Chapter VI: Part 6

"No external injury, not even a fire, can destroy this tree from without, nor can any injury be done from within, as it is quite common to find it hollow, and I have seen one in which twenty or thirty men could lie down and sleep as in a hut. Nor does cutting down exterminate it, for I saw instances in Angola in which it continued to grow in length, after it was lying on the ground. Those trees, called exogenous, grow by means of successive layers on the outside; the inside may be dead, or even removed altogether, without affecting the life of the tree; this is the case with most of the trees of our climate. The other class is called endogenous, and increases by layers applied to the inside, and when the hollow of the tree is full, the growth is stopped, and the tree must die. Any injury is felt most severely by the first class on the bark, by the second on the inside, while the inside of the exogenous may be removed, or the outside of the endogenous may be cut, without stopping the growth in the least. The Mowana possesses the power of both. The reason is, that each of the laminæ possesses its own independent vitality; in fact, the Baobab is rather a gigantic bulb run up to seed than a tree. The roots, which may often be observed extending along the surface of the ground forty or fifty yards from the trunk, also retain their vitality after the tree is laid low, and the Portuguese now know that the best way to treat them is to let them alone, for they occupy much more room when cut down than when growing."

On examining the wood of the exogenæ, it will be found that in the very centre is a small column of cellular tissue, called the pith, and that from this, fine layers of the same substance radiate towards the circumference. These are called the medullary rays, or silver-grain; they form an exterior layer or ring of cellular substance on the outside of the wood, which is called the cambium. The lightness of wood is owing to its porosity, and, on examining a transverse section under the microscope (figs. 17 and 19), it will be seen how little of real space is occupied in wood by solid substance. The spaces between the wall-work of woody matter in the tree are all filled with sap, and hence it is that "green wood" is so much heavier than that which is well seasoned. It is its lightness and strength, together with the ease with which it can be cut and fashioned, which renders wood so exceedingly useful; but its inflammability and liability to decay are great barriers to its more general use.

The leaves of the exogenæ have their veins always in the form of a network, and not running parallel with each other, as in the endogenæ (fig. 21).

Of the three divisions of the vegetable kingdom, the exogenæ alone furnish building timber, properly so called, and it is doubtful whether nature has supplied a more generally applicable substance than wood; being a bad conductor, it can be handled in the coldest weather, which metal cannot, and, being easily cut or split, can be fashioned into almost any form.

The woods mostly in use for general purposes are the different kinds of pine, as American Pine, Norway Pine, yellow and white Deal, Mahogany, Oak, Beech, Elm, Ash, and Maple. In the "Penny Cyclopædia," under the article "Wood," is the following description of the different kinds used by cabinet-makers, &c.:--

"The woods that are used by the cabinet-maker for furniture of a more delicate kind are called 'fancy woods.' The use of these has become much more general since the introduction of the art of veneering, and now that this is done by machinery instead of by hand, a number of woods are used for furniture and other purposes, which, on account of their scarcity, could have been formerly used only to a very limited extent. The most common of the fancy woods, and that which is most used by cabinet-makers, is Mahogany. This wood is the produce of the 'Swienteria Mahogani.'

"Next in point of importance and use to Mahogany, is Rosewood. This wood obtains its name from its fragrance, and is the produce of a mimosa from the forests of Brazil; in veneering it affords about eight plates to the inch.

"King-wood is a beautiful wood much in use, brought from Brazil in logs four feet long and about five inches wide, and is used only for delicate articles; it is said to be the produce of a species of Baphia, a genus of Leguminous plants.

"Beef-wood is a very heavy wood of a pale red colour, and is brought from New Holland in logs nine feet long and thirteen or fourteen inches wide; the tree from which this is obtained is unknown to botanists, as well as most of those producing the fancy woods of commerce.

"Tulip-wood is brought into the market in very small pieces, not more than four feet long and five inches in diameter, so that probably it is the production of a shrub; it is clouded with red and yellow colours, and is used for bordering and for making small articles, such as caddies and work-boxes.

"Zebra-wood is probably the production of a large tree, as it is cheap enough to be made into tables, pianofortes, &c.; it is coloured brown on a white ground and clouded with black.

"Satin-wood is of a brilliant yellow colour with delicate glowing shades. It is the produce of a plant called Chloroxylon Swienteria, a native of India; it is one of the trees that yield the wood-oil of India, and belongs to the natural order Cedrelaceæ, the same order in which the mahogany is placed; it is found in the market in logs two feet wide and seven or eight feet long.

"Sandal-wood is the produce of a species of Sandoricum belonging to the family Meliaceæ; the wood is of a light brown colour with golden-coloured waves.

"Ebony and Iron-wood are the names given to some very hard woods, the produce of the natural order Ebenaceæ. These woods are mostly brought from India, although some of the species are found in Europe and America.

"There are several other woods occasionally used amongst cabinet-makers, of which little is known, either with regard to the places they come from, or the trees to which they belong. Canary-wood has a yellow colour; Purple-wood has a purple colour, without veins; Snake-wood is of a deep colour with black shades; Calander-wood is a handsome cheap wood taking a high polish, and is brought from Ceylon.

"Other woods are named after the places they come from, as Coromandel-wood, Amboyna-wood, &c."

Woods are largely used as dye-stuffs; the chief of these is log-wood, which has a deep red colour, is very heavy and solid, and yields a great deal of red colouring matter. It is very astringent, and contains tannic and gallic acids, from which properties it produces a deep black colour when mixed with any of the salts of iron; from this peculiarity it is very valuable as a black dye, but the black dye so extensively used for dyeing cloth, is, for the most part, made from galls, or "nut-galls," as they are sometimes called. These are hard round substances found growing on many species of oak, chiefly the "Quercus infectoria," and the best are brought from Aleppo; they are diseased growths produced by a little insect, called the "Cynips Quercus," which deposits its eggs under the epidermis of the leaf, and the juice collects and forms the gall (fig. 22), from the interior of which the larva eats its way out; thus it will be found that every gall must have a little round hole in it, whence the larva of the cynips has issued.

