Chapter IX: Biographical History of the Pupil and His Antecedents (2)

What is called, in the chart in question, the moral account, corresponds to our _third subdivision_ in biographic histories, in so far as it represents a summary of the daily records. Under this head mention is made of the moral balance, and the notes tell us that it is founded upon "_punishments_" and "_rewards_." In so far as they treat of disciplining children, these notes are not to be taken as a model; they are evidently a relic of antiquated educative methods that have survived amid the efforts of a new scientific movement. There is no mention made of medical treatment bestowed upon the children, who may very often owe their so-called _moral_ anomalies to a pathological condition which must frequently be _aggravated_ by punishments. It is well known that many normal children have periods of agitation which is manifested by the most various kinds of action (impulsiveness, sexual excesses, rebellion), followed by periods of calm during which the child exhibits the opposite characteristics (industriousness, obedience, etc.). The biographic chart is quite likely to show a record of punishments and rewards corresponding to these contrasted periods; and in this respect it follows antiquated pedagogic methods, which are precisely what need to be reformed under the light of science.

An illustration of this is contained in the biographic history of an idiot boy in the asylum of the _Bicêtre_, a report of which is given below: the periodic _anomalies of character_ in the boy should be noticed. Many epileptic children do not have convulsions, but exhibit instead anomalies of character which become permanent and are naturally aggravated by fatigue and punishment; and the great majority of such children pass eventually into reformatories.

In the forms customarily used for biographic charts, there is liberal provision for daily notes. Accordingly, in the biographic chart of the child in question there are a number of blank pages on which _casual notes_ have been entered (diary). Every fact deserving of notice has been entered; facts of a physio-pathological nature, such as illnesses, strength, endurance in running, appetite, outbursts of anger without cause; school-notes regarding the progress attained by the child in school, especially when he has overcome serious difficulties, correction of incidental defects of speech, etc., and notes of a psycho-moral nature regarding acts committed by the child, tending to show the state of his feelings.

The master has a general register which may be compared to the _daily entry book_ used in book-keeping, and in which all the _notes of the day_ are entered. Days and even months frequently pass without any entry being made in regard to some particular child. From this general register the master later draws up individual _summaries_ which are then transcribed into the corresponding biographic history of each child.

Once in so many years all the measurements and observations are repeated in their entirety (_e.g._, at the most important periods of growth with especial study of the epoch of puberty). When the child is definitely discharged from the school, a general summary is drawn up; in such a case the _biographic chart_ represents that individual's _own personal history_; a human and social document of the highest interest to anyone who wishes to _know himself_, and continue his own self-education! It might serve as a useful guide to a man of intelligence.

These registers and biographic charts may be compared to the record of points and the report cards that are in use to-day in the schools. Even the report cards which are obtained through a fatiguing process of _averages_ represent a summary of notes taken every day by the teacher (although not every day for _every_ pupil). But the report card is of no practical use to the man who wishes to draw up a faithful record of the education he has received that will serve to _guide him through life_.

Since there do not yet exist any complete biographic histories relating to normal children, I shall reproduce one of an idiot boy who was received into the great Paris hospital for defectives; this history is interesting because it is the result of the methods of Séguin who was the founder of the anthropological movement in pedagogy; it would be still more interesting if we could offer the complete history of a normal man or of a wayward boy redeemed by education. But let us hope for this in the near future!

The summary of the history which I here reproduce does not contain the objective examination of the boy at the time of his reception; because that would only be a repetition of what has already been described, while the part which it now interests us to illustrate is that containing the summaries of the diaries. The antecedents, however, are given because they are indispensable for an understanding of the patient's personality.

SUMMARY OF THE BIOGRAPHIC HISTORY OF AN IDIOT BOY

_Admitted at the Age of 3 Years, and Dismissed at the Age of 17_

OUTLINE: Father an alcoholic.--Mother subject to migraine.--No
consanguinity between the parents. Equality of ages (difference
of two years).--A sister died of convulsions.--Conception
during an alcoholic excess on the part of the
father.--Albuminuria during pregnancy.--The child cried both
night and day.--Twitchings of the body and head.--Did he ever
have convulsions?--Fits of anger.--At the time of admission, he
could neither speak nor walk (July 30, 1881, age 3 years).--The
child has involuntary emissions of fæces and urine (is
uncleanly).

_September_, 1884.--The child has learned to walk.

1885.--Development of speech.--The child is beginning to give
notice of its natural necessities.

1886.--The child is no longer uncleanly.--The twitchings of head
and body and the fits of anger have diminished.

1887-1890.--Progressive improvement, with alternate progressive and
stationary periods.

1891.--Description of the patient.

1892-1897.--Physical and intellectual evolution.--Progress in
studies.--Acquirement of a trade.--Results.

_Remote Antecedents._ (Notes furnished by the mother.)--_Father:_
35 years old, tailor's cutter, large, strong, of calm
temperament, a smoker; numerous _excesses of alcoholic
beverages_, especially absinthe--as many as eleven a day;
venereal excesses; came home intoxicated almost every day;
never had convulsions in infancy, nor any nervous shock;
suffered only from eczema. No syphilis.--_Father's Family:_
Paternal grandfather a mason, sober, died of heart disease.
Paternal grandmother, of calm temperament, enjoyed good health.
No other information regarding paternal ancestry.--_Mother:_
33 years old, seamstress, good health, regular features;
no convulsions in infancy. Menstruated at age of 13 years,
married at 20. Suffered from migraine since she was nine
years old. These headaches lasted three days and occurred
at the menstrual periods, ceasing throughout pregnancy and
lactation. The symptoms were: headache, buzzing in the ears,
to the point of deafness, and vision of sparks before the
eyes. The attacks terminated with vomiting. _Mother's Family:_
Father sober and in good health; mother died of influenza.
No information regarding either the ascendant or collateral
branches; but there seem to have been no other cases of nervous
disease in the family. No consanguinity, no disparity in ages.
_Brothers_ _and Sisters of the Patient:_ The mother of D----
had five children; the first, a boy ten years and a half old,
intelligent, no convulsions; the second, a girl, died at
fourteen months, after having convulsions that continued for
eight days; the third, a girl, seven years old, intelligent, no
convulsions; the fourth, the patient in question; the fifth,
a girl, born after D----'s admission to the asylum; she is
intelligent and healthy, no convulsions.

