Chapter IX: Part IV: Modern Evolution (8)

To the evidence from fossiliferous beds was added evidence from old river-gravels and limestone caverns. The relics extracted from the stalagmitic deposits in Kent's Hole, near Torquay, had lain unheeded for some years save as "curios," when M. Boucher des Perthes saw in the worked flints of a somewhat rougher type which he found mingled with the bones of rhinoceroses, cave-bears, mammoths, or woolly-haired elephants, and other mammals in the "drift" or gravel-pits of Abbeville, in Picardy, the proofs of man's primitive savagery, so far as Western Europe was concerned. The presence of these rudely-chipped flints had been noticed by M. de Perthes in 1839, but he could not persuade savants to admit that human hands had shaped them, until these doubting Thomases saw for themselves like implements _in situ_ at a depth of seventeen feet from the original surface of the ground. That was in 1858: a year before the publication of the Origin of Species. Similar materials have been unearthed from every part of the globe habitable once or inhabited now. They confirm the speculations of Lucretius as to a universal makeshift with stone, bone, horn, and such-like accessible or pliable substances during the ages that preceded the discovery of metals. Therefore, the existence of a Stone Age at one period or another where now an Age of Iron (following an Age of Bronze) prevails, is an established canon of archæological science. From this follows the inference that man's primitive condition was that which corresponds to the lowest type extant, the Australian and Papuan; that the further back inquiry is pushed such culture as exists is found to have been preceded by barbarism; and that the savage races of to-day represent not a degradation to which man, as the result of a fall from primeval purity and Eden-like ease, has sunk, but a condition out of which all races above the savage have emerged.

While Prehistoric Archæology, with its enormous mass of _material_ remains gathered from "dens and caves of the earth," from primitive work-shops, from rude tombs and temples, thus adds its testimony to the "great cloud of witnesses"; _immaterial_ remains, potent as embodying the thought of man, are brought by the twin sciences of Comparative Mythology and Folklore, and Comparative Theology--remains of paramount value, because existing to this day in hitherto unsuspected form, as survivals in beliefs and rites and customs. Readers of Tylor's Primitive Culture, with its wealth of facts and their significance; and of Lyall's Asiatic Studies, wherein is described the making of myths to this day in the heart of India; need not be told how the slow zigzag advance of man in material things has its parallel in the stages of his intellectual and spiritual advance all the world over; from the lower animism to the higher conception of deity; from bewildering guesses to assuring certainties. To this mode of progress no civilized people has been the exception, as notably in the case of the Hebrews, was once thought--"the correspondence between the old Israelitic and other archaic forms of theology extending to details."

While, therefore, the discoveries of astronomers and geologists have been disintegrating agencies upon old beliefs, the discoveries classed under the general term Anthropological are acting as more powerful solvents on every opinion of the past. Showing on what mythical foundation the story of the fall of man rests, Anthropology has utterly demolished the _raison d'être_ of the doctrine of his redemption--the keystone of the fabric. It has penetrated the mists of antiquity, and traced the myth of a forfeited Paradise, of the Creation, the Deluge, and other legends, to their birthplaces in the valley of the Euphrates or the uplands of Persia; legends whose earliest inscribed records are on Accadian tablets, or in the scriptures of Zarathustra. It has in the spirit of the commended Bereans, "searched" those and other scriptures, finding therein legends of founders of ancient faiths cognate to those which in the course of the centuries gathered round Jesus of Nazareth; it has collated the rites and ceremonies of many a barbaric theology with those of old-world religions--Brahmanic, Buddhistic, Christian--and found only such differences between them as are referable to the higher or the lower culture. For the history of superstitions is included in the history of beliefs; the superstitions being the germ-plasm of which all beliefs above the lowest are the modified products. Belief incarnates itself in word or act. In the one we have the charm, the invocation, and the dogma; in the other the ritual and ceremony. "A ritual system," Professor Robertson Smith remarks, "must always remain materialistic, even if its materialism is disguised under the cloak of mysticism." And it is with the incarnated ideas, uninfluenced by the particular creed in connection with which it finds them, that anthropology deals. Its method is that of biology. Without bias, without assumptions of relative truth or falsity, the anthropologist searches into origins, traces variations, compares and classifies, and relates the several families to one ordinal group. He must be what was said of Dante, "a theologian to whom no dogma is foreign." Unfortunately, this method, whose application to the physical sciences is unchallenged, is, when applied to beliefs, regarded as one of attack, instead of being one of explanation. But this should not deter; and if in analyzing a belief we kill a superstition, this does but show what mortality lay at its core. For error cannot survive dissection. Moreover, as John Morley puts it, "to tamper with veracity is to tamper with the vital force of human progress." Therefore, delivering impartial judgment, the verdict of anthropology upon the whole matter is that the claims of Christian theologians to a special and divine origin of their religion are refuted by the accordant evidence of the latest utterances of a science whose main concern is with the origin, nature, and destiny of man.