The root of the Madder plant (Rubia tinctorum) produces the most beautiful and permanent of our red dyes, and the cochineal insect (Coccus cacti) obtains its colour from feeding upon the cactus.

A useful and very permanent blue dye is obtained from Indigo, a kind of extract from the plant "Indigofera," growing in India and other places, and many other members of the vegetable kingdom yield dyes and colours used in the arts.

Amongst the various and almost endless purposes to which wood is applied, that of serving as a material to engrave on and print from must not be omitted. The wood used for this purpose is that of the box-tree (Buxus sempervirens), which furnishes a close, even-grained, hard wood, admirably suited to the purpose; and the cultivation and perfecting of this most admirable art, has produced an improvement in book-illustrating which can hardly be sufficiently appreciated.

Wood must have supplied one of the earliest materials with which to erect buildings; the Grecian styles of architecture, beyond doubt, were derived from imitating in stone those structures first made of wood. All the largest members of the vegetable kingdom belong to this division; and indeed the same may be said of size which has been said of age, namely, that there is no limit except from accidental circumstances.

In the Crystal Palace at Sydenham is a most wonderful and gigantic specimen of the Wellingtonia Gigantea (fig. 23), one of the class of trees called coniferous, and belonging to the exogens, the bark of which has been stripped off in portions at the place where it grew, each of which being numbered, has enabled them to be re-adjusted in their original places, the result of which is, the whole bark of this most magnificent tree appears as if growing on the timber. It measures 31 feet across at the base, and 93 feet in circumference; the original tree was 363 feet in height, its present height is 116 feet, and the bark is 18 inches thick. The Norfolk Island Pine (Araucaria excelsa) sometimes grows to 300 feet in height, and Humboldt, describing a specimen of the Pinus Trigona, says, "This gigantic fir was measured with great care; the girth of the stem at 6-1/4 feet above the ground was often 38 to 45 feet; one stem was 300 feet high, and without branches for the first 192 feet."

As the exogens grow by the addition of woody matter to their circumference, of course the older the tree (other conditions being equal) the larger will be the trunk, but as the new wood is added to the outside, the centre loses its vitality and is liable to the attacks of both animal and vegetable parasites, and is therefore constantly found either decayed or totally destoyed; this is not, however, invariably the case, and many instances are found of wood of a great age remaining sound in the centre. At St. Nicholas in Lorraine is exhibited a plank of walnut wood made into a dining-table which is twenty-five feet wide. Besides timber for various useful purposes, this division of the vegetable kingdom furnishes us with both cotton and linen for clothing, and many of the dye-stuffs for ornamenting such clothing, also with many articles of food (although not so prolific in this respect as the Endogenæ), the potato, most green vegetables, as cabbages, lettuces, are exogenous, together with such roots as carrots, parsnips, &c.

To this class of plants belong many of the most beautiful flowers, and all our fruit-trees, not the least important of which is the fig-tree, although the fig can hardly be called a fruit in the strict sense of the word, being a consolidated mass of flowers within a receptacle. The figs of commerce are produced from the Ficus carica, the fruit being dried in the sun; they form a considerable article of commerce. The celebrated Banyan tree (Ficus indica, fig. 24) is one of the fig tribe, it throws down branches (as do many others of this tribe) which take root in the earth and form fresh stems, so that one of the banyan trees with its off-shoots will cover a space of ground sufficient to shelter a regiment of cavalry, and many of the fig tribe, especially the sycamore (Ficus sycamorus), are planted for the sake of the shelter they supply by their broad crowns of leaves; another of the fig trees (Ficus elastica) supplies a great part of the India-rubber of commerce.

De Candolle divides the class of exogens into four sub-classes according to the arrangement of their flowers &c.; they are as follows:--

1. THALAMIFLORÆ, the flowers of which are furnished with both calyx and corolla, the corolla having distinct petals, and the stamens hypogynous, that is, growing immediately from below the pistil.

2. CALYCIFLORÆ, having flowers with both calyx and corolla, the corolla divided into distinct petals, but the stamens always Perigynous, that is, growing upon the sides of the calyx.

3. COROLLIFLORÆ, having flowers with both corolla and calyx, the former having its petals united.

4. MONOCHLAMYDEÆ, flowers without corolla and often without a calyx.

These four sub-classes have been divided into orders as follows:--

ORDERS OF THALAMIFLORÆ.

1. NYMPHACEÆ (Nymphæa alba) White Water-Lily.
(Nuphar luteum) Yellow Water-Lily.

This order contains water plants of great beauty, they grow in the mud at the bottom of the water, sending up long flower- and leaf-stalks so that the flowers may blossom in the air and the leaves float on the surface; the leaves are generally round and turned up slightly at the edges. The "Victoria Regia" is a magnificent specimen of this order; it originally came from Brazil, and has flowers a foot wide, leaves four or five feet across, and is sufficiently buoyant, it is said, to bear the weight of a child. The Lotus of the Nile, the blossom of which so frequently occurs on the carvings of the Egyptians as an offering to Isis, is another member of this order.

2. PAPAVERACEÆ (Papaver somniferum) White Poppy.
(Papaver Rhoeas) Red Poppy.

Opium is prepared from the unripe capsules of the White Poppy, it is chiefly cultivated for this purpose in India and Turkey. The Chinese are the great consumers of opium, it being a common habit with them both to eat and smoke it. Opium is made by collecting the juice in the morning which has exuded from incisions made in the capsules over night; those employed for this purpose use a small knife with several blades and go round the plantations scarifying the capsules in the evening, and the juice which issues and forms a thick concrete matter, is scraped off, beaten up, and dried in round lumps. About £2,000,000 worth are exported from India annually.

3. RANUNCULACEÆ (Anemone coronaria) Garden Anemone.
(Aconitum Napellus) Monk's-hood.
(Ranunculus acris) Butter-cup.

Besides the above examples, there are many beautiful flowers belonging to this order, as the Clematis and Peony. Members of this order are for the most part poisonous, and some of them, as Monk's-hood and Hellebore, are violently so, while even the Butter-cup is to a certain extent acrid.

4. FUMARIACEÆ (Fumaria officinalis) Fumitory.

This order contains no plant of any importance. The common Fumitory derives its name from the supposed resemblance of the odour of its flowers to smoke.

