Chapter XII: Rain-Making Ceremonies

Among the Kalyana Singapu Kondhs of Vizagapatam, a rain-making ceremony called barmarakshasi is performed, which consists in making life-size mud images of women seated on the ground, holding grindstones between their knees, and offering sacrifices to them. [367]

In times of drought, the Koyis of the Godavari district hold a festival to Bhima, one of the Pandava brothers from whom they claim descent, and, when rain falls, sacrifice a cow or a pig to him. It is said [368] to be considered very efficacious if the Brahmans take in procession round the village an image of Varuna (the god of rain) made of mud from the bed of a river or tank. Another method is to pour a thousand pots of water over the lingam in the Siva temple. Malas (Telugu Pariahs) tie a live frog to a mortar, and put on the top thereof a mud figure representing the deity Gontiyalamma. They then take these objects in procession, singing "Mother frog, playing in water, pour rain by potsfull." The villagers of other castes then come and pour water over the Malas.

The Rev. S. Nicholson informs me that, to produce rain in the Telugu country, two boys capture a frog, and put it into a basket with some nim (margosa, Melia Azadirachta) leaves. They tie the basket to the middle of a stick, which they support on their shoulders. In this manner, they make a circuit of the village, visiting every house, singing the praises of the god of rain. The greater the noise the captive animal makes, the better the omen, and the more gain for the boys, for at every house they receive something in recognition of their endeavours to bring rain upon the village fields.

"In the Bellary district when the rain fails, the Kapu (Telugu
cultivator) females catch a frog, and tie it alive to a new
winnowing fan made of bamboo. On this fan, leaving the frog
visible, they spread a few margosa leaves, and go singing from
door to door, 'Lady frog must have her bath; oh! rain god, give
at least a little water for her.' This means that the drought has
reached such a stage that there is not even a drop of water for
the frogs. When the Kapu female sings this song, the woman of the
house brings a little water in a vessel, pours it over the frog,
which is left on the fan outside the door sill, and gives some
alms. She is satisfied that such an action will bring down rain in
torrents. On the first full-moon day in the month of Bhadrapada
(September), the agricultural population in the Bellary district
celebrate a festival called Jokumara, to appease the rain-god. The
Barike women (said to belong to the Gaurimakkalu section of the
Kabbera caste) go round the village in which they live, with
a basket on their heads containing margosa leaves, flowers of
various kinds, and sacred ashes. They beg for alms, especially
from the cultivating classes, and, in return for the alms bestowed
(usually grain or food), they give some of the leaves, flowers,
and ashes. The cultivators take these to their fields, prepare
cholam (Sorghum) kanji or gruel, mix them with it, and sprinkle
the kanji over their fields. After this the cultivator proceeds
to the potter's kiln in the village, and fetches ashes from it,
with which he makes the figure of a human being. This figure is
placed in a field, and called Jokumara or rain-god, and is supposed
to have the power of bringing down the rain in due season. A second
kind of Jokumara worship is called muddam, or the outlining of rude
representations of human figures with powdered charcoal. These are
made in the early morning, before the bustle of the day commences,
on the ground at cross-roads, and along thoroughfares. The Barikes,
who draw these figures, are paid a small remuneration in money or
kind. The figures represent Jokumara, who will bring down rain,
when insulted by people treading on him. Yet another kind of
Jokumara worship prevails in the Bellary district. When rain fails,
the Kapu females model a small figure of a naked human being, which
they place in a miniature palanquin, and go from door to door,
singing indecent songs, and collecting alms. They continue this
procession for three or four days, and then abandon the figure in
a field adjacent to the village. The Malas take possession of the
abandoned Jokumara, and, in their turn, go about singing indecent
songs, and collecting alms for three or four days, and then throw
the figure away in some jungle. This form of Jokumara worship
is also believed to bring down plenty of rain. In the Bellary
district, the agriculturists have a curious superstition about
prophesying the state of the coming season. The village of Mailar
contains a Siva temple, which is famous throughout the district
for an annual festival held there in the month of February. This
festival has now dwindled into more or less a cattle fair. But the
fame of the temple continues as regards the Karanika, which is a
cryptic sentence uttered by the priest, containing a prophecy of
the prospects of the agricultural season. The pujari (priest)
of the temple is a Kuruba (cultivating caste). The feast at
the temple lasts for ten days. On the last day, the god Siva is
represented as returning victorious from the battlefield, after
having slain the demon Malla (Mallasura) with a huge bow. He is
met half-way from the field of battle by the goddess. The wooden
bow is placed on end before the god. The Kuruba priest climbs
up it, as it is held by two assistants, and then gets on their
shoulders. In this posture he stands rapt in silence for a few
minutes, looking in several directions. He then begins to quake
and quiver from head to foot. This is the sign of the spirit of
the god Siva possessing him. A solemn silence holds the assembly,
for the time of the Karanika has arrived. The shivering Kuruba
utters a cryptic sentence, such as 'Thunder struck the sky.' This
is at once copied down, and interpreted as a prophecy that there
will be much rain in the year to come." [369]

It is said that, in the year before the Mutiny, the prophecy was "They have risen against the white-ants."