_Near Antecedents._ The child's mother is convinced that the
conception took place during _alcoholic_ intoxication.
Pregnancy was accompanied by generalised oedema from the fifth
month onward, due to albuminuria. No _eclampsia_. No fainting
fits, etc. Delivery timely, difficult, but accomplished
naturally. The child at birth was strong and not asphyxiated.
Was nursed by the mother for the first two months, after which
he depended upon hired nurses and artificial feeding (was sent
to the country where he was fed chiefly from the bottle). Was
returned to the mother at the age of eleven months; could not
walk; would eat anything within reach of his hands, coal,
excrements. Cried continually, day and night, to the great
disturbance of the neighbours. Cut his first tooth at five
months; and at the age of three years the first dentition was
not yet completed. Has a habit of swaying his body forward and
backward; beats his head against the wall, the chairs, etc.,
and strikes his forehead with his clenched fist. Has habitual
constipation. Is extremely affectionate, loves to be caressed.
Yet he will bite anyone who approaches him, including his
brothers and sisters. It cannot be learned whether when he
was staying with the wet-nurse he ever had convulsions. It is
certain that he had none after his return to the family. The
habit of _onanism_ dates from the time of his return from the
nurse. Vaccinated at 13 months, slight attack of varioloid
at the age of two years; no other infectious diseases. No
manifestation of scrofula; no traumatism.

_Objective Examination of the Patient_ (omitted).--The _history_ is
accompanied by eight photographs of the boy, taken respectively
at the ages of 3, 4, 6, 8, 11, 15, and 16 years, three of
which, namely, those taken at the ages of 6, 11 and 16, are
reproduced on page 278.

DIARIES

_July 2._--He is uncleanly (emissions of fæces and urine). Does
not know how to behave at table; when he eats he spills his
food over his clothing. Is gluttonous but not voracious; he
does not steal the food of his companions, but he protests when
he sees food given to others and not to him. Is mistrustful,
hides his bread for fear that it will be taken from him; and
if any one takes notice of this, he utters a cry of rage. He
is affectionate, very timid, jealous, obstinate, grumbling,
somewhat sullen, seldom laughs. Although weak, he fights his
companions and frequently falls into _fits of_ _anger_; then
he flings himself on the floor and beats his head against the
furniture. He sways his body forward and backward. His _power
of speech_ is limited to three words: _papa_, _mamma_, and
_no_. He is able to make himself understood when he wants
anything.

_August-September._--Two slight attacks of ophthalmia. The child
has now learned to walk.

_January-March, 1885._--Otitis (Inflammation of the ear).

_August._--The ability to speak is developing progressively. He
has begun to give notice of his natural necessities; is seldom
uncleanly, so that it is now possible to let him wear trousers.
The habit of balancing his body back and forth is tending to
disappear. The accesses of anger have become rarer. He is less
jealous and plays indiscriminately with his companions.

_January, 1886._--The improvement continues. D---- is now very
attentive in school. When out walking he takes an interest in
the things he sees and asks for explanations. Is doing well in
the first gymnastic exercises. Makes a good appearance.

_March._--D---- has now become altogether cleanly. Furthermore,
he knows how to wash, dress and undress himself alone. At
table, can handle his spoon and fork quite properly, but
cannot yet manage his knife. Is less gluttonous; his speech is
fully developed. Although he cannot keep still in school and
constantly changes his position, he has succeeded in learning
to know his letters, the different colours, etc., can count up
to 50, and can name the greater part of the objects contained
in the boxes used for object lessons. The balancing of the
body has completely disappeared. D---- has a tendency toward
onanism. Accesses of anger an still noted, during which he is
very vulgar.

_December._--Condition stationary. Misconduct in class, frequent
fits of anger, during which he abuses everyone and strikes his
smaller comrades.

_March, 1887._--D---- is calmer and does better work. Can count up
to sixty. His general knowledge has increased. Can tell his
age, his name, the name of his parents, what their employment
is, where they live, etc.

_April, 1888._--The improvement continues. His behavior is better.
Has learned the names of materials, of plane surfaces, of
solids; can distinguish vowels from consonants. It has been
impossible to induce him to trace simple strokes even upon the
blackboard.

_December._--Is more diligent and has taken a fancy to writing.

_January-June, 1889._--Is in the infirmary on account of anal
ulcers.

_December._--Notable improvement in general knowledge. Has begun to
write certain letters in his copybook.

_December, 1890._--D----'s conduct is good. He is no longer
disorderly; and if at times it is necessary to reprove him,
he recognises his fault, cries, and promises to do better. He
fears above all that his misconduct will be reported to his
mother. Has a fairly accurate notion of right and wrong, is
no longer so extremely jealous and shows affection for his
comrades. Has learned to write syllables well; is able to copy
short paragraphs; can do simple sums in addition; gives clear
answers to questions. Walking, running, jumping, going up and
down stairs have become easy for him. The child uses his fork
and knife at table; chews his food well, does not suffer from
any digestive disturbance. Is orderly, and attends to himself
in all details of his toilet.