5. BRASSICACEÆ (Sinapis alba) White Mustard.
(Nasturtium officinalis) Water Cress.
(Brassica oleracea) Cabbage.

In this order are contained many of the useful occupants of our kitchen gardens, the Cabbage, Turnip, Cauliflower, Radish, and many more; they have nearly all a pungent taste, and some, as the Rape, yield seed producing much oil. The Water Cress is grown near London in square pools, into which some neighbouring stream is turned. These pools are arranged side by side, and those who gather the plants lie down on a plank of wood placed across. Enormous quantities are thus supplied to the London markets.

6. CISTACEÆ (Helianthemum Vulgare) Helianthemum.

These plants are for the most part evergreens; the Yellow Cistus is our most familiar example of the order. In Turkey the Rock-roses are much cultivated, they exhale a gum having a highly aromatic odour, which is there used as a perfume.

7. BERBERIDACEÆ (Berberis vulgaris) Common Berberry.

The Berberry is commonly found in our hedgerows, and its fruit is sometimes eaten; in Italy it grows to a good-sized tree. It is remarkable as furnishing an example of vegetable motion, from the irritability of its stamens, which if touched will bend forward in a curved position, and touch the stigma with the anther, and after remaining a short time in that position the stamens recover their natural form.

8. VIOLACEÆ (Viola odorata) Sweet Violet.
(Viola tricolor) Heart's-ease.

The well known Sweet-smelling Violet belongs to this order, which otherwise contains no plants of importance, except one, the Cephaelis Ipecacuanha, which produces the well-known emetic bearing that name.

9. DROSERACEÆ (Drosera rotundifolia) Sun-dew.

The Sun-dew is so called from the globules of a sort of viscid liquid excreted by the hairs of this plant while in sunshine, and looking like dew; some species of this order have their leaves so irritable that an insect alighting on them causes them to shut up and catch it, hence the name "Venus's Fly Trap" (Dionea muscipula) which is given to an American species.

10. POLYGALACEÆ (Polygala vulgaris) Milk-wort.

The Polygala Senega, or Virginian Snake-root, is a member of this order; it is celebrated in America for the cure of the bite of snakes, and is used here as an expectorant. The Rhatany, a very powerful astringent, is also of this order.

11. CARYOPHYLLACEÆ (Lychnis dioica) Bachelor's Buttons.
(Dianthus caryophyllus) Common Pink.
(Stellaria media) Chickweed.

There are upwards of a thousand species of this order, but none are of much importance; they form however many of our most beautiful ornamental garden flowers, of which the Carnation, Sweet William, and several others, are familiar to all.

12. TILIACÆ (Tilia Europæa) Lime Tree.

The Lime Tree grows often to a great size, is a fine handsome tree, commonly found in our plantations, has heart shaped leaves, and flowers generally in corymbs; it is very general in tropical climates, and produces a fine close grained wood.

13. HYPERICACEÆ (Hypericum perforatum) Perforated Hypericum.

Many species of Hypericum are cultivated in our gardens, and form handsome flowers; the well known plant called Aaron's Beard (Hypericum calycinum) is a member of this order, and is remarkable for the long runners which it throws out forming fresh plants at intervals. It is often suspended in pots, from which these runners descend in a very graceful manner.

14. MALVACEÆ (Malva sylvestris) Common Mallow.
(Althæa officinalis) Marsh Mallow.

The Marsh Mallow has been much esteemed as a demulcent medicine, and an ointment is made from it for external use; but one species of this order, the Gossypium, is one of the most important plants in the whole world, producing that most useful article, cotton, so largely grown in America, and for which the slave population are chiefly employed. The fine white hairs surrounding the seeds and filling up the pod is the part picked out and preserved, it forms the cotton-wool of commerce, of which some eight hundred millions of pounds' weight are used annually! employing a million and a half people, in England alone, and furnishing clothing to hundreds of millions. It is grown in India, which is supposed to be its native place, and will probably be grown to a much greater extent when railways and canals shall have made a more easy communication from the interior of that country to the sea-board.

15. GERANIACEÆ (Geranium pyreniacum) Meadow Geranium.

Many species of this order are indigenous, and when cultivated produce some of our most beautiful garden flowers, as the Geraniums, Pelargoniums, and Erodiums. The Geraniums are those species which have five irregular petals and ten stamens; they are the most characteristic of the order.

16. LINACEÆ (Linum usitatissimum) Common Flax.

The Flax plant is another of those insignificant plants which, from certain properties they possess, have become the greatest boons to mankind; the stalks of the Linum usitatissimum, soaked, bruised, and prepared by combing, &c., form the flax of commerce, from which all our linen fabrics are made. The manufacture of flax is one of the oldest arts known, the ancient Egyptians formed their mummy-cloths from this article, and a piece of one of these cloths, bleached and placed side by side with some of the present date, would hardly suffer by the comparison, but the rapidity of its manufacture, and the price at which supplied, are doubtless very different in the two cases.

The value of the linen manufacture of Great Britain is between seven and eight millions yearly.

The seeds of the flax plant (Linseed) are used to crush and produce the linseed oil of commerce so extensively used in the production of paints and varnishes, and the cake is used as food for cattle.

17. ACERACEÆ (Acer campestre) Maple Tree.
(Acer pseudoplatanus) Sycamore Tree.

This order contains the Maple and Sycamore, fine trees, not only ornamental, but producing wood much in request, moreover the Acer saccharinum or Sugar Maple of North America is used to produce sugar, which is obtained from its sap.

18. RUTACEÆ (Ruta graveolens) Rue.

Rue is a well-known shrub with small pinnate leaves, and possessing a strong and very disagreeable odour; this depends upon the volatile oil which is contained in the glands with which the leaves are dotted. It has been, from time immemorial, used as a medicine. Another member of this order, the Buchu (Diosmia crenata), is also used medicinally.

19. OXALIDACEÆ (Oxalis acetosella) Wood Sorrel.

The Wood Sorrel is very acid, and from its juice is made the salt of sorrel (which is bin-oxalate of potash), used to get out ink and iron stains from linen, &c. This is supposed to be the true Shamrock.

