. One, from Leeuwarden, has already been illustrated on page 129. Another example, from Middelburg, is here given (page 133). The columns are of white marble, but the jambs behind them, together with the bases and corbels, are of slate and are decorated with strapwork patterns. The oak mantel is inlaid with bands and panels of light wood. Tiles of blue, white and yellow cover the back, and border the upright sides of the iron hearth.

The chimney-piece at Amsterdam (page 130) is of an unusual pattern. It is situated in the room of the Bricklayers' Guild and is of early seventeenth-century workmanship. The opening is framed of stone. Over the mantel-shelf is a curved pediment with the arms of Amsterdam carved upon it. Fitted to the chimney-breast above is a small oval painted panel enclosed by brickwork.

The fireplace from the Westerwold (page 135), now at Groningen, belongs to a later period than the preceding example. A wooden chimney-shelf and pilasters, almost black in colour, support the tapering hood. The back of the fireplace is faced with blue-and-white tiles and red bricks. A protecting fireback rests against it, while a hanger, hooked within the opening, holds the metal pot over the fire. The effect of this fireplace and its accessories, admirably decorative in themselves, is further enhanced by the pure white surrounding walls, and by the parti-coloured floor laid with red and yellow quarries.

Cast-iron firebacks have been noticed in the previous illustrations. They were generally used where fires burned on open hearths. The castings are rather light and thin, and were taken from wooden models. They are ornamented with floral and heraldic subjects, or designs suggested by classical myths and bible stories. Of the four examples illustrated on pages 132 and 134, two have armorial bearings, surrounded by rich borders, cast upon them. The one from Leiden is dated 1609, and the other, from Nijmegen, 1650. Both of the remaining specimens from Jisp and Middelburg, are decorated with figure subjects, bordered by fruit and scrolls and flowers. All the work is in rather low relief.

Fuel, in the form of peat or charcoal, was responsible for certain utensils in which it could be conveniently burned. One such is given on page 139. It is an iron fire-standard suited for holding peat, and was drawn in the Museum at Dordrecht. The lines of the design are good, especially to be observed in the engaged scrolls and shaping of the top. It is, withal, serviceably made. Small boxes containing fire, placed upon the floor in front of chairs, served as foot-warmers (page 148). They are of square or oval shape. The sides are frequently patterned and the lids perforated. Fires were also contained in iron pots which stood upon oak stools within the fireplaces; or they burned in little iron hearths, which were set towards the centre of the rooms, with no provision made for carrying away the smoke. The former system is exemplified by the drawing from Leeuwarden (page 137), and the latter by an illustration from a cottage at Marken (page 136).

A small crane is often seen attached to the back of the fireplace. A kettle or pot rests upon it, which might, if desired, be swung over or away from the fire. The specimen here reproduced (page 136) is from Leeuwarden. It has one simple movement, that of swinging backwards and forwards. The curved arm is made of brass, and shaped to resemble a fish. Out of the mouth comes the iron kettle-holder with a small chain affixed, handy for drawing it to and fro. Allied to the crane, and used for a similar purpose, is the hanger that was suspended from the flue. The two specimens appearing on page 139 are from Middelburg, and both are constructed of iron. They can be made to hang high or low, one by means of a ratchet, and the other by a catch, which fits into pierced holes and is shown in detail.

The set of fire-irons, also from Middelburg (page 139), furnishes admirable examples of useful objects, suitably adorned. The plate to which the fire-irons hang, with scallop-like indentations at its upper edge, is enriched with incised decoration, depicting a ship, trees, birds, letters, and the date of 1787. The tongs at the extreme left are so fashioned that one arm, being hollow, may be used as a blowpipe. Next in order is a ladle adapted for scooping up ashes from the hearth. Upon the flat handle is further incised ornamentation, based upon floral motives. The central object is a blowpipe, and a second pair of tongs completes the set. With the exception of some of the ends and terminations, which are of brass, these implements are made of iron, brightly polished.