The extension of the comparative method to the various products of man's intellectual and spiritual nature is the logical sequence to the adoption of that method throughout every department of the universe. Of course it starts with the assumption of differences in things, else it would be superfluous. But it equally starts with the assumption of resemblances, and in every case it has brought out the fact that the differences are superficial, and that the resemblances are fundamental.

All this bears closely on Huxley's work. The impulse thereto has come largely from the evidence focussed in Man's Place in Nature, evidence of which the material of the writings of his later years is the expansion. The cultivation of intellect and character had always been a favourite theme with him, and the interest was widened when the passing of Mr. Forster's Elementary Education Act in 1870 brought the problem of popular culture to the front. The wave of enthusiasm carried a group of distinguished liberal candidates to the polls, and Huxley was elected a member of the School Board for London. Then, although in not so acute a form as now, the religious difficulty was the sole cause of any serious division, and Huxley's attitude therein puzzled a good many people because he advocated the retention of the Bible in the schools. Those who should have known him better thought that he was (to quote from one of his letters to the writer) "a hypocrite, or simply a fool." "But," he adds, "my meaning was that the mass of the people should not be deprived of the one great literature which is open to them, nor shut out from the perception of its place in the whole past history of civilised mankind." He lamented, as every thoughtful person must lament, the decay of Bible reading in this generation, while, at the same time, he advocated the more strenuously its detachment from the glosses and theological inferences which do irreparable injury to a literature whose value cannot be overrated.

For Huxley was well read in history, and therefore he would not trust the clergy as interpreters of the Bible. After repeating in the Prologue to his Essays on Controverted Questions what he had said about the book in his article on the School Boards in Critiques and Addresses, he adds, "I laid stress on the necessity of placing such instruction in lay hands; in the hope and belief that it would thus gradually accommodate itself to the coming changes of opinion; that the theology and the legend would drop more and more out of sight, while the perennially interesting historical, literary, and ethical contents would come more and more into view."

Subsequent events have justified neither the hope nor the belief. Had Huxley lived to see that all the sectaries, while quarrelling as to the particular dogmas which may be deduced from the Bible, agree in refusing to use it other than as an instrument for the teaching of dogma, he would probably have come to see that the only solution in the interests of the young, is its exclusion from the schools. Never has any collection of writings, whose miscellaneous, unequal, and often disconnected character is obscured by the common title "Bible" which covers them, had such need for deliverance from the so-called "believers" in it. Its value is only to be realized in the degree that theories of its inspiration are abandoned. Then only is it possible to treat it like any other literature of the kind; to discriminate between the coarse and barbaric features which evidence the humanness of its origin, and the loftier features of its later portions which also evidence how it falls into line with other witnesses of man's gradual ethical and spiritual development.

Huxley's breadth of view, his sympathy with every branch of culture, his advocacy of literary in unison with scientific training, fitted him supremely for the work of the School Board, but its demands were too severe on a man never physically strong, and he was forced to resign. However, he was thereby set free for other work, which could be only effectively done by exchanging the arena for the study. The earliest important outcome of that relief was the monograph on Hume, published in 1879, and the latest was the Romanes lecture on Evolution and Ethics, which was delivered in the Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford on the 18th of May, 1893. Between the two lie a valuable series of papers dealing with the Evolution of Theology and cognate subjects. In all these we have the application of the theory of Evolution to the explanation of the origin of beliefs and of the basis of morals. To quote the saying attributed to Leibnitz, both Spencer and Huxley, and all who follow them, care for "science only because it enables them to speak with authority in philosophy and religion." In a letter to the writer, wherein Huxley refers to his retirement from official life, he says:--

I was so ill that I thought with Hamlet, "the rest is silence." But
my wiry constitution has unexpectedly weathered the storm, and I
have every reason to believe that with renunciation of the devil and
all his works (i. e., public speaking, dining, and being dined,
etc.) my faculties may be unimpaired for a good spell yet. And
whether my lease is long or short, I mean to devote them to the work
I began in the paper on the Evolution of Theology.

That essay was first published in two sections in the Nineteenth Century, 1886, and was the sequel to the eighth chapter of his Hume. The Romanes Lecture supplemented the last chapter of that book. All these are accessible enough to render superfluous any abstract of their contents. But the tribute due to David Hume, who may well-nigh claim place among the few but fit company of Pioneers, warrants reference to his anticipation of accepted theories of the origin of belief in spiritual beings in his Natural History of Religion, published in 1757. He says: "There is an universal tendency among mankind to conceive all beings like themselves, and to transfer to every object those qualities with which they are familiarly acquainted, and of which they are intimately conscious.... The _unknown causes_ which continually employ their thought, appearing always in the same aspect, are all apprehended to be of the same kind or species. Nor is it long before we ascribe to them thought, and reason, and passion, and sometimes even the limbs and figures of men, in order to bring them nearer to a resemblance with ourselves." In his address to the Sorbonne on The Successive Advances of the Human Mind, delivered in 1750, Turgot expresses the same idea, touching, as John Morley says in his essay on that statesman, "the root of most of the wrong thinking that has been as a manacle to science."

