Chapter I

1. Moses received the _Torah_ (4) from Sinai (5), and handed it down to Joshua, and Joshua to the elders (6), and the elders to the prophets, and the prophets delivered it to the men of the Great Synagogue (7). They said three things, "Be deliberate in judgment; raise up many disciples; and make a fence about the _Torah_" (8).

(4) The word _Torah_ is usually translated by "law," but it
means rather "teaching," "instruction" of any kind, or
"doctrine." This term is generally used to designate the
_Five Books of Moses_ or the _Pentateuch_, called the "written
law" ([torah shebichtav]), but it is also employed as a
designation of the whole of the Old Testament. Besides the
"written law," according to tradition, there was also
communicated to Moses, on Mt. Sinai, the "oral law" ([torah
she'b'al peh]), supplementing the former and other laws and
maxims, and explaining it. This "oral law" was handed down by
word of mouth from generation to generation, but subsequently,
after the destruction of the second Temple, it was committed
to writing, and constitutes the _Mishnah_, the _Talmud_, and
the _Midrashim_. The "oral law" develops, illuminates, and
comments upon the "written law." Here, _Torah_ means the
"oral law," which Moses communicated to Joshua, Joshua, in
turn, to the elders, and so on. See Taylor, _Sayings of the
Jewish Fathers_, p. 105 _et seq._, and 134-135; Friedlander,
_The Jewish Religion_, p. 136 _et seq._; _Jewish
Encyclopedia_, arts. _Law and Oral Law;_ Schechter, _Some
Aspects of Rabbinic Theology_, Chapter VIII; Strack,
_Einleitung_, pp. 9-10, and Herford, _Pharisaism_, chapter on
"the Theory of Torah," p. 57 _et seq._

(5) _I.e._, from God. Compare the expression [halacha l'moshe
misinai], "the law to Moses from Sinai (God)," _Peah_, II, 6,
_Eduyot_, VIII, 7, etc.

(6) The elders were the wise men who were the members of the
supreme national tribunal. See Joshua XXIV, 31.

(7) The Great Synagogue, whose establishment, after the return
from Babylonian captivity, tradition attributes to Ezra the
Scribe, consisted of 120 men, who comprised the highest
judicial tribunal, and who occupied a position in the early
days of the Temple similar to that of the later _Sanhedrin_.
The historical foundation of this tradition is Nehemiah
VIII-X, in which is recounted the solemn acceptance of the Law
by a great assembly of the people. The men of the Great
Synagogue appear here in _Abot_ as the depositaries of the
tradition of the _Torah_, coming in the chain between the last
prophets and the earliest scribes. From this chapter and
other Rabbinical sources, we gather that the men of the Great
Synagogue constituted a sort of college of teachers, one of
the last survivors being Simon, the Just (Chapter I, 2).
Their work was to interpret, teach, and develop the _Torah_,
and to them were ascribed all kinds of legal enactments. They
instituted the _Shemoneh Esrah_ (the Eighteen Benedictions)
and other prayers, and cast the entire ritual into definite
shape. They admitted _Proverbs_, the _Song of Songs_, and
_Ecclesiastes_ into the Old Testament canon. A number of
modern scholars, notably Kuenen, are of the opinion that this
body never existed in the form represented by Jewish tradition
(see Schurer, _History_, I, ii, pp. 354-355). On the
controversy regarding the existence of the Great Synagogue see
Schechter, _Studies_, II, 105-106. Consult Taylor, _ibid._,
pp. 110-111; Graetz, _History of the Jews_, vol. I, p. 381,
394, vol. II, p. 19. For further bibliography, see Strack,
_Spruche_, p. 11. See especially Herford, _Pharisaism_. pp.
18-28.

(8) Take measures to prevent the breaking of any of the divine
precepts. Thereby, certain things which are in themselves
lawful are prohibited in order to enforce the observance of
things the doing of which is unlawful. Compare Leviticus
XVIII, 30, "make a _mishmeret_ to my _mishmeret_" (_Yabamot_,
21a), and _Abot_, III, 17, "the _Massorah_ is a fence to the
_Torah_."

2. Simon, the Just (9), was of the last survivors of the Great Synagogue. He used to say, "Upon three things the world rests: upon the _Torah_, upon the Temple service (10), and upon the doing of acts of kindness" (11).

(9) Simon, the Just, son of Onias, was high-priest about 300
B.C.E. See Josephus, _Antiquities_, XII, ii, 5. Consult
Sammter, _Mischnaioth Ordnung Zeraim_ (Berlin, 1887),
_Introduction_, pp. 10-22; Meilziner, _Introduction to the
Talmud_, pp. 22-39; the _Jewish Encyclopedia_, and Strack,
_Einleitung_, p. 82 _et seq._, for the lives of the
authorities mentioned in _Abot_ and for bibliographies.