This completes the orders of Thalamifloræ, which, with the following sub-class, Calycifloræ, contain all our star-like flowers, or those in which the corolla forms a whorl or open ring of petals. The third sub-class contains those chiefly in which the flowers form cups or bells.

ORDERS OF CALYCIFLORÆ.

1. CELASTRACEÆ (Euonymus Europæas) Spindle Tree.

This order consists of shrubs or small trees growing in the temperate regions of most parts of the world, and some of the species, as Celastrus venatus, are said to be poisonous; the seeds of the South African species are used to express oil from.

2. RHAMNACEÆ (Rhamnus catharticus) Buckthorn.
(Rhamnus frangula) Black Alder.

Buckthorn berries afford a juice which, when made into syrup with sugar, is a popular purgative medicine; the juice precipitated with lime produces the green pigment known to artists as "sap green." The "French Berries" used as a yellow dye-stuff are procured from a species of Rhamnus.

3. FABACEÆ, or } (Cytisus scoparius) Broom.
LEGUMINOSÆ } (Pisum sativum) Garden Pea.
(Faba vulgaris) Garden Bean.

The plants producing pods or legumes are among the most important of the orders of this class, giving us very many useful and nutritious plants, which, for the most part, are climbers, as Peas, Beans, &c. The Tamarind and Cassia trees belong to this order, also those which produce gum-arabic, catechu, logwood, and indigo. There are between six and seven thousand species of the Leguminosæ.

4. ROSACEÆ (Rosa centifolia) Hundred-leaved Rose.
(Fragaria vesca) Wood Strawberry.
(Rubus fruticosus) Bramble.
(Pyrus communis) Pear Tree.

This important order yields us our most beautiful flower, the Rose, of which there are a great many varieties, among which the Dog-rose--that beautiful ornament to our hedges--deserves to hold a conspicuous place, also the Sweetbriar or Eglantine. The rose is used in Turkey and Persia for obtaining that most valuable and delicious perfume, "Otto of Roses." It is made by distilling a portion of water from several quantities of fresh roses, until it becomes saturated with the volatile oil. This water is then exposed to the open air, and, in the cool night time, drops of the otto collect on the top, from which it is carefully gathered, and the same water again distilled from a fresh quantity of roses. Besides the Rose tribe, this order contains some of our most valued fruits. The Apple, Pear, and Strawberry belong to it, also the Almond.

5. LYTHRACEÆ (Lythrum salicaria) Purple Loose-strife.

The Purple Loose-strife is indigenous to England, bearing a purple flower, and is also found in Australia. There are several varieties of this plant; an Indian species, Lythrum Hunteri, bearing a red flower, has been used by the natives as a red dye.

6. ONAGRACEÆ (Epilobium angustifolium) French Willow.

This order contains some very beautiful flowering plants, as the Evening-primrose (Enothera biennis), Fuchsia, &c. of which there are a great many varieties; they abound plentifully in America, of which country the Evening-primrose is said to be a native.

7. MYRTACEÆ (Myrtus communis) Myrtle.

The Myrtles are, for the most part, inhabitants of the warmer climates. They are shrubs or trees, and sometimes of great size and beauty; the flowers and leaves of many species are odorous. There are upwards of fifty species of Myrtle, and they are found in most of the warmer parts of the Old and New Worlds.

8. CRASSULACEÆ (Sempervivum tectarum) House-leek.
(Sedum Acre) Stone-crop.

The species of this order have, most of them, thick succulent leaves. The Sedums, Stone-crop, and House-leek, are among the most common, growing in dry, earthy matter, on walls or housetops; they, nevertheless, are full of a milky juice. The juice of Houseleek mixed with cream has been a long time a popular remedy for various external complaints, but, like most popular remedies, does neither good nor harm.

9. GRASSULARIACEÆ (Ribes rubrum) Red Currant.
(Ribes grassularia) Gooseberry.

The Gooseberry and Currant are members of this order. They are useful plants for the kitchen-garden, and afford a grateful and wholesome fruit, although unripe gooseberries (eaten raw) are extremely unwholesome, as the acid they contain is the "oxalic."

10. SAXIFRAGACEÆ (Robertsonia umbrosa) London Pride.

These are plants growing, for the most part, in mountainous regions, and in the crevices of rocks. The London Pride and Hydrangea are the best known, the latter producing very large corymbs of flowers. They occur in temperate climates in most parts of the world.

11. APIACEÆ, or } (Foeniculum officinale) Fennel.
UMBELLIFERÆ } (Conium maculatum) Hemlock.
(Apium graveolens) Celery.
(Petroselinum sativum) Parsley.

Contains many of our useful vegetables, as the Carrot (Daucus Carota), Parsnip (Pastinaca), &c. The Celery also, and many of our aromatic seeds, are produced by the Umbelliferæ, as Anise, Carraway, Dill, Coriander, and Fennel. Some members, however, are poisonous, as Hemlock (Conium Maculatum), and Cow-bane or Water Hemlock (Cicuta Virosa).

ORDERS OF COROLLIFLORÆ.

1. CUCURBITACEÆ (Cucurmis melo) The Melon.
(Elaterium agreste) Spirting Cucumber.

The Cucumber (Cucurmis Sativa), the Melon (Cucurmis Melo), both esteemed as delicacies, are of this order. Also the numerous tribe of Gourds (Cucurbita), as the Pumpkin, Large Gourd, Bottle Gourd, Squash, &c., also the Vegetable Marrow. Gourd-shells form the most common vessels for holding liquids, in many parts of Asia.

2. CORNACEÆ (Cornus Sanguinea) Dogwood.

These plants are chiefly shrubs or trees, growing in most temperate regions, and especially in America. The Cornelian Cherry (Cornus muscula) produces a berry somewhat resembling a cherry. Some species are used in America as a tonic medicine.

3. CAPRIFOLIACEÆ (Sambucus nigra) Elder Tree.
(Viburnum tinus) Laurustina.
(Caprifolium perfoliatum) Honeysuckle.

This order contains few plants of any importance. The Honeysuckle is a very favourite ornamental plant, and the fruit of the Elder produces the Elderberry-wine so much used on Christmas Eve, with toasted bread, in many parts of the country.