The foregoing, and passages of a like order, are made by Huxley the text of his elaborations of the several stages of theological evolution, the one note of all of which is the continuity of belief in supernatural intervention. But more important than the decay of that belief which is the prelude to decay of belief in deity itself as commonly defined, is the resulting transfer of the foundation of morals, in other words, of motives to conduct, from a theological to a social base. Theology is not morality; indeed, it is, too often, immorality. It is concerned with man's relations to the gods in whom he believes; while morals are concerned with man's relations to his fellows. The one looks heavenward, wondering what dues shall be paid the gods to win their smiles or ward off their frowns. In old Rome _sanctitas_ or holiness, was, according to Cicero, "the knowledge of the rites which had to be performed." These done, the gods were expected to do their part. So in new Rome, when the Catholic has attended mass, his share in the contract is ended. Worship and sacrifice, as mere acts toward supernatural beings, may be consonant with any number of lapses in conduct. Morality, on the other hand, looks earthward, and is prompted to action solely by what is due from a man to his fellow-men, or from his fellow-men to him. Its foundation therefore is not in supernatural beliefs, but in social instincts. All sin is thus resolved into an anti-social act: a wrong done by man to man.

This is not merely readjustment; it is revolution. For it is the rejection of theology with its appeals to human obligation to deity, and to man's hopes of future reward or fears of future punishment; and it is the acceptance of wholly secular motives as incentives to right action. Those motives, having their foundation in the physical, mental, and moral results of our deeds, rest on a stable basis. No longer interlaced with the unstable theological, they neither abide nor perish with it. And one redeeming feature of our time is that the churches are beginning to see this, and to be effected by it. John Morley caustically remarks that "the efforts of the heterodox have taught them to be better Christians than they were a hundred years ago." Certain extremists excepted, they are keeping dogma in the background, and are laying stress on the socialism which it is contended was at the heart of the teaching of Jesus. Wisely, if not very consistently, they are seeking alliance with the liberal movements whose aim is the "abolition of privilege." The liberal theologians, in the face of the varying ethical standards which mark the Old Testament and the New, no longer insist on the absoluteness of moral codes, and so fall into line with the evolutionist in his theory of their relativeness. For society in its advance from lower to higher conceptions of duty, completely reverses its ethics, looking back with horror on that which was once permitted and unquestioned.

It is with this checking of "the ape and tiger," and this fostering of the "angel" in man, that Huxley dealt in his Romanes Lecture. There was much unintelligent, and some wilful, misunderstanding of his argument, else a prominent Catholic biologist would hardly have welcomed it as a possible prelude to Huxley's submission to the Church. Yet the reasoning was clear enough, and in no wise contravened the application of Evolution to morals. Huxley showed that Evolution is both _cosmical_ and _ethical_. _Cosmic Evolution_ has resulted in the universe with its non-living and living contents, and since, dealing with the conditions which obtain on our planet, there is not sufficient elbow-room or food for all the offspring of living things, the result is a furious struggle in which the strong win and transmit their advantages to their descendants. Nature is wholly selfish; the race is to the swift, and the battle to the strong.

But there are limits set to that struggle by man in the substitution, also within limits, of social progress for cosmic progress. In this _Ethical Evolution_ selfishness is so far checked as to permit groups of human beings to live together in amity, recognising certain common rights, which restrain the self-regarding impulses. For, in the words of Marcus Aurelius, "that which is not good for the swarm is not good for the bee" (Med., vi, 54). Huxley aptly likens this counter-process to the action of a gardener in dealing with a piece of waste ground. He stamps out the weeds, and plants fragrant flowers and useful fruits. But he must not relax his efforts, otherwise the weeds will return, and the untended plants will be choked and perish. So in conduct. For the common weal, in which the unit shares, thus blending the selfish and the unselfish motives, men check their natural impulses. The emotions and affections which they share with the lower social animals, only in higher degree, are co-operative, and largely help the development of family, tribal, and national life. But once we let these be weakened, and society becomes a bear-garden. Force being the dominant factor in life, the struggle for existence revives in all its primitive violence, and atavism asserts its power. Therefore, although he do the best that in him lies, man can only set limits to that struggle, for the ethical process is an integral part of the cosmic powers, "just as the 'governor' in a steam-engine is part of the mechanism of the engine." As with society, so with its units: there is no truce in the contest. Dr. Plimmer, an eminent bacteriologist, describes to the writer the action of a kind of yeast upon a species of Daphnia, or water-flea. Metschnikoff observed that these yeast-cells, which enter with the animal's food, penetrate the intestines, and get into the tissues. They are there seized upon by the leukocytes, which gather round the invaders in larger fashion, as if seemingly endowed with consciousness, so marvellous is the strategy. If they win, the Daphnia recovers; if they lose, it dies. "In a similar manner in ourselves certain leukocytes (phagocytes) accumulate at any point of invasion, and pick up the living bacteria," and in the success or failure of their attack lies the fate of man. Which things are fact as well as allegory; and time is on the side of the bacteria. For as our life is but a temporary arrest of the universal movement toward dissolution, so naught in our actions can arrest the destiny of our kind. Huxley thus puts it in the concluding sentences of his Preface--written in July, 1894, one year before his death--to the reissue of Evolution and Ethics:

"That man, as a 'political animal,' is susceptible of a vast amount of improvement, by education, by instruction, and by the application of his intelligence to the adaptation of the conditions of life to his higher needs, I entertain not the slightest doubt. But, so long as he remains liable to error, intellectual or moral; so long as he is compelled to be perpetually on guard against the cosmic forces, whose ends are not his ends, without and within himself; so long as he is haunted by inexpugnable memories and hopeless aspirations; so long as the recognition of his intellectual limitations forces him to acknowledge his incapacity to penetrate the mystery of existence; the prospect of attaining untroubled happiness, or of a state which can, even remotely, deserve the title of perfection, appears to me to be as misleading an illusion as ever was dangled before the eyes of poor humanity. And there have been many of them. That which lies before the human race is a constant struggle to maintain and improve, in opposition to the State of Nature, the State of Art of an organised polity; in which, and by which, man may develop a worthy civilisation, capable of maintaining and constantly improving itself, until the evolution of our globe shall have entered so far upon its downward course that the cosmic process resumes its sway; and, once more, the State of Nature prevails over the surface of our planet."

But only those of low ideals would seek in this impermanence of things excuse for inaction; or worse, for self-indulgence. The world will last a very long time yet, and afford scope for battle against the wrongs done by man to man. Even were it and ourselves to perish to-morrow, our duty is clear while the chance of doing it may be ours. Clifford,--dead before his prime, before the rich promise of his genius had its full fruitage,--speaking of the inevitable end of the earth "and all the consciousness of men" reminds us, in his essay on The First and Last Catastrophe, that we are helped in facing the fact "by the words of Spinoza: 'The free man thinks of nothing so little as of death, and his wisdom is a meditation not of death but of life.'" "Our interest," Clifford adds, "lies with so much of the past as may serve to guide our actions in the present, and to intensify our pious allegiance to the fathers who have gone before us and the brethren who are with us; and our interest lies with so much of the future as we may hope will be appreciably affected by our good actions now. Do I seem to say, 'Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die?' Far from it; on the contrary I say, 'Let us take hands and help, for this day we are alive together.'"

Evolution and Ethics was Huxley's last important deliverance, since the completion of his reply to Mr. Balfour's "quaintly entitled" Foundations of Belief was arrested by his death on the 30th of June, 1895.

In looking through the Collected Essays, which represent his non-technical contributions to knowledge, there may be regret that throughout his life circumstances were against his doing any piece of long-sustained work, such as that which, for example, the affluence and patience of Darwin permitted him to do. But until Huxley's later years, and, indeed, through broken health to the end, his work outside official demands had to be done fitfully and piecemeal, or not at all. Notwithstanding this, it has the unity which is inspired by a central idea. The application of the theory of evolution all round imparts a quality of relation to subjects seemingly diverse. And this comes out clearly and strongly in the more orderly arrangement of the material in the new issue of Collected Essays.

These show what an omnivorous reader he was; how well equipped in classics, theology, and general literature, in addition to subjects distinctly his own. He sympathized with every branch of culture. As contrasted with physical science, he said, "Nothing would grieve me more than to see literary training other than a very prominent branch of education." One corner of his library was filled with a strange company of antiquated books of orthodox type; this he called "the condemned cell." When looking at the "strange bedfellows" that slept on the shelves, the writer asked Huxley what author had most influenced a style whose clearness and vigour, nevertheless, seems unborrowed; and he at once named the masculine and pellucid Leviathan of Hobbes. He had the happy faculty of rapidly assimilating what he read; of clearly grasping an opponent's standpoint; and what is a man's salvation nowadays, freedom from that curse of specialism which kills all sense of proportion, and reduces its slave to the level of the machine-hand that spends his life in making the heads of screws. He believed in "scepticism as the highest duty, and in blind faith as the one unpardonable sin." "And," he adds, "it cannot be otherwise, for every great advance in natural knowledge has involved the absolute rejection of authority, the cherishing of the keenest scepticism, the annihilation of the spirit of blind faith; and the most ardent votary of science holds his firmest convictions, not because the men he most venerates holds them; not because their verity is testified by portents and wonders; but because his experience teaches him that whenever he chooses to bring these convictions into contact with their primary source, Nature--whenever he thinks fit to test them by appealing to experiment and to observation--Nature will confirm them. The man of science has learned to believe in justification, not by faith, but by verification." Therefore he nursed no illusions; would not say that he knew when he did not or could not know, and bidding us follow the evidence whithersoever it leads us, remains the surest-footed guide of our time. Such leadership is his, since he has gone on "from strength to strength." The changes in the attitude of man toward momentous questions which new evidence and the _zeit-geist_ have effected, have been approaches to the position taken by Huxley since he first caught the public ear. His deep religious feeling kept him in sympathetic touch with his fellows. Ever present to him was "that consciousness of the limitation of man, that sense of an open secret which he cannot penetrate, in which lies the essence of all religion." In one of his replies to a prominent exponent of the Comtian philosophy, that "incongruous mixture of bad science with eviscerated papistry," as he calls it, Huxley protests against the idea that the teaching of science is wholly negative.