(10) Cf. _Nedarim_, 32b, "Great is the _Torah_, for if it did
not exist, the heaven and the earth would have no permanence."
_Abodah_ is the service and sacrifice of the Temple which was
then standing. After the destruction of the Temple, this word
was used to designate the service of prayer. It is used in
one of the benedictions after the reading of the _Haftarah_:
_al ha-torah we-al ha-abodah_, "for the law and for the divine
service," see _Prayer-book_, ed. Singer, p. 149. See
Friedlander, _ibid._, p. 413 _et seq._

(11) [g'milut chasadim] "benevolence," "the doing of
kindnesses," consists of practical deeds of personal service,
as visiting the sick, burying the dead, comforting mourners,
peacemaking, etc. It is greater than [tzedakah] "charity" in
its narrower sense, as benevolence may be shown to the rich as
well as to the poor. See Friedlander, _ibid._, pp. 301-305.
On this verse, see Herford, _ibid._, p. 22 _et seq._

3. Antigonus of Soko (12) received (the tradition) from Simon, the Just. He used to say, "Be not like hirelings who work for their master for the sake of receiving recompense; but be like servants who minister to their master without any thought of receiving a reward; and let the fear of Heaven (13) be upon you."

(12) According to _Abot de-Rabbi Natan_, Chapter V, ed.
Schechter, p. 26, Antigonus had two disciples, Zadok and
Boethos, from whom arose the Sadducees and the heretical sect
of Boethusians, from their misinterpretation of this verse,
both denying the doctrines of immortality of the soul and
resurrection. Se Kohut, _The Ethics of the Fathers_, p. 43;
Schurer, _History_, II, ii. p. 29 _et seq._; Geiger, _Judaism
and Its History_, p. 99 _et seq._; and _Jewish Encyclopedia_,
arts. _Boethusians_ and _Sadducees_.

(13) "The fear of Heaven" does not mean dread of punishment,
but rather awe at the greatness and might of God, and is
identical with love and service (see Deuteronomy, VI, 13 and
X, 12). It is produced by following out the practices
ordained in the _Torah_ (Maimonides, _Guide for the
Perplexed_, ed. Friedlander, p. 392). Consult Friedlander,
_Jewish Religion_, pp. 273-274, the _Jewish Encyclopedia_,
art. _Fear of God_, and Schechter, _Aspects_, p. 72.

4. Jose, the son of Joezer, of Zeredah, and Jose, the son of Jochanan (14), of Jerusalem received (the tradition) from them (15). Jose, the son of Joezer, of Zeredah said, "Let thy house be a meeting-place for the wise; cover thyself with the dust of their feet (16), and drink in their words with thirst."

(14) In _Chagigah_, II, 2, we are told that when two leading
teachers are named in the _Mishnah_ as having received the
_Torah_, they constitute a "pair" ([zug]), the first being the
president([nasi]), and the second the vice-president ([av beit
din]) of the _Sanhedrin_. There were five pairs of such
teachers, flourishing between 170 and 30 B.C.E., the first
being Jose b. Joezer and Jose b. Jochanan, and the last being
Hillel and Shammai. See Frankel, _Monatschrift_, 1852, pp.
405-421, Mielziner, _Introduction_, pp. 22-23, and Strack,
_Spruche_, p. 13.

(15) Some texts read "from him" ([mimenu]). "From them" must
refer to disciples of Antigonus whose sayings have been lost.

(16) It was the custom of pupils to sit at the feet of their
teachers.

5. Jose, the son of Jochanan, of Jerusalem said, "Let thy house be open wide; let the poor be members of thy household, and engage not in much gossip with woman." This applies to one's own wife; how much more (17), then, to the wife of one's neighbor? Hence the sages say, "Whoso engages in much gossip with woman brings evil upon himself, neglects the study of the _Torah_, and will in the end inherit _gehinnom_" (18).

(17) On the _kalwa-chomer_, "a conclusion _a minori ad
majus_," see Meilziner, _Introduction to the Talmud_, p. 130
_et seq._, and Strack, _Einleitung in den Talmud_, p. 120.
Cf. Chapter VI, 3. The equivalent biblical expression is [af
ki].

(18) [gey-hinim (gimil-yud hey-nun-yud-mem(sofit))], [gei
ben-hinim], a glen south of Jerusalem where Moloch was
worshipped, whence a place where the wicked were punished in
the hereafter; "hell, being the opposite of 'the Garden of
Eden,'" "paradise." Cf. chapter V, 22 and 23. See
Friedlander, _Jewish Religion_, p. 223.

6. Joshua, the son of Perachyah, and Nittai, the Arbelite, received (the tradition) from them. Joshua, the son of Perachyah, said, "Provide thyself with a teacher, and possess thyself of a companion (19); and judge every man in the scale of merit."