The villagers at Kanuparti in the Guntur district of the Telugu country objected, in 1906, to the removal of certain figures of the sacred bull Nandi and lingams, which were scattered about the fields, on the ground that the rainfall would cease, if these sacred objects were taken away.

To bring down rain, Brahmans, and those non-Brahmans who copy their ceremonial rites, have their Varuna japam, or prayers to Varuna, the rain-god. Some of the lower classes, instead of addressing their prayers to Varuna, try to induce a spirit or devata named Kodumpavi (wicked one) to send her paramour Sukra to the affected area. The belief seems to be that Sukra goes away to his concubinage for about six months, and, if he does not then return, drought ensues. The ceremony consists in making a huge figure of Kodumpavi in clay, which is placed on a cart, and dragged through the streets for seven to ten days. On the last day, the final death ceremonies of the figure are celebrated. It is disfigured, especially in those parts which are usually concealed. Vettiyans (Paraiyan grave-diggers), who have been shaved, accompany the figure, and perform the funeral ceremonies. This procedure is believed to put Kodumpavi to shame, and to get her to induce Sukra to return, and stay the drought. According to Mr W. Francis, [370] the figure, which is made of clay or straw, is dragged feet first through the village by the Paraiyans, who accompany it, wailing as though they were at a funeral, and beating drums in funeral time.

I am informed by Mr F. R. Hemingway that, when rain is wanted in the Trichinopoly district, an effigy called Koman (the king) is dragged round the streets, and its funeral performed with great attention to details. Or an effigy of Kodumpavi is treated with contumely. In some places, the women collect kanji (rice gruel) from door to door, and drink it, or throw it away on a tank bund (embankment), wailing the while as they do at funerals. People of the higher castes repeat prayers to Varuna, and read portions of the Virata Parvam in the Mahabharata, in the hope that the land will be as fertile as the country of the Virats, where the Pandavas lived. When the tanks and rivers threaten to breach their banks, men stand naked on the bund, and beat drums; and, if too much rain falls, naked men point firebrands at the sky. Their nudity is supposed to shock the powers that bring the rain, and arrest their further progress. According to Mr Francis, [371] when too much rain falls, the way to stop it is to send the eldest son to stand in it stark naked, with a torch in his hand.

A Native of Coimbatore wrote a few years ago that we have done all things possible to please the gods. We spent about two hundred rupees in performing Varuna japam on a grand scale in a strictly orthodox fashion. For a few days there were cold winds, and some lightning. But, alas, the japam was over, and with that disappeared all signs of getting any showers in the near future. It is noted by Haddon [372] that, in the Torres Straits, as elsewhere, the impossible is never attempted, and a rain charm would not be made when there was no expectation of rain coming, or during the wrong season.

There is, in some parts of the country, a belief that, if lepers are buried when they die, rain will not visit the locality where their corpses have been deposited. So they disinter the bodies, and throw the remains thereof into the river, or burn them. Some years ago, a man who was supposed to be a leper died, and was buried. His skeleton was disinterred, put into a basket, and hung to a tree with a garland of flowers round its neck. The Superintendent of Police, coming across it, ordered it to be disposed of.

The following quaint superstitions relating to the origin of rain are recorded by Mr Gopal Panikkar. [373]

"In the regions above the earth, there are supposed to exist
large monsters called Kalameghathanmar, to whom is assigned
the responsibility of supplying the earth with water. These
monsters are under the direction and control of Indra, [374] and
are possessed of enormous physical strength. They have two huge
horns projecting upwards from the sides of the crown of the head,
large flashing eyes, and other remarkable features. All the summer
they are engaged in drawing up water from the earth through their
mouths, which they spit out to produce rain in the rainy season. A
still ruder imagination ascribes rain to the periodical discharge
of urine by these monsters. Hence, in some quarters, there exists a
peculiar aversion to the use of rain-water for human consumption."

NOTES

[1] "Gazetteer of the Nilgiris," 1908, i. 338.