I venture, he says, to count it an improbable suggestion that any
one who has graduated in all the faculties of human relationships;
who has taken his share in all the deep joys and deeper anxieties
which cling about them, who has felt the burden of young lives
entrusted to his care, and has stood alone with his dead before the
abyss of the Eternal--has never had a thought beyond negative
criticism.

That is the Agnostic position as he defined it; an attitude, not a creed; and if he refused to affirm, he equally refused to deny.

* * * * *

Thus have the Pioneers of Evolution, clear-sighted and sure-footed, led us by ways undreamed-of at the start to a goal undreamed-of by the earliest among them. To have halted on the route when the graver difficulties of the road began would have made the journey futile, and have left their followers in the wilds. Evolution, applied to everything up to man, but stopping at the stage when he appears, would have remained a fascinating study, but would not have become a guiding philosophy of life. It is in the extension of its processes as explanation of all that appertains to mankind that its abiding value consists. That extension was inevitable. The old theologies of civilized races, useful in their day, because answering, however imperfectly, to permanent needs of human nature, no longer suffice. Their dogmas are traced as the lineal descendants of barbaric conceptions; their ritual is becoming an archæological curiosity. They have no answer to the questions propounded by the growing intelligence of our time; neither can they satisfy the emotions which they but feebly discipline. Their place is being slowly, but surely, and more effectively, filled by a theory which, interpreting the "mighty sum of things," substitutes clear conceptions of unbroken order and relation between phenomena, in place of hazy conceptions of intermittent interferences; a theory which gives more than it takes away. For if men are deprived of belief in the pseudo-mysteries coined in a pre-scientific age, their wonder is fed, and their inquiry is stimulated, by the consciousness of the impenetrable mysteries of the Universe.

INDEX

Abdera, 16.
Abiogenesis, 216.
Abraham, 54.
Adam, fall of, 104.
---- stature of, 107.
Advent, the Second, 50, 70.
Ægean, the, 3.
Agassiz, 162.
Agrigentum, 13.
Air as primary substance, 13.
Alexander the Great, 17.
Alexandria, conquest of, 77.
---- philosophical schools of, 77.
Allegorical method, 75.
Allen, Grant, 2, 113, 167.
Amazons, river, 136.
America, discovery of, 84.
Amoeba, the, 224.
Anatomy, comparative, 230.
---- human, 90.
Anaxagoras, 14.
Anaximander, 7, 20.
Ancestor-worship, 70.
Andromeda, nebula in, 178.
Angels, belief in, 69.
Animism, 69, 97, 244, 255.
Anthropology and belief in the soul, 241.
---- and dogmas of the Fall and the Redemption, 247, 250.
---- and man's place in Evolution, 245.
Antioch, 47.
Ape and man, brain of, 227.
---- general relation of, 228.
Aquinas, Thomas, 20, 75.
Arab conquest, 76.
---- philosophy, 79.
Arch-fiend, 54.
Aristotle, 17-19, 20, 32, 35, 36, 74, 80, 81, 87, 163.
Arnold, Matthew, 13, 213.
Ascent of Man, Drummond's, 219.
Asklepios, 29.
Astruc, Dr., 103.
Athens, intellectual decay in, 35, 77.
---- persecution in, 14.
---- religious revival in, 11.
Atomic theory, 16.
Atonement, doctrine of the, and
Anthropology, 250.
Augurs, 31.
Augustine, St., 20, 55, 74.
Augustus, Cæsar, 42, 48.
Aurelius, Marcus, 51, 259.
Averroes, 80.
Avicenna, 101.

Bacon, Lord, 93, 108.
Bacon, Roger, 82.
Bacteria and leukocytes, 260.
Bagehot, Mr., 2.
Baghdad, 79.
Balfour, A. J., 262.
Baptism, origin of rite of, 66.
Bates, H. W., 134, 136, 162, 167, 208.
Beagle, voyage of the, 131.
Benn, A. W., 9, 19.
Bible, Dictionary of the, 107.
Biology, advance in study of, 108.
Black magic, 83.
Body and mind, mystery of connection between, 231.
Bone, resurrection, 90.
Bonnet, Charles, 21.
"Boundless," the, 7.
Breathing, symbolism of, 69.
Bruno, Giordano, 89.
Buddha, 64.
Buffon, place of, in theory of Evolution, 110.
---- submission to the Sorbonne, 104.
Burnet, Prof., 5, 7, 16.
Burton's Anatomy, 60.
Butcher, Prof., 4.