_April 21, 1891: Objective Examination._--The child's face has a
uniformly ruddy complexion; lips full-blooded; skin smooth,
without scars or eruptions, excepting a slight scaliness due
to eczema. Two small ganglia in the left submaxillary region,
but no others in any other locality. Cranium symmetrical;
volume and form normal. Frontal and parietal nodules slightly
prominent; occipital nodule quite prominent (pentagonoid
cranium). Hair light blonde, abundant, fine, growing low
upon the forehead. Posterior vortex normal, forehead wide,
but not high. Visage oval; with a slight depression of the
nostril and corner of the mouth on the right side; has on the
whole an intelligent expression; it is mobile and reflects
the moods and feelings natural to boyhood. The superciliary
arches are only slightly arched. The eyebrows are chestnut
in colour and scanty; the lashes are abundant and long. Iris
dark blue; pupils equal in size and react under the influence
of light. No functional disturbance, and no lesion in regard
to the eyes. Field of vision normal. D---- recognises all
the colours. Nose small, and straight, with a pronounced
aperture of the nostrils. Zygomata regular, without exaggerated
prominences; naso-labial furrows barely indicated. Aperture
of mouth very wide and habitually half open. Lips thick and
slightly drooping. Tongue normal. Palatine vault distinctly
ogival. Tonsils enlarged; the boy is subject to tonsillitis.
All these parts show quite a blunted sensibility, which permits
of an examination of the pharynx, without causing nausea. Chin
rounded, without indentation. Ears long and thick, the outer
edge is normal, including the fold of the helix; the ears
protrude conspicuously from the cranium and are very peculiar
in shape; namely, the upper two-thirds of the external ear form
with the lower one-third an obtuse angle of such nature that
the _concha_ or shell really represents the outline of a very
deep and almost hemispherical sea-shell. The lobule is thick,
regular, and notably detached. The ear is the seat of frequent
attacks of erythema, complicated by swelling. Neck rather short
and quite stout; circumference 26 centimetres. The lobes of the
thyroid glands are plainly palpable to the touch.

_Thorax and Abdomen._--No notable peculiarities. Auscultation
and percussion show that the internal organs are normal. Body is
hairless. Genital organs are normal. The upper and lower limbs are
normal in all their segments.

_Icthyosis_ of the skin on thighs and knees. General sensibility
normal; usual physiological reflex actions.

_Treatment._--Regular application of the medico-pedagogical method:
tonics during the winter; hydrotherapy annually, from the first of
April to the first of November.

_April 24._--The mother, finding the child much improved, takes him
home on leave (March) and later (end of April) requests his
dismissal, which is granted reluctantly, in the fear that the
boy may lose part of what he has so laboriously gained.

_May 19, 1892._--The boy, having become insubordinate and not
making satisfactory progress in the public school (to which he
was sent, so that he would not be present at the scenes between
the mother and the father, who is habitually intoxicated), has
been sent back to the asylum.

_June._--The physical evolution continues. The child is very timid
and sensitive, cannot bear to be reproved and cries when he is
corrected. Reads fluently, but without expression. Has begun
to write familiar words from dictation. During his absence from
the asylum he learned to know the numbers and to do simple
examples in addition and subtraction.

_Treatment:_ School work; gymnastics; hydrotherapy.

_July._--D---- is at present conducting himself in a way difficult
to control; he plays ill-natured jests upon his companions;
places needles and tacks in seats; during the assembly he
amuses himself by sticking little pins into the backs of the
girls who sit in front of him.

_December._--The boy is very lazy, and often refuses to read or to
do his tasks; he grins and sneers if he is corrected. But he
carries out very well all the movements in the lower gymnastic
course. Has been sent to the _tailor's work-shop_ and seems to
have taken a fancy to the trade.

_April, 1893._--D---- has become quite reasonable, does good work
in school, does not like to be inactive, has ceased to grin
and sneer. His writing has improved; his reasoning power is
good; he is careful of his clothes to the point of vanity; eats
with propriety, has ceased to bolt his food; yet it is still
noticed that he has a tendency to appropriate the wine of his
companions.

_June._--D---- is passing through a bad period; he laughs at
everything that is said to him, is very obstinate, annoys his
comrades, tears up copy-books, breaks pens, etc. Is careless
regarding his clothing; makes a disturbance at night in the
dormitory.

_December._--Same state. Tries to smoke; is unwilling to do any
work; laughs at everybody; dresses with great carelessness; it
is necessary to compel him to wash his hands and face. No sign
of _puberty_.

_December, 1894._--Notable improvement; D---- reads quite readily,
writes quite well, recognises all ordinary objects, their
use, and their colour; has a conception of time. Is docile,
neat, industrious in school work, is attentive to explanations
and understands them. In the work-shop he continues to show
progress.

_January-June, 1895._--The improvement continues; D---- has begun
to learn the multiplication table; he is well-mannered and
scrupulous in his behaviour; excellent in gymnastics. In the
tailor's work-shop he makes marked progress; he has already
learned to put together an entire garment by himself, and he
knows how to use the machine. From time to time he has periods
of indolence; and this happens more often in the work-shop than
in the class.

_Puberty._--A slight down has begun to appear upon his upper lip.

_July 8._--According to the night nurse, D---- had an attack of
epilepsy during the night; he never had one before, and he has
not had one since.

_July 10._--Troubled sleep, nightmare, unintelligible and
threatening words.