4. GALIACEÆ (Galium cruciatum) Cross Wort.
(Rubia tinctorum) Madder.

The root of the Madder is one of our most important "dye-stuffs," producing the most permanent reds and browns used in dyeing. It is a native of the south of Europe and of Asia. Animals fed upon madder are found to have their bones tinged of a red colour.

5. VALERIANACEÆ (Valeriana officinalis) Valerian.
(Cetranthus ruber) Red Valerian.

Red Valerian.]

Valerian is indigenous, growing by ditches, and bearing a pink flower; the root is used in medicine, and has a most disagreeable odour. Several species are cultivated as ornamental garden flowers; there are about 125 species.

6. DIPSACACEÆ (Dipsacus fullonum) Teasel.

The heads of the Teasel were formerly used, to an enormous extent, for carding cloth, and were cultivated largely in some parts for that purpose--wagon-loads of them were brought to the cloth-dressers--but their use is now, to some extent, superseded, the process called "teaselling" being frequently performed by machinery.

7. ASTERACEÆ (Tussilago Farfara) Coltsfoot.
(Helianthus annuus) Sunflower.
(Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum). Ox-eye Daisy.

The members of this family have a star-like inflorescence, as the Sunflower, China Aster, &c.; the centre part or eye, being composed of undeveloped florets, is frequently, by cultivation, almost lost, forming florets which are added to the ray.

8. CAMPANULACEÆ (Campanula rotundifolia) Hare-bell.
(Campanula media) Canterbury-bell.

Comprise the various "Bells," which form of inflorescence is characteristic of the Corollifloræ. There are about 500 species of this order, the flowers of which are for the most part of a blue or purple colour; the Hare-bell is also known as the "Bluebell of Scotland."

9. ERICACEÆ (Calluna vulgaris) Heather.
(Erica cinerea) Grey Heath.

The Heaths are, for the most part, social plants, growing in great numbers on waste ground, and giving great beauty to scenery. The Heather gives a peculiar aspect to the hills of Scotland. Humboldt observes, "It is curious that, out of more than 300 species of Erica, one only should be found throughout the whole American continent."

10. GENTIANACEÆ (Gentiana campestris) Field Gentian.
(Menyanthes trifoliata) Buck Bean.

This order contains no member of great importance; the Gentian-root, much used as a tonic, is the product of the "Gentiana Lutea."

11. PRIMULACEÆ (Anagallis arvensis) Pimpernel.
(Primula veris) Cowslip.
(Primula acaulis) Primrose.

These well-known and beautiful flowers form ornaments to our meadows, hedgerows, and gardens; the Oxlip, Polyanthus, and Auricula belong to this order, of which many varieties are produced by cultivation.

12. CONVOLVULACEÆ (Calystegia sepium) Bindweed.

The Bindweeds are gay and beautiful flowers, and besides being used for ornamental purposes, many of this order have medicinal properties of great importance. The Jalap root is from the Convolvulus Jalapæ, which comes from Xalapa, in Mexico, of which name Jalap is a corruption. Scammony, another medicine much used, is a resin procured from a species of this order.

13. BORAGINACEÆ (Borago officinalis) Borage.

The members of this order have most of them rough hairy leaves, they contain a certain amount of nitrate of potash in their juices, and it is this which gives them the peculiar taste which has gained for them the name of "Oyster plants;" the common Borage has been used as a remedy for coughs.

14. LINIACEÆ, or } (Salvia officinalis) Sage.
LABIATES } (Thymus vulgaris) Thyme.
(Mentha viridis) Spear Mint.

The name Labiates has been given from the form of their infloresence, which is generally "Labiate" (having lips); they frequently possess aromatic properties, and are mostly of a strong smell. Although not commonly used as food, yet most of them are employed to flavour it, as Mint, Thyme, Sage, and many more.

15. SOLANACEÆ (Atropa belladonna) Deadly Nightshade.
(Solanum tuberosum) Potato.
(Capsicum annuum) Capsicum.
(Hyoscyamus niger) Henbane.
(Nicotiana Tabacum) Tobacco.

A great many members of this order are poisonous, among which the Deadly Nightshade (Atropa Belladonna) is the most virulent, there are also Henbane and Tobacco, both strong poisons; but, to compensate for this bad character, the order contains one of the most useful vegetables used in Europe--the Potato. This is the tuber of the "Solanum tuberosum." The following account of the introduction of the Potato into England is from the "Penny Cyclopædia":--

"Queen Elizabeth, in 1584, granted a patent 'for planting and discovering in new countries, not possessed by Christians,' and, under this sanction, some ships, principally equipped by Sir Walter Raleigh, sailed with him to America. Thomas Harriott (afterwards known as a mathematician) who accompanied the adventurous squadron, transmitted to England the description of a plant, called Openawk by the natives of that part of America, which the courtier-like gallantry of Raleigh had named 'Virginia.' Harriott described the Openawk as having the roots round, and 'hanging together as if fixed on ropes, and good for food either boiled or roasted.' Girarde in his Herbal a few years subsequently, distinguished the plant by a plate, and not only confirmed the assertion that it was an indigenous production of Virginia, whence he himself had obtained it, but supplied some curious details of its qualities, and of the various modes in which it might be dressed for the table. But the Potatoe had been known in Spain and Portugal at an earlier period, and it is from the latter country that we most directly derive the name by which we know it. This is easily shown; although the natives of South America called the plant by the name 'Openawk,' those of the South, more particularly the inhabitants of the mountains of Quito, called it 'Papas,' which the Spaniards corrupted into 'Battata,' this again their neighbours in Portugal softened into 'Ba-ta-ta' (da terra), to which 'potato' is a very close approximation."

This plant, the tubers of which for a long time were a luxury obtainable by the rich only, now yields the support of the poor, and furnishes the cheapest food known; the peasantry of Ireland almost subsist upon Potatoes, and the poor of most parts of Europe find it indispensable to their living.