Caesalpino, 91.
Cairo, 80.
Canon of the Bible, 58, 88.
Carpenter, Dr., 150, 233.
Carthage, 78.
---- Council of, 58.
Casalis, Mr., 1.
Catat, Dr., 242.
Celtic religion, 70.
Chaldæa, 4.
Chambers, Robert, 119.
Charles Martel, 78.
Chosroes, 77, 79.
Christianity and Anthropology, 251.
---- anti-social nature of, 50.
---- causes of success of, 48, 56.
---- opposition to inquiry, 40.
---- origin of, 37.
---- pagan elements in, 59-73.
---- philosophic elements in, 57.
---- polytheism of, 69.
---- varying fortunes of, 38.
Christians, persecution of, 49.
Church Congress and Evolution, 159, 219.
Circumnavigation of the globe, 85.
Clifford, Prof., 261.
Collings, 41.
Colophon, 9.
Columbus, Christopher, 84.
Communion at Hawarden Church, 68.
Comtism, 264.
Conduct, bases of, 186, 254.
Consciousness, evolution of, 187, 224.
---- self-, 187.
Conservation of energy, 33, 120, 149, 177.
Copernicus, 20, 86.
Cordova, 80.
Correlation of forces, 189.
Cosmic Evolution, 258.
Councils, general, 220.
Courthope, W. J., 164.
Creation, days of, 103, 106.
Credulity of the learned, 148.
Creeds, 52, 220.
Criticism of religions, features of modern, 40.
Cronus, myth of, 56.
Crooke, Mr., 30.
Cross, relics of the, 72.
Crown of thorns, 72.
Cuvier, 114, 117, 163.
---- and Geoffroy St. Hilaire, 214.
Cybele, 29.

Dalton, John, 16, 125.
Daphnia, Dr. Plimmer on, 260.
Darwin, Charles, 126-134, 157-175.
---- Life and Letters of, 127, 157.
---- religious belief of, 173.
---- Erasmus, 21, 111.
Days of creation, 102, 106.
De Gama, Vasco, 85.
Deluge, 104, 107, 250.
Demeter, 29, 67.
Democritus, 16, 22, 33.
Demons, 55, 75, 87.
De Perthes, Boucher, 120, 248.
De Rerum Natura, 24.
Descartes, 91, 94, 216.
Descent into Hell, 88.
Descent of Man, 167, 172, 218.
Development, law of, 189.
Devil, 54, 83.
De Vinci, Leonardo, 102.
Diagoras, 63.
Dictionary of the Bible, 107.
Dionysus, 67.
Dispersion of the Jews, 56, 77.
Dogma and Evolution, 220.
Driver, Rev. Canon, 53, 107.
Dubois, Dr., 222.
Dunér, Professor, 179.

Earth as "element," 13.
---- Greek notions about the, 6, 8.
Education and dogma, 253.
Egypt, 4, 6, 7.
---- conquest of, 77.
Eleatic school, 10.
Elviri, Synod of, 62.
Embryology, 118, 218.
Empedocles, 13, 22, 27.
Ephesus, 11.
Epictetus, 51.
Epicurus, 22, 27.
Epigenesis, 21.
Ethical Evolution, 259.
Etruscan haruspices, 31.
Eve, stature of, 107.
Evil eye, 69.
Evolution and dogma, 220.
---- cosmic, 258.
---- ethical, 258.
---- inclusion of man in, 245.
---- inorganic, 175.
---- organic, 200.
Evolution and Ethics, Huxley on, 219, 254.

Fall, doctrine of the, and anthropology, 247.
Fire, as primary substance, 12.
First Principles, 167, 188.
Fiske, Professor, 8.
Flint implements, 248.
Folk-lore, value of study of, 249.
Fontenelle, 2.
Fossils, theories about, 104.
Frazer, J. G., 66, 220.

Galen, 90.
Galileo, discoveries and persecution of, 91.
Geology, effect of study of, 100.
---- revival of study of, 100.
---- principles of, 117.
Gesner, 91.
Gibbon, 57, 58, 72, 219.
Gladstone, Mr., 68.
Gnosticism, 48.
Gods in Rome, 29.
Golden Bough, The, 66, 220.
Gospels, origin of, 46.
Gosse, P. H., 104.
Gower, Dr., 155.
Granada, 80.
Greece, 3.
---- conquest and intellectual decline of, 23.
Greek philosophers, Table of, 36.
Greeks, early conception of earth by, 6, 8.
---- search of, for the primary substance, 6.
Grote, 15.