[2] Bishop Whitehead, Madras Museum Bull., 1907, No. 3, v. 134.

[3] Madras Museum Bull., 1907, No. 3, v. 139-40.

[4] Malabar, 1887, i. 177-8.

[5] Used as a fly-flapper (chamara).

[6] "Malabar and its Folk," Madras, 2nd edition, 99-100.

[7] N. Sunkuni Wariar, "Ind. Ant.," 1892, xxi. 96.

[8] K. Srikantaliar, "Ind. Ant.," 1892, xxi. 193.

[9] M. N. Venkataswami, "Ind. Ant.," 1905, xxxiv. 176.

[10] "Gazetteer of the Godavari District," 1907, i. 66.

[11] "Note on the Koravas," 1908.

[12] M. J. Walhouse, "Ind. Ant.," 1881, x. 366.

[13] "Manual of the Cuddapah District," 1875, 293.

[14] "Gazetteer of the Godavari District," 1907, i. 47.

[15] M. J. Walhouse, "Ind. Ant.," 1876, v. 21.

[16] India, Truebner, Oriental Series, 1888, i. 182.

[17] Rev. S. Mateer, "Native Life in Travancore," 1883, 330-52.

[18] M. J. Walhouse, Journ. Anthrop. Inst., 1874, iv. 373.

[19] Voyage to the East Indies, 1777 and 1781.

[20] Rev. J. A. Sharrock, "South Indian Missions," 1910, 9.

[21] See Emma Rosenbusch (Mrs Clough), "While sewing Sandals, or Tales of a Telugu Pariah Tribe."

[22] L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, "The Cochin Tribes and Castes," 1909, i. 114.

[23] "Ind. Ant.," 1873, ii. 65.

[24] F. Fawcett, "Note on the Koravas," 1908.

[25] S. P. Rice, "Occasional Essays on Native South Indian Life," 1901, 95-6.

[26] Jeypore, Breklum, 1901.

[27] F. Fawcett, "Note on the Koravas," 1908.

[28] Fire-walking, see Thurston, "Ethnographic Notes in Southern India," 1907, 471-86.

[29] Udaya is one of the divisions of the Badagas, which ranks as superior to the other divisions.

[30] Koyis, see Cain, Madras Christian College Magazine (old series), v. 352-9, and vi. 274-80; also "Ind. Ant.," v., 1876, and viii., 1879.

[31] "Gazetteer of the South Arcot District," 1906, i. 98.

[32] Madras Museum Bull., 1907, No. 3, v. 166.

[33] "Manual of the Cuddapah District," 1875, 291.

[34] The Holeyas were formerly agrestic serfs.

[35] "Ind. Ant.," 1873, ii. 66.

[36] Earth-eating (geophagy), see my "Ethnographic Notes in Southern India," 1907, 552-4.

[37] Letters from Malabar, Translation, Madras, 1862.

[38] F. Fawcett, "Note on the Koravas," 1908.

[39] "Manual of the Cuddapah District," 1875, 288.

[40] Ibid., 285.

[41] M. Paupa Rao Naidu, "The Criminal Tribes of India," Madras, 1907, No. 3.

[42] T. M. Natesa Sastri, Calcutta Review, 1905, cxxi. 501.

[43] "Notes on the Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency," 1892, 90.

[44] "Malabar and its Folk," Madras, 2nd. ed., 58-9.

[45] Letters from Madras, 1843.

[46] "Hindu Feasts, Fasts, and Ceremonies," Madras, 1903, 32-3.

[47] Madras Weekly Mail, 15th October, 1908.

[48] Rev. E. W. Thompson, "The Last Siege of Seringapatam," 1907.

[49] "An Indian Olio," 98.

[50] "Manual of the North Arcot District" 1895, i. 223-4.

[51] S. M. Natesa Sastri, "Ind. Ant.," 1889, xviii. 287.

[52] Rev. J. Cain, "Ind. Ant.," 1875, iv. 198.

[53] F. Fawcett, "Note on the Koravas," 1908.

[54] "Ind. Ant.," 1876, v. 358.

[55] "Manual of the Ganjam District," 1882, 71-2.

[56] "Gazetteer of the Bellary District," 1904, i. 61.

[57] Madras Agricult. Bull., 1900, ii. No. 42.

[58] Madras Dioc. Mag., 1908.

[59] Madras Weekly Mail, 7th October 1909.

[60] Loc. cit.

[61] Madras Museum Bull., 1907, v., No. 3, 173.

[62] Many of the bird superstitions here recorded were published in an article in the Madras Mail.