16. SCROPHULARIACEÆ (Digitalis purpurea) Foxglove.
(Veronica officinalis) Speedwell.

Some of the members of this order were formerly considered useful in scrofulous complaints, especially the Scrophularia nodosa, a common plant growing by the sides of ditches, and whose tuberculated roots were considered to resemble scrofulous tumours, and therefore to be the natural remedy for them. The Foxglove is used as a medicine and is highly poisonous.

17. LENTIBULARIACEÆ (Pinguicula vulgaris) Butterwort.

This order includes the Butterworts, which are herbaceous indigenous plants, growing in ditches and wet places; they are divided into the Pinguicula and the Urticularia. The example given is the most common and characteristic of the order.

18. PLANTAGINACEÆ (Plantago lanceolata) Plantain.

The common Plantain or Way-bred is found by roadsides, the leaves form a sort of star on the ground, from the centre of which a tall stalk arises, forming a "spike" of flowers. The seeds of plantain are much in request by bird fanciers, cage-birds being fond of them. The leaves were once in great repute as a styptic, or application for stopping the bleeding of wounds.

19. PLUMBAGINACEÆ (Armeria maratima) Thrift.
(Ilex aquifolium) Holly.

The most characteristic of this order are the two examples given, especially the Holly, which is universally known and admired for the decorative uses to which it is applied in our churches and houses at Christmas time.

ORDERS OF MONOCHLAMYDEÆ.

1. SANGUISORBEÆ (Alchemilla vulgaris) Ladies' Mantle.

Some species of this order, especially the Greater Burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis), were once much cultivated as food for cattle, but it is now superseded by other plants, especially Sainfoin.

2. CHENOPODIACEÆ (Beta vulgaris) Beet.
(Spinacia oleracea) Spinach.

The most important species of this order is the Beetroot, employed in France for the production of sugar. Its variety, Mangold-wurzel (Beta altissima), is also extensively used as food for cattle.

3. POLYGONACEÆ (Polygonum Fagopyrum) Buckwheat.
(Rumex obtusifolius) Dock.

.

Buckwheat is used as food in America and other places, and the root of the "Rheum palmatum" furnishes the Rhubarb of commerce. It is brought from Turkey; but is grown in China, and thence passes through the hands of Russians to Turkey. Other species of Rhubarb, as "Rheum compactum," are cultivated here for the sake of the leaf-stalk, which has an agreeable acid taste, and is much used for making tarts and puddings.

4. ELÆAGNACEÆ (Elæagnus angustifolia) Oleaster.

Some foreign species of the Oleaster are extremely fragrant, and others, especially those of India, produce a fruit of a pleasant taste and is there eaten. The Sea Buckthorn (Hippophæ Rhamnoides) is the only English species.

5. THYMELACEÆ (Daphne pontica) Spurge Laurel.

Some species of this order are cultivated in gardens and are very fragrant, others partake of a poisonous quality; the Daphne mezerium, the bark of which is very acrid, is used in medicine, and forms one of the ingredients in the celebrated compound decoction of Sarsaparilla.

6. CORYLACEÆ (Castanea vesca) Sweet Chestnut.
(Quercus pedunculata) Oak.
(Corylus avellana) Hazel Nut.

This order contains some of our finest trees; the Oak, that prince of trees, is of this order. It attains a great age and size, and there are some celebrated specimens existing which have stood many centuries. Oaks constitute the greater part of the forest trees, both on the Continent and in England; great numbers are cut in France for fire-wood, and in both countries for ship-building. The roof-timbers of our old churches and halls are nearly all oak. The bark of the oak is largely used for tanning leather. About 30,000 tons are imported into this country yearly for this purpose, besides the product of our own trees. The bark of the Cork-oak (Quercus suber) is used for making corks, some 2,000 tons of this are imported annually. Moreover, the Gall-nut used in tanning, and also to make black dye, is the product of an oak. The Chestnut is a fine tree, the nuts of which are commonly eaten by the peasantry of Spain and Italy as food; the tree grows to a great age and to an enormous size.

7. EUPHORBIACEÆ (Buxus sempervirens) Box.

Many species of this order are acrid and poisonous, and have been used for poisoning arrows. The Castor-oil plant (Ricinus palma-christi), and the plant that yields that most violent purgative, Croton-oil (Croton tiglium), are of this species; also the Box-tree, from which that useful wood, known as box-wood, is obtained.

8. URTICACEÆ (Urtica urens) Stinging Nettle.
(Humulus lupulus) Hops.

The Nettle in Australia grows to the size of a tree; the Hop also belongs to this order, and is largely cultivated in Kent and Sussex for the use of brewers, as it communicates an agreeable bitter to beer which no other plant seems to be able to substitute.

9. SALICACEÆ (Salix alba) White Willow.
(Populus nigra) Black Poplar.

The most characteristic of this order are the examples given; the Willows are well-known trees, growing by the margins of water and in damp places. The Poplar is one of our tallest trees, specimens being known 100 feet high; its peculiar tall form distinguishes it from all other trees.

10. BETULACEÆ (Betula alba) Birch.
(Alnus glutinosa) Alder.

The Birch and Alder are both well known trees in our plantations, the Alder is often confounded with the Elder. The bark of the Birch tree contains tannin; it is used to tan skins in Russia, and gives to Russian leather its peculiar qualities.

11. ULMACEÆ (Ulnus campestris) Elm.

The Elm is one of our largest and noblest trees, growing to 80 or 90 feet high, it has often a girth of 10 to 11 feet, and forms a very fine tree with a broad crown; the wood is much used for making coffins.