Haeckel, 115, 164.
Hallucinations, 153.
Haroun al-Raschid, 79.
Hartley, 124.
Haruspices, 31.
Harvey, William, 21, 93.
Hawarden Church, Communion at, 68.
Heine's Travel-Pictures, 153.
Hellenized Jews, 56, 77.
Helmholtz, 125.
Henrion, 107.
Heraclitus, 11.
Herakles, 29.
Herodotus, 62.
Herschel, Sir William, 95, 177.
Hesiod, 10.
Hippocampus minor, 227.
Hobbes' Leviathan, 60, 263.
Holy Communion, barbaric origin of rite of, 66, 68.
Homer, 8, 10, 12, 75.
Hooker, Sir Joseph, 141, 162.
---- Sir William, 119.
Horace, 63, 75.
Huggins, Dr. Wm., 178.
Humanity and Evolution, 192.
Humboldt, 121, 135.
Hume, 97, 192, 216, 255.
Hutton, 115.
Huxley, 94, 157, 159, 201-266.

Indigitamenta, 30.
Inductive philosophy, the, 93.
Inquisition, the, 89, 91.
Instinct, 229.
Ionia, 3, 4, 6, 32.
Isis, 29, 62.

Jerome, St., 24, 105.
Jerusalem, early disciples of Jesus at, 47.
---- fall of, 77.
---- Jesus at, 44.
Jesus, summary of life of, 42-46.
---- superstition shared by, 53-56.
Jews, Hellenized, or of the Dispersion, 56, 77.

Kant, 94, 175, 200.
Kelvin, Lord, 233.
Kent's Hole, 248.
Khalifs, 76.
Kirchoff, 178.
Kropotkin, Prince, 231.

Lamarck, 114.
Language, 229.
La Peyrère, 102.
Laplace, 95, 176.
Leading Men of Science, Table of, 123-125.
Leibnitz, 124, 254.
Leo III., 78.
L'Etui de Nacre, 45.
Leucippus, 16, 23, 33, 36.
Leukocytes, 260.
Life and Letters, Darwin's, 127, 157, 173.
Lightfoot, Dr., 103, 120.
Linnaeus, 108.
Linnæan Society, famous meeting at, 141, 181.
Living and non-living matter, connection between, 34, 216.
Locke, 94.
Lodge, Prof. Oliver, 147.
Love as an "element," 14.
Lubbock, Sir John, 168.
Lucretius, 17, 23, 24-29, 41, 248.
Luther, 87.
Lyall, Sir Alfred, 30, 38, 249.
Lyell, Sir Charles, 117, 134, 162.

Madonna, 64.
Magellan, 85.
Maine, Sir Henry, 5.
Malay Archipelago, 138.
Malpighi, 21.
Malthus on Population, 119, 133, 139.
Man and Evolution, 97, 143, 218, 227, 236.
---- and ape, brain of, 227.
---- and ape, general structure of, 143.
---- antiquity of, 222.
---- inclusion of, in Evolution, 233.
---- lower animals and, 218, 227.
---- primitive state of, 248.
---- suckling, period of, 8.
Manning, Cardinal, 160.
Man's Place in Nature, 164, 167, 213, 218, 252.
Marcus Aurelius, 51, 259.
Martin, R. B., 169.
Martyr, Peter, 87.
Maskelyne, Mr., 148.
Matter, indestructibility of, 33.
---- living and non-living, 34, 217.
---- mystery of, 180, 188, 216, 232.
Matthew, Patrick, 118, 165.
Maudsley, Dr., 156.
Meckel, 118.
Messiah, Jewish belief in, 44, 46.
Metals, age of, 28, 35, 248.
Middleton, Conyers, 60.
Miletus, 6.
Miracles and Modern Spiritualism, 145, 237.
Mithra worship, 42, 50, 71.
Mivart, Prof. St. George, 233.
Mohammed, 76.
Montaigne, 38, 62.
Morality, essential nature of, 256.
Morals and Evolution, 254.
---- scientific base of, 256.
Morley, John, 39, 170, 251, 257.
Motion, concept of, 178.
---- indestructibility of, 33.
---- mystery of, 180, 187, 216, 232.
Mummius, 23.
Munro, Mr., 24.
Mysteries, Greek, 49.
Mystery of matter, 231.
---- motion, 186, 187, 216, 232.
Myth, primitive, features of, 2.

Nebula in Andromeda, 178.
Nebular theory, 94, 180.
Nero, 48.
Nervous system, disorders of the, 153.
---- origin of the, 225.
New Testament, canon of, 58, 88.
---- origin of, 51.
Nicene Creed, 52, 220.
Nous of Anaxagoras, 16.
Numbers, in primitive thought, 9.
---- Pythagorean theory of, 9, 36.

Organic Evolution, 200.
Origin of species, 142, 168, 211.
---- publication of, 157.
---- reception of, 157, 162.
Osborn, Prof., 102, 119.
Ovid, 219.
Owen, Sir Richard, attitude of, towards Darwin's theory, 162, 214.
---- review of the Origin of Species, 162.