[63] "Manual of the Cuddapah District," 1875, 293.

[64] "Gazetteer of the Bellary District," 1904, i. 61.

[65] "Manual of the Cuddapah District," 1875, 293.

[66] See Thurston, "Ethnographic Notes in Southern India," 1907, 44-7.

[67] J. S. F. Mackenzie, "Ind. Ant.," 1873, ii., 68.

[68] Rev. F. Dahmen, "Anthropos," 1908, iii. 28.

[69] Rev. M. Phillips, "Evolution of Hinduism," 1903, 123.

[70] "Manual of the Cuddapah District," 1875, 292.

[71] "Manual of the Cuddapah District," 1875, 288.

[72] "Gazetteer of the Tanjore District," 1906, i. 66.

[73] "Manual of the Kurnool District," 1886, 114.

[74] Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 1902, xiv., No. 2, 388-91.

[75] "Gazetteer of the Nilgiris," 1908, i. 328.

[76] Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay, i. 241-2.

[77] "Report on the Sea Fisheries of India and Burma," 1873, lxxvi.

[78] "Manual of the Kurnool District," 1886, 115.

[79] M. J. Walhouse, "Ind. Ant.," 1876, v. 23.

[80] Rev. F. Dahmen, "Anthropos," 1908, iii. 30.

[81] "Ind. Ant.," 1876, v. 359.

[82] H. J. Stokes, "Ind. Ant.," 1874, iii. 90.

[83] J. S. Chandler, Calcutta Review, July, 1903, cxvii. 28.

[84] "Totemism," 1887, 33.

[85] M. J. Walhouse, Journal Anthrop. Inst., 1874, iv. 376.

[86] H. D. Taylor, "Madras Census Report," 1891.

[87] Madras Mail, 26th January, 1906.

[88] L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, "Cochin Tribes and Castes," 1909, i. 22.

[89] Madras Mail, 26th January, 1906.

[90] S. P. Rice, "Occasional Essays on Native South Indian Life," 1901, 211.

[91] Journ. Roy. Asiat. Soc., 1884, xvi. 181.

[92] Report, Govt. Botanical Gardens, Nilgiris, 1903.

[93] "Gazetteer of Malabar," 1908, i. 163.

[94] Letters from Malabar, Translation, Madras, 1862.

[95] 1862, iii. 464.

[96] "Malabar and its Folk," Madras, 2nd ed., 59.

[97] C. Karunakara Menon, Calcutta Review, July, 1901.

[98] C. Karunakara Menon, Calcutta Review, July, 1901.

[99] Madras Mail, 22nd July, 1905.

[100] Vide, Yule and Burnell, "Hobson-Jobson," ed. 1903, 874-9.

[101] Asiatic Journal, ii. 381.

[102] Bishop Whitehead, Madras Diocesan Magazine, July, 1906.

[103] Rev. F. Dahmen, "Anthropos," 1908, iii. 22.

[104] Madras Mail, 26th January, 1906.

[105] Madras Mail, 26th January, 1906.

[106] M. Upendra Pai, Madras Christian Coll. Mag., 1895., xiii., No. 1, 29.

[107] Mem. Asiat. Soc., Bengal, 1906, i., No. 10.

[108] T. K. Gopal Panikkar, "Madras and its Folk," Madras, 2nd ed., 65-6.

[109] "Manual of the Cuddapah District," 1875, 293-4.

[110] Madras Mail, 26th January, 1906.

[111] "Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District," 1907, i. 286.

[112] "Manual of the South Canara District," 1895, ii. 242.

[113] "Mysore Census Report," 1891, part i. 235.

[114] S. K. Sundara Charlu, Indian Review, 1905, vi., No. 6, 421.

[115] "Gazetteer of the Trichinopoly District," 1907, i. 283.

[116] "Manual of the Cuddapah District," 1875, 288.

[117] "Plagues and Pleasures of Life in Bengal," 1907, 196-8.

[118] Madras Mail, 26th January, 1906.

[119] "Malayalam Dictionary," 1872, 983.

[120] Kerala Chintamani.

[121] Nature, 18th October, 1906.

[122] Grant Duff, "Notes from an Indian Diary, 1881-1886."

[123] L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, "The Cochin Tribes and Castes," 1909, i. 166.

[124] F. Fawcett, Madras Museum Bull., 1901, iii., No 3, 309.

[125] Malabar, 1887, i. 175.

[126] D'Alviella, "The Migration of Symbols," 1894, introduction; and Times (London), 3rd September, 1891.

[127] Madras Museum Bull., 1906, v., No. 2, 86-7.