12. PINACEÆ (Taxus baccata) Yew.
(Abies larix) Larch.
(Laurus nobilis) Bay.
(Pinus sylvestris) Scotch Fir.

This order contains the various Pines and Firs, together with the Yew and Bay trees, and is sometimes called the "Coniferæ," as they all bear cones. In their general aspect many of these somewhat resemble endogenous trees, growing perfectly straight in the stem, and giving off branches in whorls at regular distances; some, as the Norfolk Island Pine, form perfectly regular figures by the interlacement of their branches. The Firs have their thin narrow leaves starting off singly from the branch, and always on the upper side, like the teeth of a comb, while the Pines have their leaves grouped together, starting off in fours or fives from the same spot. The Conifera furnish the longest and straightest timber of all trees, they commonly grow to 100 feet high, and in New Zealand and California to more than 300. The Wellingtonia Gigantea is the tallest species known, and the Araucaria Excelsa (Norfolk Island Pine), perhaps, the next. The trees of this order are amongst the most useful to man, supplying a number of useful articles, such as turpentine, resin, &c., besides the most valuable timber. Pines, like the Palms, serve as a screen against the severity of the weather, but, while the palms keep off the burning rays of the sun, the pines defend us from the cold of the mountain blasts; they are indeed used as _nurses_, and as such, in our oak plantations, serve to screen the young saplings which are planted among them from the effects of cold until strong enough to bear exposure; when the pines are cut down, and what before appeared to be a pine-wood, appears as a plantation of oaks. The pine-trees furnish those straight stems largely used by builders under the name of "scaffold poles." They also make the best wood for rending into laths for building purposes, their straight and open grain allowing of their being easily split.

It is from the vegetable kingdom that most of the medicines in use are derived, but many of these, in improper doses, act as violent poisons; indeed, the most rapidly fatal of all poisons, prussic acid, was originally distilled from the Laurel-cherry, and strychnine, which is hardly less rapid, is the produce of the Nux vomica (Strychnos nux vomica).

The following is a list of the principal poisonous plants found growing wild in England:--

* 1. MONK'S-HOOD (Aconitum Napellus).
WOLF'S-BANE (Aconitum lycactonum).

All parts of Monk's-hood and Wolf's-bane are extremely poisonous; the root of Monk's-hood has often been mistaken for that of Horse-radish, of which an example is therefore given, to show that it is impossible for this mistake to be made, if the least attention be paid to the leaves, as they are totally dissimilar.

* BRYONY (Bryonia dioica).

The whole of this plant is poisonous, and, as the berries are red and tempting, it is dangerous to trust children with them. The root is large and succulent, and is known by the name of Mandrake; it is very purgative and acrid.

* GREEN HELLEBORE (Heleborus viridus).
* STINKING HELLEBORE (Heleborus foetidus).

Both poisonous in every part of the plants.

* MEZERIUM (Daphne mezerium).

The bark of this plant is acrid and poisonous, producing a burning sensation in the throat if chewed, and blistering the skin if applied, for which purpose it was often formerly used medicinally.

* MEADOW SAFFRON (Colchicum autumnale).

The corm (root) and seeds of this plant are poisonous. Meadow Saffron is also called Colchicum, it is much used in medicine, and although a good and useful one in small doses for gouty affections, yet in over-doses it produces violent purging and vomiting.

FOXGLOVE (Digitalis purpurea).

This plant is very poisonous and dangerous, the leaves are the most active part. It is frequently used medicinally, but requires great care, as it lowers the action of the heart, the effect of many small doses accumulating and at last acting like one large one.

* STAVES-ACRE (Delphinium Staphisagria).

The Ranunculaceæ are, most of them, poisonous, and this order includes the Larkspurs, of which the Staves-Acre is a species. The seeds are to a certain extent poisonous, and when ground into meal and mixed with flour have been often used by farmers to destroy vermin of various kinds, such as rats, mice, beetles, &c.

DEADLY NIGHTSHADE (Atropa Belladonna).

The Deadly Nightshade is also called Belladonna. Both leaves and berries are a deadly poison. The berries have been mistaken for black currants by children, as they much resemble them. There are several species, of which the Solanum nigrum, or Common Nightshade, very much resembles the "Deadly."

WOODY NIGHTSHADE (Solanum Dulcamara).

This plant, also called Bitter-sweet, from its taste, produces the bright red berries so often seen in hedges, and which from their pretty appearance frequently tempt children to eat them. They are poisonous, but not so much so as the twigs of the plant, which are very acrid and narcotic.

HEMLOCK (Conium maculatum).

The Hemlock is an umbelliferous plant growing by road-sides and under hedges, and flowers in June and July; it has been mistaken for Parsley, but may be known by the stems being spotted with black; the leaves are of a dark green colour, the upper ones bi-pinnate and the lower ones large and standing on long channelled foot-stalks.

THORN-APPLE (Datura strammonium).

The Thorn-Apple is a native of America, but has become almost indigenous, and is frequently found growing in waste places. The whole of the plant is poisonous, and is narcotic when smoked, like tobacco. It is an annual, bearing a funnel-shaped white flower, the fruit is a four-celled capsule covered with sharp spines or thorns, hence its name.

POPPY, Red (Papaver Rhoeas).

POPPY, White (Papaver somniferum).

The unripe capsules of both of these species of Poppy are narcotic and poisonous, but chiefly those of the White Poppy, from which, the opium of commerce is procured. The leaves are but very slightly narcotic, and the seeds not at all.

HENBANE (Hyoscyamus Niger).

This plant is an indigenous annual growing in waste places, especially in chalky soil, bearing flowers in July, which are of a yellowish green colour and nauseous odour; the stalk, leaves, and indeed the whole of the plant is covered with hairs. It is very narcotic, and is much used medicine; in over-doses it is poisonous.

CAPER (Euphorbia Lathyris).

The Caper is a biennial often found in gardens; the seeds are very purgative, and to some persons poisonous. This plant bearing the name of Caper, many persons have erroneously thought the seeds to be the ordinary "Capers" sold at shops for making "Caper-sauce." These, however, are the flower-buds of quite another plant, known as "Capparis spinosa."

WILD LETTUCE (Lactuca virosa).

The Wild Lettuce is a biennial plant flowering in July and August; it is found growing on the banks of ditches, and is sufficiently narcotic to be called poisonous. The dried juice has been used as a substitute for opium, but by cultivation the narcotic property is nearly or altogether lost.

MUSHROOMS, TOADSTOOLS, AND OTHER FUNGI.

The only kinds of Mushroom which can be eaten with safety are the common Mushroom (Agaricus campestris), the Champignon (Agaricus oreades), and the Morell (Marchella esculenta). Those which are of very bright colours, or have spots on the cap, those with thin caps, or those which are moist--have a film like a cobweb about the stalk, or have the stalk coming from one side of the cap--are poisonous.