_January, 1896._--Very notable improvement in class. The boy
profited above all from the _lessons about natural objects_,
in which he takes much interest. From time to time he shows a
tendency to dissipation and gambling. Is docile, cleanly, and
neat in personal appearance to the point of vanity. The master
of the work-shop is very much pleased with him; he works well
with the machine. Is doing well in gymnastics and in singing.

_Puberty._--His beard has begun to grow even on his cheeks.

_June._--Hand-writing, far from improving, seems to be growing
worse. On the contrary, it is noticed that he has made
progress in arithmetic. Can perform all four primary operations
and has begun to solve easy problems. His general knowledge has
improved. Has become a good tailor's workman.

_January-June, 1897._--The boy prefers the work-shop to the school
and for some time the mistake has been made of leaving him
wholly in the work-shop.

_December._--Same state from point of view of his studies;
character docile, conduct good, personal care and neatness
satisfactory. Works well and rapidly in the work-shop; can make
complete suits of clothing; uses the machine dexterously; is
beginning to cut out garments.

_Puberty_ complete, no onanism. The right eyelids are less widely
open than the left by nearly a quarter. The patient says that he
does not see so well with the right eye as with the left, and
cannot distinguish with it even large letters unless they are very
near.

TABLE OF WEIGHT AND STATURE

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
|1890| 1894 | 1895 | 1896 | 1897 | 1898
-----------+----+-------------+-----------+-----------+---------+------
Meas- |Jan-|Jan- | July |Jan-| July |Jan- |July|Jan-|July|Jan-
urements |uary|uary | |uary| |uary | |uary| |uary
-----------+----+------+------+----+------+------+----+----+----+------
Weight in | | | | | | | | | |
kilograms.| 25 |34.700|35.200| 35 |37.800|39.800| 44 | 46 | 51 |53.700
Stature in | | | | | | | | | |
metres. |1.22| 1.39 | 1.42 |1.42| 1.50 | 1.53 |1.58|1.61|1.66| 1.69
----------------------------------------------------------------------

MEASUREMENTS OF THE HEAD IN CENTIMETRES
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
|1891|1893|1894| 1895 | 1896 | 1897 |1898
|----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----
|Jan-|Jan-|Jan-|Jan-| |Jan-| |Jan-| |Jan-
|uary|uary|uary|uary|July|uary|July|uary|July|uary
---------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----
Maximum horizontal | | | | | | | | | |
circumference. |50.2|50.2|50.2| 52 | 52 | 52 | 52 | 52 | 52 | 54
Anterior semi- | | | | | | | | | |
circumference. | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 34
Distance from the | | | | | | | | | |
occipito-allantoid | | | | | | | | | |
articulation to | | | | | | | | | |
the root of nose. | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 37
Maximum antero- | | | | | | | | | |
posterior diameter.|17.5|17.8|17.8| 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 19 | 19 | 19
Maximum biauricular | | | | | | | | | |
diameter. | 11 | 12 | 12 |12.5|12.5|12.5|12.2|12.5|12.5| 13
Maximum biparietal | | | | | | | | | |
diameter. |13.5| 14 | 14 |14.5|14.5|14.5|14.5|14.5|14.5|14.5
Maximum bitemporal | | | | | | | | | |
diameter. | -- | -- | -- | -- | 11 | 11 | 11 |11.5|11.5| 12
Medial height of | | | | | | | | | |
forehead. | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 6
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

In the antecedents of this patient, the only suggestions of degeneration are the _alcoholism_ of the father and the fact that conception took place in a state of intoxication. The mother's migraine might also be considered as a nervous malady amounting to a family taint, but cannot be held responsible for so grave an abnormality as idiocy.

Consequently, it remains beyond doubt that the most interesting antecedent fact to be considered in this case is the _conception_ _during alcoholic intoxication_.

The individual we are studying is a sick person; this is shown by _ptosis_ (drooping eye-lid), the recurrent periods of agitation, the epileptic convulsion in the night detected by the night nurse.

It is interesting to observe in the photographs of the child, the alteration of expression between the periods of calm and those of agitation; in the latter the face is asymmetrical and shows contractions in the left facial region, while the right side is paretic; the paresis is also manifested by _ptosis_ (drooping lids). During the periods of calm, on the contrary, the left side also is atonic.

In the course of the history the differences in the child's conduct in the two states are well described.

During the periods of calm, the child is attentive, docile, careful of his dress, timid, and makes progress in his studies; during the periods of agitation he is unstable, rebellious, careless, unkind to his comrades, and makes no progress whatever. At the beginning, there were no periods of calm at all; furthermore, the child had every appearance of being an idiot; medico-pedagogic treatment rendered longer and more frequent, and finally permanent, these periods of calm, during which the child's intellectual redemption became possible. The treatment did not consist solely in the _education of an idiot_, but also in the _cure of a sick child_. "At the time of admission," according to the _observations_ in the record, "the diagnosis was _retarded mentality_, and that only in relation to primary instruction, because in regard to matters of common knowledge and manual work, the patient comes very near to a normal lad of average intelligence."

Such a surprising _transformation_ of an individual is certainly deserving of admiration; but this diligently compiled study is not yet quite completed. As a matter of fact, when the education of D---- was begun, observations regarding types of stature were not yet made; but his photographs show that he was an exaggerated macroscelous type. The trade adopted by D---- which will oblige him to sit with his chest bowed over the machine, or in a kneeling position while he sews, will in all probability drive him straight along the road to tuberculosis, a malady to which his organism has singularly predisposed him. It would be interesting to follow further the history of this patient, who has been transformed from an idiot into a skilful and industrious workman.

The society, which under the guidance of science, achieved his difficult redemption, has perhaps at the same time condemned him to death.

The modern standards of pedagogical anthropology would have furnished a more far-sighted guidance in the choice of a vocation.