Pagan elements in Christianity, 59-73.
Paladino, Eusapia, 148.
Palæontology, 218.
Palissy, Bernard, 102.
Pantheon, Roman, 29.
Papacy, origin of the, 58.
Paul, St., 47.
Pausanias, 13.
Pentateuch, 103.
Pericles, 14.
Persia, intellectual activity in, 79.
Perthes, Boucher de, 120, 125, 248.
Petrie, Prof. Flinders, 201.
Philo, 58.
Philosophy, synthetic, 181, 195, 199.
Photography in Science, 178.
Physical Basis of Life, Huxley on, 215.
Pineal gland, theory of soul in, 91.
Plato, 5, 52, 212.
Polytheism, feature of, 49.
---- in Christianity, 71.
Pontius Pilate, 44, 48.
Poppaea, Sabina, 48.
Preformation theory, 21.
Primary substance, 33.
---- search after, 6.
Protoplasm, 119.
Psychical Research, Society for, 148.
Psychology, experimental, 230.
---- Principles of, 187, 189.
Ptolemaic System, 20, 88.
Punch, 206.
Pythagoras, 9.
Pythagorean theory of numbers, 9, 36.

Redi, experiments of, 216.
Reformation, non-intellectual, 88.
---- character of the, 86.
Relics, collection of, 71.
---- worship of, 70.
Revelations, condition of, 223.
Rhys, Professor, 64.
Rodd, Rennell, 29.
Roman doctrine of transubstantiation, 67.
Rome, bishop of, 58.
---- fire in, 48.
---- gods in, 29.
---- polytheism of, 49.
Royal Society, 99.

Sacraments, barbaric origin of, 65-68.
Saints, fictitious, 64.
Salisbury, Lord, Presidential Address of, 179, 215.
Samos, 22, 36.
Sanctitas, 256.
Saracens, 78.
Savages, brain of, 240.
Scheiner, Professor, 179.
School Boards, 252.
Schwann, Theodor, 125.
Science, Leading men of, 123-125.
Second Coming of Jesus, 50, 70.
Sedgwick, 162.
Selden, 47, 220.
Serapis, 71.
Sin, essence of, 257.
Sizzi, 92.
Smith, Professor Robertson, 250.
---- William (geologist), 118.
Social Statics, 184.
Society, evolution of, 184, 193.
---- modification of struggle in, 259.
Sociology, Principles of, 186, 199.
---- study of, 233.
Socrates, 15.
Solar spectrum, lines in, 178.
Sorbonne, the, 104, 256.
Soul, origin of belief in, 241-245.
---- location of, 91.
---- Lucretius on location of, 25.
Spain, intellectual advance in, 80.
Spectroscope, the, 178.
Spencer, Herbert, 31, 118, 121, 162, 175-201, 233, 241, 254.
Spinoza, 94.
Spiritualism, 145, 156.
Spontaneous generation, 20, 74.
Sprengel, 119, 125.
St. Hilaire, 107, 114.
Stagira, 17.
Stokes, Sir G. G., 234.
Stone, ages of, 28, 35, 248.
Strabo, 101.
Strife as an "element," 14.
Struggle for life, 131, 140, 258.
Suarez, Francisco, 222.
Synthetic philosophy, 182.
---- abstract of the, 195, 199.
---- first draft of, 199.

Table of Greek Philosophers, 36.
---- of leading men of science, 123-125.
Tacitus, 48.
Thales, 6, 8, 17.
Theology and Evolution, final issue between, 223.
Theophrastus, 7, 16.
Theosophy, 9.
Tozer, Mr., 30.
Transubstantiation, origin of belief in, 67.
Turgot, 39, 256.
Tylor, Dr., 168, 241, 246.
Tyndall, Professor, 205, 207, 216.

Usher, Archbishop, 103.

Van Helmont, 20.
Vatican Council on Creation, 33.
Vesalius, 90.
Vestiges of Creation, 119, 135, 209.
Virgin Mary, 60.
Virgins, Black, 64.
Visual sensations, subjective, 154.
Von Baer, 118, 125, 189, 194, 200.
Von Mohl, 119, 125.
Votive offerings, 62.

Wallace, Alfred Russel, 134-157.
---- as biologist, 143.
---- as spiritualist, 145-157.
---- limitation of natural selection to man's physical structure, 144,
235-241.
---- theory of origin of species identical with Darwin's, 140.
"Wallace's Line," 139.
Water as primary substance, 7.
Water-worship, 61, 63.
Weismann, 117.
Wells, Dr. W. C., 166.
Wesley, John, 55, 105.
Whewell, Dr., 159.
White, Dr., 103.
Wilberforce, Bishop, and the Origin of Species, 160.
---- and Huxley, 213.
Wilson, Archdeacon, 161, 219.
Winifred's Well, St., 63.
Witchcraft, belief in, 55.
---- causes of decay of belief in, 98.
Worms, Darwin on the Action of, 168.

Xenophanes, 9, 19.

Zahm, Professor, 222.
Zeller, 9.
Zeno, 10.

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