[128] Madras Mail, 26th January, 1906.

[129] Leviticus, viii. 29.

[130] The Nayadis are a polluting class, whose approach within 300 feet is said to contaminate a Brahman.

[131] L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, "The Cochin Tribes and Castes," 1909, i. 55-6.

[132] M. J. Walhouse, Journ. Anthrop. Inst., 1890, xix. 56.

[133] "Gazetteer of the Tanjore District," 1906, i. 89.

[134] "Note on the Koravas," 1908.

[135] Madras Standard, 2nd June, 1903.

[136] A tarawad means a family, consisting of all the descendants in the female line of one common female ancestor.

[137] The senior male in a tarawad or tarwad.

[138] See Calcutta Review, July, 1901, cxiii. 21-5.

[139] Laterite is a reddish geological formation, found all over Southern India.

[140] Madras Christian Coll. Mag., 1895, xiii., No. 1, 24-5.

[141] The pipal or aswatha (Ficus religiosa). Many villages have such a tree with a platform erected round it, on which are carved figures of the elephant god Ganesa, and cobras. Village panchayats (councils) are often held on this platform.

[142] Indian Patriot, 13th January, 1908.

[143] Elayads, Ilayatus, or Nambiyatiris, are priests at most of the snake groves on the west coast.

[144] Calcutta Review, July, 1901, cxiii. 21.

[145] "Malabar and its Folk," Madras, 2nd ed., 150.

[146] Madras Standard, 2nd June, 1903.

[147] "Gazetteer of Malabar," 1908, i. 112.

[148] See "Men and Women of India," February, 1906.

[149] "The Cochin Tribes and Castes," 1909, i. 153-4.

[150] "Malabar and its Folk," Madras, 2nd ed., 147-8.

[151] Vol. i. 105.

[152] "Gazetteer of the South Arcot District," 1906, i. 102.

[153] "Gazetteer of the Tanjore District," 1906, i. 70.

[154] Sesha or Adisesha is the serpent, on which Vishnu is often represented as reclining.

[155] "Ind. Ant.," 1876, v. 188.

[156] See the Skanda Purana.

[157] Other colossal statues of Gummatta are at Karkal and Venur or Yenur in South Canara.

[158] The feast of lights (dipa, lights, avali, a row).

[159] See Bishop Whitehead, "The Village Deities of Southern India," Madras Museum Bull., 1907, v. No. 3.

[160] Ibid., 1901, iii. No. 3, 270-1.

[161] "Gazetteer of the Tanjore District," 1906, i. 219.

[162] Madras Dioc. Mag., November, 1910.

[163] See Fawcett, Note on the Mouth-lock Vow, Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay, i. 97-102.

[164] "Gazetteer of the Trichinopoly District," 1907, i. 289.

[165] Scottish Standard Bearer, November 1907.

[166] The Patnulkarans claim to be Saurashtra Brahmans.

[167] "Gazetteer of the Tanjore District," 1906, i. 71.

[168] "Gazetteer of the Madura District," i. 86.

[169] "Primitive Tribes of the Nilagiris," 1873, 17.

[170] Sudra is the fourth traditional caste of Manu.

[171] "Manual of the North Arcot District," 1895, i. 242.

[172] Mysore Census Report, 1901, part i. 519.

[173] Basavi, see article "Deva-dasi" in my "Castes and Tribes of Southern India," 1909, ii. 125-53.

[174] "Manual of the Cuddapah District", 1875, 283.

[175] Madras Museum Bull., 1907, v. No. 3, 149.

[176] "Gazetteer of the Trichinopoly District," 1907, i. 289.

[177] Jeypore, Breklum, 1901.

[178] "Gazetteer of the Tanjore District," 1906, 1. 72.

[179] "Gazetteer of the Madura District," 1906, i. 86-7.

[180] Ibid., 86.

[181] Madras Museum Bull., 1906, v., No. 2, 78-9.

[182] Madras Museum Bull., 1907, v., No. 3, 149.

[183] "Ind. Ant.," 1881, x. 364.

[184] The Pallis claim to be descendants of the fire race (Agnikula) of the Kshatriyas, and that, as they and the Pandava brothers were born of fire, they are related.

[185] "Gazetteer of the South Arcot District," 1906, i. 375-6.

[186] "Gazetteer of the Madura District," 1906, i. 85.

[187] "Narrative of Little's Detachment," 1794, 212-3.

[188] Lambadis or Brinjaris, who formerly acted as carriers of supplies and baggage in times of war in the Deccan.