Meanwhile, however, this history reported by Thulié is a luminous demonstration of the folly of rewards and punishments; the only forms of intervention during the periods of agitation, which lasted for entire months, during which the boy was continually unruly, impulsive, malicious, reckless, and incapable of work, were tonics, hydrotherapy and kindly treatment.

"Punishments" would have cruelly wrecked the life of a human being who was naturally gentle, affectionate, and capable of diligent work and permanent improvement.

Something similar ought to be attempted in the reformatories. The boys who are regarded as incorrigible are frequently _sick_ boys, with an hereditary degenerative taint, and need to live in a tranquil environment and to receive medical treatment.

The biographic charts of the reformatories give no evidence that this educative movement has as yet been understood. They show that _punishments_ are still regarded as possessing a corrective efficacy, because the conception that the so-called delinquent children may be a pathological product and a result of disastrous family and social conditions, has not yet penetrated with sufficient clearness.

But progress along this path is surely bound to come as a result of the experience which this principle of reform has made possible.

The biographic charts have unquestionably laid the foundations of a new edifice in pedagogy.

_Scientific Pedagogical Advantages of Biographic Histories:_

1. The biographic chart takes the place of the report cards and records of the relative marks of merit and demerit; for while these records and reports constituted a statement of _effects_, altogether empirical, the biographic chart _investigates the causes_ and in this way furnishes pedagogy with a scientific basis. There is no need of further demonstration. The principal consequences of the above indicated progress are two in number.

2. The biographic chart, replacing the earlier classifications, raises the teacher's standard of culture by directing him along a scientific path, associates the teacher's work with that of the physician, and makes the teacher a far-sighted director of the development and perfectioning of the new generations.

3. The biographic chart includes a new educative movement which abolishes rewards and punishments.

On this third point much might be said, since it touches upon one
of the fundamental doctrines of pedagogical progress. But since
this is not a treatise upon scientific pedagogy, it is necessary to
limit the exposition to a few fundamental points.

In fact, it will be sufficient to speak of cases in which education
is most difficult and where the rewards and punishments are
unavailing--for these will include all simpler cases. A luminous
example is furnished by the education of _new-born infants_. Of
all human beings they used to be the most troublesome because of
the impossibility of educating them by the old-fashioned methods.
They cried at all hours of the day and night, making a slave of the
mother or whoever took her place.

To-day, babies are quiet; it is marvelous to go through the infant
ward in the Obstetrical Clinic of Rome; absolute silence reigns
there, and yet if we lift up the white curtains of the cribs, we
see the little ones lying with their eyes wide open. A deeper
knowledge than was formerly had of the _hygiene of_ _the child_ has
enabled us to interpret his needs, and when these are satisfied,
the child is tranquil. Bodily cleanliness, liberty of movement,
prolonged repose in the crib, and _rational feeding_ have obtained
this remarkable result of silencing the baby, of rendering it
more robust and of liberating the mother from the slavery of her
mission. The classic cry of the child in swaddling bands was a
protest against the suffering which ignorance imposed upon him.
To-day the little one, lying tranquilly in his crib, begins to
exercise his senses earlier and more easily, a ray of light strikes
him and attracts his attention, and with this his education has
begun, while formerly the suffering due to indigestion kept him for
a much longer time a stranger to the external world.

The same thing may be repeated for every year of childhood. Often
what we call _naughtiness_ on the part of the individual child is
_rebellion_ against our own mistakes in educating him. The coercive
means which we adopt toward children are what destroy their natural
tranquility. A healthy child, in his moments of freedom, succeeds
in escaping from the toys inflicted upon him by his parents, and
in securing some object which arouses the investigating instinct
of his mind; a worm, an insect, some pebbles, etc.; he is silent,
tranquil and attentive. If the child is not well, or if his mother
obliges him to remain seated in a chair, playing with a doll, he
becomes restless, cries, or gives way to convulsive outbursts
("bad temper"). The mother believes that educating her child means
forcing him to do what is pleasing to her, however far she may be
from knowing what the child's real needs are, and unfortunately
we must make the same statement regarding the school-teachers!
Then, in order to make him yield to coercion, she punishes the
child when he rebels and rewards him when he is obedient. By this
method we _drive a child by force_ along paths that are not natural
to him. In the same way, absolute governments employed public
entertainments and the gallows, in order to compel the people to
act and think according to the will of their sovereign; indeed,
they were considered as indispensable means of good government.
To-day we have come to realise that such means are more or less
adapted to the successful crushing of a people's spirit, but not to
governing them well. The reign of _liberty_, which leaves men the
opportunity to give expression to their own powers and above all to
their own thoughts, is doing away with festivals and executions;
and it is not until this is accomplished that men can be really
well _governed_.

Something similar is going to take place in the schools. But here,
since the children are incapable of understanding _what they ought
to do_ for their own best good, science _studies them_ in order to
assist their natural needs.

I believe that we must greatly modify our ideas regarding infant
psychology, as soon as trained psychologists begin to observe the
spontaneous manifestations of children, to the end of encouraging
their tendencies.

Having applied scientific methods in the "Children's Houses,"
we were amazed at the behaviour of those little children; for
instance, they showed contempt for toys, while they loved objects
on which they could exercise their free powers of reason.

_Intellectual exercise is the most pleasing_ of all to the small
child if he is in good health. Indeed, we already know that
children break their toys in order to see how they are made inside;
this shows that the exercise of their intellect interests them more
than playing with an object that is often irrational. But children
are not, as is generally believed, naturally destructive; on the
contrary, their instinct is to _preserve_. This is seen in the
way in which they save little objects that they have acquired by
themselves; and in the "Children's Houses," we have also seen it in
the way that they preserve unharmed even the most trivial scrap of
paper, although free to tear it up, so long as that scrap of paper
helps them to exercise their thoughts.