Those marked (*) in the foregoing list are _acrid_ poisons, and the remainder are _narcotic_.

* * * * *

Out of these three great families of plants, in their almost endless variety of size, form, and colour, it has pleased the Great Author of Nature to form all the vegetation which beautifies this earth, from the lofty Palm--which, from its grateful freshness and the beauty of its structure, seems almost as if possessed of more than vegetative life, to the Algæ, which form "the pool's green mantle"--from the gigantic and "storm-defying" Oak, with its green foliage spreading out far above, and throwing its welcome shade around, to defend from the sun's rays the gentle deer who pasture on the herbage beneath--to the grass and clover, and the sweet-smelling wild flowers at their feet--

"Daffodils
That come before the swallow dares, and take
The winds of March with beauty; violets dim
But sweeter than the lids of Juno's eyes,
Or Cytherea's breath,--pale primroses
That die unmarried, ere they can behold
Bright Phoebus in his strength"--

form inexhaustible themes on which to exercise our faculties of admiration, and which serve admirably to minister to those wants which, without doubt, were given to us that we might derive pleasure from their being thus beautifully gratified--themes for the pencil of the artist, who "holds, as it were, the mirror up to nature," and the architect, when he designed his vistas of slender columns spreading out into and supporting roofs of tracery, might well be supposed to have had in his "mind's eye" some beautiful recollection of the arcades of Nature's palaces in the sombre forests, where the twisted trunks of the trees, the fretwork of their branches, and the leafy covering formed by their leaves, supply all the requisites of a grand and lofty temple, fit for the worship of that great First Cause who formed them.

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

A, Cyclops Quadracornis.
B, Anguillula. Fluviatilis.
C, Actinophrys. Sol.
D, Coleps Hirtus.
E, Vorticella.
F, Amboeba princeps.
G, Acineta mystacina.
H, Oxytrycha.
I, Triophthalamus dorsalis.
J, Polyarthra.
]

After considering the beautiful covering which a kind Providence has given to the earth in the form of all sorts of vegetation, it will be necessary now to consider for what kind of creatures this most delightful garden was prepared, whether they seek their food in the air, water, or earth, for all these places are abodes of the vegetable tribes, and where there is vegetation there are animated beings; for there is not an animal in existence, but directly or indirectly feeds upon the vegetable kingdom, from the elephant and rhinoceros which devour whole plantations, to the minute animalculæ which float in the air or dwell in every drop of stagnant water, where food in the form of equally minute algæ is found--each possessed of wonderful organs and powers suitable to the kind of existence they lead, for God has often placed life in the most simple as well as complicated forms. Dr. Mantell says:--

"We have been accustomed to associate the presence of vitality with bodies possessing various complicated organs for the elaboration and maintenance of the energies of existence, but here we see perfect and distinct creations in the condition of globules and cells, which live and move and have their being, and increase in numbers with a rapidity so prodigious, and in modes so peculiar, as to startle all our preconceived notions of animal organisation."

And it is in these Protozoa, the lowest of the animal creation, that a perfect similarity of condition exists to those of the vegetable kingdom, they are here upon a level; but arising out of these simple forms, God has created two sets of types or portraits, the members of each resembling those below it in some particular, but having organs which are superior to it; and above these are found members whose organs are of a still higher order, and so on till the one set comprises the highest orders of the vegetable, and the other those of the animal kingdom, in its ranks. But these simple organisms are never developed so as to resemble those placed above them; they each, whether high or low, continue to produce their like, for each grade was a creation of itself and a separate one from God's hands. There have been writers, who would endeavour to make it appear that God only created the lowest and most simple germs, and the circumstances which were necessary to develop them, and then allowed these to act and re-act until a man or an oak tree at last became the result! Were this the case, geology would long before this have shown the "small beginnings" of man; but no! as soon as traces of man's creation are perceived, he is found as perfectly formed and organised as he is now, there are no transition stages of man's existence, nor of any other animal. It is true that the simpler forms of both animal and vegetable existence were created first, but this was in accordance with the state of the earth's surface, which was not at first suitable to the requirements of the higher animals, which were only created when the earth was in a state suitable to receive them.

But when the surface of the earth was still more developed God created man. His last and greatest work; and there can be no doubt that God in His wisdom caused all these changes to precede the creation of man, that he might lack nothing to confer happiness on him, nor objects to exercise his faculties upon.

* * * * *

Animals are divided into two great natural families, the Invertebrate and the Vertebrate, the former having neither spine nor internal skeleton, the latter having both.

The Invertebrate animals are divided into the following sub-families, classes, and orders by Dr. William Carpenter.

Sub-family 1.--RADIATA, having Four classes.

1. Infusoria.
2. Entozoa.

{Hydroida }
3. Zoophyta. {Asteroida } 4 Orders.
{Helianthoida }
{Ascidioda }

4. Radiaria. {Acalephæ } 2 Orders.
{Echinodermata}

Sub-family 2.--ARTICULATA, having Five classes.

1. Annellata.
2. Cerripeda.
3. Crustacea.
{Coleoptera }
{Orthoptera }
{Neuroptera }
{Hymenoptera }
4. Insecta. {Strepsiptera} 9 Orders.
{Lepidoptera }
{Hemiptera }
{Diptera }
{Aptera }
5. Arachnida.

Sub-family 3.--MOLLUSCA, having Six classes.

ACEPHALA, or Headless.
1. Tunicata.
2. Brachiopoda.
3. Lamellibranchiata.

ENCEPHALA, Having a Head.
4. Pteropoda.
5. Gasteropoda.
6. Cephalopoda.

The Infusoria, the first class of the Radiata, comprise all those microscopic organisms called "Protozoa;" they consist of a membranous cell with fluid contents, and are very nearly allied to the Protophytes or lowest vegetable existences. It is still a matter of discussion amongst physiologists and microscopists as to which kingdom shall claim certain of them, but, according to Dr. Carpenter, it appears that the vegetable cell-beings have two envelopes, the inner one albuminous and the outer one cellulose or starchy, and the following passage occurs in his treatise on the Microscope (which should be in the hands of all enquiring minds):--