[189] Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay, i. 253-4.

[190] "Ind. Ant.," 1879, viii. 219.

[191] Ibid., 1880, ix. 150.

[192] Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay, ii. 272.

[193] "Gazetteer of the Madura District," 1906, i. 86.

[194] "Gazetteer of the South Arcot District," 1906, i. 102.

[195] "Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies" translation by H. K. Beauchamp, 1897, ii. 610.

[196] "Ind. Ant.," 1880, ix. 152.

[197] "Mysore," 1897, ii. 350.

[198] Madras Museum Bull., 1901, iii., No. 3, 266.

[199] The making of a shrine, Calcutta Review, 1899, cviii. 173-5.

[200] Bhutha, or demon worship, prevails in South Canara, where the villages have their bhutha sthanam or demon shrine.

[201] "Cochin Census Report," 1901, part i. 25.

[202] "Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District," 1907, i. 329.

[203] "Gazetteer of the Anantapur District," 1905, i. 164.

[204] "Native Life in Travancore," 1883.

[205] "Gazetteer of the Madura District," 1906, i. 102.

[206] "Mediaeval Sinhalese Art," 1908, 70-75.

[207] Philalethes, "History of Ceylon," 1817, 163.

[208] M. Bapu Rao, Madras Christian Coll. Mag., April 1894, xi.

[209] "Gazetteer of the Madura District," 1906, i. 286.

[210] "Gazetteer of the South Arcot District," 1906, i. 278.

[211] F. Fawcett, Man, 1901, i., No. 29, p. 37.

[212] "Madras Census Report," 1901, part i. 134.

[213] "Malabar and its Folk," Madras, 2nd ed., 133.

[214] Thula (scales), purusha (man), danam (gift).

[215] See Shungoony Menon, "History of Travancore," 1878, 58-72.

[216] Madras Diocesan Record, October, 1905.

[217] "Christianity and Caste," 1893.

[218] Rev. J. Cain, Madras Christian Coll. Mag., 1887-8, v. 358.

[219] In Southern India, turmeric (Curcuma) is commonly called saffron (Crocus).

[220] "Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District," 1907, i. 75.

[221] Madras Museum Bull., 1907, v., No. 3, 134.

[222] Ibid., 171.

[223] "An Indian Olio," 79-80.

[224] "Gazetteer of the Nilgiris," 1908, i. 340.

[225] "The Tinnevelly Shanars," 1849.

[226] Madras Dioc. Mag., March, 1903.

[227] Rev. J. Cain, "Ind. Ant.," 1879, viii. 219.

[228] "Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies,' translation by H. K. Beauchamp, 1897, i. 143.

[229] "Gazetteer of the Anantapur District," 1905, i. 198.

[230] "Gazetteer of the South Arcot District," 1906, i. 93.

[231] "Gazetteer of the South Arcot District," 1906, i. 92-3.

[232] "Goa and the Blue Mountains," 1851, 339.

[233] "Gazetteer of the Bellary District," 1904, i. 60.

[234] F. Fawcett, Madras Museum Bull., 1901, iii., No. 3, 307.

[235] "Malabar," 1887, i. 175.

[236] "Malabar," 1887, i. 175.

[237] M. J. Walhouse, "Ind. Ant.," 1876, v. 23.

[238] F. Fawcett, Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay, i. 260.

[239] "Manual of the Kurnool District," 1886, 116.

[240] Tennent, "Ceylon," 1860, i. 145.

[241] "Manual of the Cuddapah District," 1875, 292.

[242] Madras Mail, 26th January, 1906.

[243] Madras Museum Bull., 1900, iii., No. 1, 41.

[244] Madras Museum Bull., 1901, iii., No. 3, 195-6.

[245] Madras Dioc. Mag., July, 1905.

[246] Rev. A. C. Clayton, Madras Museum Bull., 1906, v., No. 2, 86.

[247] Journ. Anthrop. Inst., 1890, xix., 56.

[248] Madras Christian Coll. Mag., January, 1907, vi. No. 7.

[249] Rev. A. C. Clayton, Madras Museum Bull., 1906, v., No. 2, 66.

[250] "The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian," translation, 3rd ed., 1903, ii. 332.

[251] The pearl fisheries are conducted from Tuticorin in the Tinnevelly district.

[252] "Ceylon," 1860, ii. 564-5.

[253] "The Golden Bough," 1900, ii. 241 et seq. Bibliography of human sacrifice among the Kondhs, see Thurston, "Castes and Tribes of Southern India," 1909, iii. 412-5.