Here we see the great difference between the healthy, normal child
who employs himself in the way that pleases him, and is attentive
and tranquil; and another child who, equally healthy and normal, is
obliged to do what other people wish him to do, and is restless,
and troublesome and cries.

To aid the physical development of the child under the guidance of
natural laws is to favour his health and his growth; to aid his
natural psychic tendencies is to render him more intelligent.

This principle has been intuitively recognised by all pedagogists,
but the practical application of it was not possible, excepting
under the guidance of scientific pedagogy, founded upon a direct
knowledge of the human individual.

_To-day it is possible for us to establish a régime of liberty in
our schools, and_ _consequently it is our duty to do so._

Whenever a child exhibits anomalies of character that do not
signify rebellion against irrational methods of education, and
are not expressions of a struggle for liberty, he represents the
unhappy effect of some pathological cause, or of some _social
error_, that has only too fatally accomplished its corruptive task.

This is what the biographic history will reveal!

As a general rule, a bad child should be taken to see a physician,
because it is almost certain that he is a sick child.

But the _treatment_ of such maladies is very often mainly
pedagogical; curative pedagogy, however, must absolutely abolish
_punishment_.

We now know as a fact absolutely established in sociology that the
fear of punishment, of torture and even of death does not avail to
diminish crime, nor the imperious manifestation of human passions.

Brigandage is not repressed by cutting off heads, but by
civilisation in all its forms of industry, intercommunication, etc.

And this principle is especially true in the case of children;
harshness of methods and severity of punishment will not avail to
inculcate, and still less to create, goodness. Man is conquered
through kindness and gentleness; among all the beatitudes, that of
inheriting the earth (_i.e._, of winning over their fellowmen) is
given to the _meek: blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit
the earth_.

We know that hypocrisy, adulation and seduction are criminal means
by which man seeks to deceive his fellow men to his own profit;
but they are based upon gentleness; it would never occur to
anyone to seduce and to conquer hypocritically, with the help of
violence. Because the weak point in man, that to which he is most
susceptible, is gentleness, praise, caresses. We have seen that
the psychic stimulus needed to augment human activity, to arouse
an apathetic person to action, and even to produce a condition
of flourishing growth in a child, is the pleasant stimulus of
kindness and caresses. The mother's caress, like the mother's
milk, is a means of stimulating the child to a more complete
nutrition and vitality. And the entire category of physiological
weaklings, such as the defectives, epileptics and criminals,
have a proportionately greater need of such stimulus than normal
individuals; consequently, how can coercion ever be expected to
restore such unbalanced personalities to their proper equilibrium?
Those whom we have been in the habit of oppressing with severity
and punishment are the very ones most in need of the stimulus of
affection. Indeed, it is only the strong man and the hero who can
pass unscathed through persecution; the weak are left broken,
down-trodden, or slain.

_Sursum Corda._--Always strive to uplift, never to depress.

A beautiful theory and a humane idea. But is it practicable, and to
what extent? In short, what can be done practically, for instance,
in the exceedingly difficult case of juvenile delinquents, in
order to correct their evil tendencies and save them from their
waywardness, without coercion?

But what are evil tendencies of the mind? With that one phrase we
are trying to embrace and ostensibly bind together a quantity of
widely different effects.

The study of the individual should suggest to us the particular
method of education required by him. Meanwhile, in regard to the
question of juvenile delinquents, a wide road leading straight
back to first causes, has been opened by the _pathological_
factor. Who, for instance, does not know that the conduct and the
sentiments of an individual may become unbalanced through the
effects of poison or disease? This takes us at once into the field
of nervous or mental pathology: the first symptom of _paralytic
dementia_ is not the trembling, or alteration of speech, or
interruption of certain reflex actions, or muscular weakness, nor
the real and actual delirium. The symptom which first manifests
itself as an indication of profound disturbance in the personality
of the unfortunate victim of this cruel disease is an almost
unheralded alteration of the natural character and conduct. The
man who hitherto has been a good husband and father, becomes a
profligate, spendthrift and gambler; the man who has hitherto been
most scrupulous in his language and in his sexual conduct becomes
foul-mouthed and obscene; the man who was a kind and affectionate
husband becomes violent and aggressive toward his wife. Anyone
wishing to consider these preliminary symptoms of paralytic
dementia as _evil tendencies of the mind_, would strive in vain
with appropriate sermons, reproofs and punishments to make the sick
man _repent_ and come back to his former state!

Let us pass on to another example. There is no one who is not aware
of the effects of alcohol. There are persons who, when in a state
of intoxication, commit actions that are worse than reprehensible,
even criminal; actions which the individual himself deplores as
soon as the poisonous effects have passed away. Kind-hearted
persons go so far as to maltreat their own children, even when
they are little babies; they commit violent and degrading acts
that often make them shed tears of repentance as soon as they
become aware of them. Well, if we should try to make such a person
understand, while he is still in a state of intoxication, that
his actions are improper, it would be wasted effort. It is better
to let the matter pass, or else to give him treatment for his
alcoholic condition, which is the cause of his misconduct.