[254] "Selections from the Records of the Government of India," No. v., Suppression of human sacrifice and infanticide, 1854. The subject of Meriah sacrifice is also dealt with by F. E. Penny, in her novel entitled "Sacrifice," 1910.

[255] "Personal Narrative of Service among the Wild Tribes of Khondistan," 1864.

[256] "The People of India," 1908, 62.

[257] "Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District," 1907, i. 202.

[258] "Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District," 1907, i. 262-3.

[259] Madras Weekly Mail, 6th June, 1894.

[260] "Ind. Ant.," 1876, v. 359.

[261] Madras Christian Coll. Mag., 1887-88, v. 357.

[262] "Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District," 1907, i. 202.

[263] "Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies," translation by H. K. Beauchamp, 1897, i. 70-1.

[264] "Ind. Ant.," 1879, viii. 219.

[265] Infanticide, see Thurston, "Ethnographic Notes in Southern India," 1907, 502-9.

[266] Marshall, "A Phrenologist amongst the Todas," 1873, 195.

[267] Ellis, "History of Madagascar."

[268] "The Village Deities of Southern India," Madras Museum Bull., 1907, v. 3, 137, 186.

[269] "Gazetteer of Malabar," 1908, i. 132.

[270] "Mysore and Coorg Manual," 1878, iii. 265.

[271] The Kaniyans of the west coast are exorcisers.

[272] "Mysore and Coorg Manual," 1878, iii. 264-5.

[273] "Ind. Ant.," 1881, x. 366.

[274] Ibid., 1876, v. 22.

[275] "Ind. Ant.," 1878, vii. 177.

[276] "Gazetteer of the Anantapur District," 1905, i. 179.

[277] "Manual of the Cuddapah District," 1875, 284.

[278] Lieutenant-General F. F. Burton, "An Indian Olio," 307.

[279] "Occasional Essays on Native South Indian Life," 1901, 72-3.

[280] "Manual of Medical Jurisprudence in India," 1870.

[281] Indian Review, May, 1900.

[282] "The Cochin Tribes and Castes," Madras, 1909, i. 77-81.

[283] "The Cochin Tribes and Castes," Madras, i. 176-7.

[284] "Malabar," 1887, i. 174.

[285] "Description of a Singular Aboriginal Race inhabiting the summit of the Neilgherry Hills," 1832, 83-4.

[286] "Madras Police Administration Report," 1900.

[287] "Manual of the Niligiri District," 1880, 212.

[288] "Madras Police Administration Report," 1904.

[289] Ibid., 1905-6.

[290] A. C. Haddon, "Magic and Fetishism" (Religions, ancient and modern), 1906, 51.

[291] See the articles devoted to these castes in my "Castes and Tribes of Southern India," 1909.

[292] B. Govinda Nambiar, Indian Review, May, 1900.

[293] M. J. Walhouse, "Ind. Ant.," 1876, v. 22.

[294] "Report of the Chemical Examiner, Madras," 1908, 5.

[295] Journ. and Proc. Asiat. Soc., Bengal, 1905, i. No. 9.

[296] Rev. A. C. Clayton, Madras Museum Bull., 1906, v., No. 2, 82.

[297] Cf. odi cult, 228-9.

[298] "Ind. Ant.," 1876, v. 22.

[299] Gloyer, Jeypore, Breklum, 1901.

[300] "Gazetteer of the Bellary District," 1904, i. 60.

[301] "Gazetteer of the South Arcot District," 1906, i. 93.

[302] "Gazetteer of the Tanjore District," 1906, i. 76.

[303] Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay, ii. 1890, 282-5.

[304] Indian Review, May, 1900.

[305] Journ. Royal Asiat. Soc., 1884, xvi. 185-6.

[306] For a detailed account of demonolatry among the Shanans, I would refer the reader to the Rev. R. (afterwards Bishop) Caldwell's now scarce "Tinnevelly Shanans," 1849.

[307] Madras Museum Bull., 1900, iii., No. 1, 51.

[308] Madras Mail, 18th November, 1905.

[309] An example of so-called homoeopathic magic. See Haddon, "Magic and Fetishism" (Religions ancient and modern), 1906, 19-22.

[310] "Ind. Ant.," 1876, v. 22.

[311] Laccadiveans come to the Malabar coast in sailing-boats.

[312] Nature, 18th October, 1906.

[313] Madras Mail, 18th November, 1905.

[314] F. Fawcett, Madras Museum Bull., 1901, iii., No. 3, 317.

[315] Madras Mail, 19th November, 1897.

[316] In like manner, the chief mourner at the funeral among many castes, after breaking a water-pot at the graveside, retires without looking back.