And passing on to another class of cases, does not everyone know
that when people are afflicted with a diseased liver, their
character alters, they become jealous, quarrelsome, hypochondriac,
melancholy? It would be useless to tell such persons that they were
formerly more tractable and morally superior; they are already
sufficiently afflicted without having us, who are in good health,
aggravate them with our useless preaching. And analogously, it is
well known that when hysteria attacks a woman it may transform her
from a virtuous and modest person to an unhappy creature, compelled
by her physical condition to forget herself and compromise the
unquestioned propriety of her past life; or again, it may change
her from a gentle soul to an insupportable fury, or it may
actually develop into such pronounced delirium as to necessitate
her confinement in an insane asylum. In this case also, it is the
malady that demands treatment, since it is the sole cause of the
sad manifestations of a change in character.

Now, the pathological cause most frequently associated with
criminal manifestations, is undoubtedly epilepsy. Lombroso
himself attributed a vast influence to this etiological factor
of criminality; and every day this far-sighted intuition of the
master is confirmed and made clearer. The epileptic is not always a
criminal, nor does the criminal always show the classic convulsive
symptoms. There are cases of epilepsy in which the symptoms are
attenuated or latent or replaced by different but equivalent
symptoms. It is frequently necessary to diagnose an _epileptic
character_ from impulsive tendencies and from long protracted
nocturnal _enuresis_ in childhood. De Sanctis has lately been able
to prove in his hospital practice that there are many children
who have unmistakable epilepsy of the classic type, with violent
accesses, but without criminal tendencies; at a certain age the
convulsions cease, the patient is apparently cured: but he has
become a criminal. On the other hand, there are children with
immoral tendencies, destructive, violent, incorrigible; one would
say that these were clear cases of predisposition to crime; all at
once a genuine epileptic attack occurs, followed by other repeated
attacks; the criminal tendencies disappear; the patient is simply
an epileptic. In these cases, we have successive forms of epileptic
equivalence. In the majority of cases, therefore, the proper course
would be to _treat_ the patient for epilepsy, as being the cause of
the apparent "evil tendencies of mind." And hence one notable side
of the great problem of the moral education of juvenile criminals
is transformed fundamentally into this other problem: "Can epilepsy
be treated and cured?"

Up to the present, the treatment of epilepsy is a problem. While
therapeutics prescribe bromides and warm baths, pedagogy is to-day
following a very different course with a combined treatment of
hygiene and education. Benedickt, and following him, the principal
authorities among medical specialists, are at present condemning
the use of depressing bromides, which hide the attacks as an
anesthetic hides pain, but do not cure them. The cure, says
Benedickt, depends upon hygienic life in the open air in order
to absorb the poisons, and upon graded work, provided, however,
that the malady is still recent and has not assumed a chronic
form. Two principles of much importance: the malady must be of
recent occurrence! Consequently, it is only in the _period of
childhood_ that we can attempt the treatment of the great majority
of those predisposed to crime, with any hope of effecting a cure! A
declaration of tremendous interest for the defense of society. But
the treatment must be _pedagogic_. Accordingly, we have returned to
the point of departure. We began by asking: "How are we to educate
them"? A course of reasoning led us along this different road, "it
is necessary to give them treatment." But the treatment consists
in educating them. Well, from all this we can so far extract one
unassailable principle; in their education all coercive measures
must be absolutely abolished, because nervous and convulsive
maladies are most successfully treated with gentleness and quiet;
it is evident that all emotion, all fear, all nervous exhaustion,
all punishment in short, no matter how mild or just it may be,
would seem to be _prohibited_ in pedagogic treatment.

Accordingly, it is necessary to approach the question anew;
what is needed is to set the nervous system in order, to calm
it, to restore its equilibrium. Benedickt says: this is to be
achieved _through work_, rationally measured and graded; hence,
manual training, as organised, for example, in the Reformatory of
San Michele, constitutes of itself a moral cure; it concurs in
readjusting the nervous system by reinforcing it.

However, we must not generalise over such complex questions; if
the pathological factor, and more especially epilepsy, constitutes
a great centre of _biologic_ _causes_ producing individuals
predisposed to crime, we cannot conclude that there is a constant
correspondence between epilepsy and criminality. But there is
no doubt that among these predisposed we shall almost always
find some who are suffering from a taint, or from dystrophy, due
to tuberculosis or syphilis; in short, the _minus habens_, the
physiological proletariat.

The benefit wrought by education consists not only in contributing
to the real and actual cure, as in the case of epilepsy; but
also in the corrective, as well as curative, effect upon the
personality. The abnormal mentality which generally accompanies
degenerate or epileptic conditions requires special methods of
education, which in many cases must absolutely exclude all forms
of coercion. Mental hygiene, an abundance of psychic stimulus,
partly intellectual (chiefly through objective demonstration)
and partly moral (in the form of praise and gentle caressing
treatment), are indispensable accompaniments of such education. An
abnormal mentality almost always accompanies defects of the mind;
from the hypochondriac or the epileptic to the imbecile and the
idiot, the abnormal mentality builds itself up from inaccurate
perceptions, and hence more or less from illusions; a deficiency
of reasoning power or a half delirious condition completes the
fatal organisation of a mode of thought which renders such an
individual unfitted for his environment. We have seen an example
of this in the boy whose clinical history was read in class; his
perceptions were inexact, consequently colours, odours, and sounds
reached him in a manner somewhat different from our perception of
them; his mental world must therefore be differently constructed
from ours. Defectives frequently pass by objects without obtaining
any impression of them, or else transform what impression they do
get into a false idea. Even their sensations of touch and pain
are different from the normal. Hence, they do not feel as we do,
and are often inaccessible to the anguish of pain which refines
human nature by sometimes raising it to the point of heroism. And
because we have learned through our own sufferings to understand
the meaning of pity, altruism and solidarity, these unhappy beings
differ from us even in their relation to society. Their scanty
powers of logic lead them to fall openly into errors, which provoke
vindictive retaliation on our part that tends in the ultimate
analysis to isolate these unfit beings from social intercourse.

To us, their whole conversation is a series of falsehoods, because
it does not correspond to what we ourselves see and feel. An
understanding between them and us becomes steadily more difficult,
in proportion as we continue to perfect ourselves in our individual
evolution, while their unhappy state is steadily aggravated through
the formidable struggles and persecutions which they meet in an
environment to which they are unadaptable. For instance, we saw
that one of the boys who has been studied in class, had committed
his most reprehensible acts as a result of false logic. "Why do you
kill all the pigeons?" "To make them keep still." "Why do you beat
your little sister?" "Because she won't work like the others." (The
sister in question was only eighteen months old!) Well, he showed
in this way that he had learned something from the corrections that
he had received. They had punished him so much for being restless,
and so much because he did not want to work, that he finally
applied his acquired zeal to correcting others in the way that his
defective logic dictated. And similarly, after seeing how they
weigh objects with a steel-yard--also a form of work--it occurred
to him to stick the hook into his little sister, in order to weigh
her; and having learned that useful work is paid for in money,
which serves to buy the necessities of life, he stole all the money
that he could find at home, and gave it to the motormen on the
tram-cars, who in his opinion perform the most useful work in the
world.

I once had occasion to study a paranoiac patient in the asylum for
the criminal insane, who had spent twenty years in prison before
his insanity became so pronounced as to cause his removal from
one place of restraint to the other. He had killed his betrothed,
out of jealousy, so he said, but he narrated the tragic deed with
a fullness of detail and a readiness of phrase--his lurking in
ambush, the unfortunate girl's approach, her fall under the blows
of the cobbler's knife--that proved the cold-blooded calculation
with which the crime was committed.

This man was convinced that he possessed such oratorical gifts
that if he had pleaded his own case in place of his attorney,
the persuasive magic of his eloquence would have resulted in his
acquittal. The lawyer had advised him not to speak and the prisoner
was sentenced to a term of thirty years. The appeal to the Court of
Cassation was denied. The result was that in his desperation at the
failure of his defence, and more particularly because he had lost
the chance of showing his oratorical powers in public, he conceived
the idea that the only way by which he could come into court again,
and speak for himself, and _force_ _them to acquit him_, was to
commit another murder. And he actually sprang at his lawyer's
throat, armed with a nail, meaning to kill him. Thus we see how
paranoiac delirium, and defective reasoning powers, sad evidences
of pathological conditions, combined to create the most cynical and
repellant of all criminal types.

Accordingly the _treatment_ of the pathological condition, and the
education of the _mentality_ in children who are thus predisposed,
constitute a great work on behalf of the defence of society.

Well, this is precisely what scientific pedagogy is trying to
do, through a rational education of the senses: to correct false
perceptions and straighten out the warped and twisted mentality
of abnormal children; and little by little, through repetition of
the same lessons under different forms, and the establishment of a
cooperation of all the senses, the perception of objects tends to
approach nearer and nearer to the normal. Meanwhile, hygienic or
medical treatment may be used to correct the accompanying physical
defects.

Accordingly, we are able to modify an abnormal personality by means
of rational medico-pedagogic treatment; and it is by this means
alone, and not through destructive coercion, that we may hope to
approach the greatly desired goal.

Lastly, it is also necessary, in the etiology of crime, to take
into consideration the environment, the bad example, the brutality,
the absence of affection, all of which are things which might
well pervert the mind of even a normal individual; and when such
conditions exist, the removal of the transgressor to a different
environment where he may have the benefit of physical, intellectual
and moral hygiene, may result in completely transforming him. In
these sad cases nothing short of the profoundest love will serve to
redeem and even transform into a hero the man who has fallen into
evil ways through misfortune.

No one can any longer believe that coercive measures should be
added to the cruelty of the environment which oppresses the
_transgressor_. If he has gone astray in the midst of sorrow it
will be only through consolation that he can be born again to a
new life; if he lost the straight path amid arid wastes, nothing
short of a purifying and assuaging spiritual water will enable him
to recover his path. As a sign of our humanity let us keep a smile
upon our lips and our hearts free of all harshness of offense or
defense; our weapons are intelligence and love and it is only by
these weapons that we can become conquerors.

But, it may be answered, granted that the education of abnormal
persons, and more especially juvenile delinquents, constitutes a
complex work in which medicine, a special environment, and the
methods of scientific pedagogy contribute harmoniously through
diverse ways to the ultimate goal: yet in actual practice how are
we to intervene to render docile these rebels whom society itself,
with all the forces at its disposal, recognises as dangerous and
condemns to isolation? In short, it is argued, a more direct
method will be required for their moral education; a clear-cut
method to offset that equally direct form consisting of coercion
and punishment that are now the consequence of the reprehensible
act. Under all the conditions to be considered in regard to the
biopathological factors and the social environment, there still
remains another element and the most evident of all, namely,
the immediate and practical influence exerted directly upon the
minds of wayward children. We may say quite truly that beneath
the pathological facts and the social injustices, there exists
something more profound which, for the sake of simplicity we may
call the _soul of humanity_. Something which responds from soul
to soul, which may be aroused from the depths of subconsciousness
like a surprise, which may be touched and reveal itself in an
outburst of affection previously hidden and unsuspected. Unknown
profundities of the spirit, that seem to merge into the eternity
of the universe itself and unexpectedly produce new forms as in
a chemical reaction. And this is what we really mean by "moral
education."

Well, in order to accomplish such a lofty work, we do not need to
find a _method_. Method is always more or less mechanical. Here, on
the contrary, is the supreme expression of human life--an evocation
of the superman. What we need to find is not a method, but a
_Master_.