[317] F. Fawcett, Madras Museum Bull., 1900, iii., No. 1, 51.

[318] "Gazetteer of the Madura District," 1906, i. 103.

[319] F. Fawcett, Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay, i. 533-5.

[320] "Gazetteer of the Madura District," 1906, i. 87.

[321] "Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District," 1907, i. 73.

[322] L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, "The Cochin Tribes and Castes," 1909, i. 99.

[323] F. Fawcett, Madras Museum Bull., 1901, iii., No. 3, 247.

[324] M. J. Walhouse, "Ind. Ant." 1881, x. 364.

[325] "Occasional Essays on Native South Indian Life," 1901, 70-1.

[326] "Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District," 1907, i. 205.

[327] H. J. Stokes, "Ind. Ant.," 1876, v. 355-6.

[328] L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, "The Cochin Tribes and Castes," 1909, i. 167.

[329] "Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District," 1907, i. 73.

[330] "Ind. Ant.," 1876, v. 358.

[331] Trial by Ordeal, see my "Ethnographic Notes in Southern India," 1907, 407-32.

[332] "Gazetteer of the Godavari District," 1907, i. 64.

[333] Madras Christ. Coll. Mag., 1887-8, v. 355.

[334] At times of census, the Konda Doras have returned themselves as Pandava kulam, or Pandava caste.

[335] "Manual of the Cuddapah District," 1875, 290-1.

[336] Some Pandarams are managers of Siva temples.

[337] "A Madura Missionary, John Eddy Chandler: a Sketch of his Life," Boston.

[338] A. C. Haddon, "Magic and Fetishism" (Religions ancient and modern), 1906, 40.

[339] For much of the note on Kaniyans I am indebted to Mr N. Subramani Iyer.

[340] "Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar," translation, Hakluyt Society, 1866, 139.

[341] "Journey through Mysore Canara, and Malabar," 1807, ii. 528.

[342] "Malabar," 1887, i. 140-1.

[343] The Kaniyan, when wanted in his professional capacity, presents himself with triple ash marks of Siva on his chest, arms, and forehead.

[344] "Gazetteer of Malabar," 1908, i. 130.

[345] C. Gopalan Nair, Malabar Series, "Wynad, its People and Traditions," 1911, 70-1.

[346] Madras Museum Bull., 1901, iii., No. 3, 273-4.

[347] "Birds of India," 1877, i. 216-7.

[348] The Dusserah or Dasara is also known as Sarasvati puja or Ayudha puja (worship of weapons or tools). See p. 174.

[349] Madras Weekly Mail, 8th August, 1907.

[350] "History of Railway Thieves," 1904.

[351] The Koravas are professional burglars.

[352] "Madras Census Report," 1901, part i. 164.

[353] "Gazetteer of the Tanjore District," 1906, i. 69.

[354] "Our Tour in Southern India," 1883, 162-3.

[355] "Sketches of Field Sports Followed by the Natives of India," 1822.

[356] The note was originally published in Madras Museum Bull., 1906, v., No. 2, 98-105.

[357] The Cherumars are field labourers, who were formerly agrestic slaves, and, like other servile classes, possess special privileges on special occasions.

[358] The tulsi plant is the most sacred plant of the Hindus, by whom it is grown in pots, or in brick or earthen pillars (brindavanam) hollowed out at the top, in which earth is deposited. It is watered and worshipped daily.

[359] The sacred conch or chank shell is used as a musical instrument in processions, and during religious services at Hindu temples.

[360] "Ind. Ant," 1873, iii. 191.

[361] The name Black Town was changed to George Town, to commemorate the visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales to Madras in 1906.

[362] Journ. Anthrop. Inst., 1874, iv. 371.

[363] Buffalo races, see my "Castes and Tribes of Southern India," 1909, i. 157-62.

[364] "A Singular Aboriginal Race of the Nilagiris," 1832, 76.

[365] "Ind. Ant." 1879, viii. 34.

[366] Liquor is distilled from ippa flowers.

[367] "Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District," 1907, i. 73.

[368] "Gazetteer of the Godavari District," 1907, i. 47.

[369] Madras Mail, 4th November, 1905.

[370] "Gazetteer of the South Arcot District," 1906, i. 94.

[371] Ibid.

[372] "Magic and Fetishism" (Religions ancient and modern), 1906, 62.

[373] "Malabar and its Folk," Madras, 2nd ed., 63-4.

[374] Indra presides over the seasons and crops, and is therefore worshipped at times of sowing and reaping.

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