(19) A fellow-student.

7. Nittai, the Arbelite, said, "Keep aloof from a bad neighbor (20); associate not with the wicked, and abandon not the belief in retribution" (21).

(20) Cf. chapter II, 14.

(21) This may mean either that one must not imagine that
punishment for evil deeds will not befall him, or when
punishment has been meted out, one must not despair of the
good.

8. Judah, the son of Tabbi, and Simeon, the son of Shatach (22), received (the tradition) from them. Judah, the son of Tabbi, said, "(In the judge's office) act not the counsel's part (23); while the litigants are standing before thee, let them be regarded by thee as guilty, but when they are departed from thy presence, regard them as innocent, the verdict having been acquiesced in by them."

(22) Lived about 104-69 B.C.E. He was a leader of the
Pharisees at the time of Alexander Jannaeus.

(23) A judge should be strictly impartial.

9. Simeon, the son of Shatach, said, "Be very searching in the examination of witnesses (24), and be guarded in thy words, lest through them they learn to lie."

(24) It is related that the son of Simeon b. Shatach was
innocently condemned to death, because the witnesses were not
carefully cross-questioned.

10. Shemaiah and Abtalion (25) received (the tradition) from them. Shemaiah said, "Love work; hate lordship (26); and seek no intimacy with the ruling power" (27).

(25) Lived about the middle of the first century B.C.E.

(26) "Woe to leadership, for it buries those who possess it."
(_Pesachim_, 87b).

(27) That is, Rome. Avoid office seeking.

11. Abtalion said, "Ye sages, be heedful of your words, lest ye incur the penalty of exile and be exiled to a place of evil waters, and the disciples who come after you drink thereof and die, and the Heavenly Name be profaned" (28).

(28) Scholars must be careful in their teachings, lest their
disciples misinterpret their words, and thus adopt false
doctrines, as was the case with the disciples of Antigonus of
Soko (_Supra_, n. 12). "Evil waters" may stand for evil
doctrines or evil people. When a teacher went into
banishment, he was usually followed by his disciples.
Departure from the law is equivalent to death.

12. Hillel and Shammai (29) received (the tradition) from them. Hillel said, "Be of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace and pursuing peace (30), loving mankind and drawing them night to the _Torah_" (31). 13. He used to say, "A name made great is a name destroyed (32); he who does not increase (his knowledge) decreases (it); and he who does not study deserves to die; and he who makes a worldly use of the crown (of the _Torah_) shall waste away." 14. He used to say, "If I am not for myself, who will be for me? But if I care for myself only, what am I? (33). And if not now, when?"

(29) Hillel and Shammai, the most renowned of the "pairs"
([zugot]), lived about 100 years before the destruction of the
Temple. Each was the founder of a school, _Bet Hillel_ and
_Bet Shammai_, being generally opposed to one another in the
interpretation of the _Torah_. Hillel was the embodiment of
humility, gentleness, and kindness; Shammai was irritable, and
lacked gentleness and patience. The former's most celebrated
saying is, "What is hateful to thee do not do unto thy fellow
man; this is the whole _Torah_, the rest is mere commentary."
See Bacher, _Agada der Tanaiten_; Schurer, _History_, I, ii,
p. 359 _et seq._; Myers, _story of the Jewish People_, I, p.
136 _et seq._; geiger, _Judaism and its History_, p. 113 _et
seq._

(30) Psalm XXIV, 15: "Seek peace and pursue it."

(31) Draw men to the _Torah_ by good example, not by
endeavoring to make converts.

(32) He who seeks a name loses fame.

(33) Be self-reliant, but not selfish.

15. Shammai said, "Set a fixed time for thy (study of) _Torah;_ say little and do much (34); and receive all men with a cheerful countenance."

(34) Or "promise little." Be like Abraham, who promised only
bread, but brought a "calf tender and good" (Genesis XVIII, 5
and 7).

16. Rabban (35) Gamaliel said, "Provide thyself with a teacher; be quit of doubt (36); and accustom not thyself to give tithes (37) by a conjectural estimate."

(35) "Our teacher," "our master," a title given only to the
presidents of the _Sanhendrin_, Gamaliel being the first to be
thus known. Gamaliel was a grandson of Hillel and a teacher
of Paul. See Strack, _Einleitung_, p. 85.

(36) Establish over you the authority of a teacher, to hold
you from the clutch of doubt (Kohut).

(37) There were three kinds of tithes (the tenth part of
anything): (a) "the first tithe" (_maaser rishon), given to
the Lebites; "the second tithe" (_maaser sheni_), taken to
Jerusalem and consumed there by the owner and his family; and
(c) the tithe paid to the poor (_maaser ani_). See Leviticus
XXVII, 30 _et seq._, Numbers XVIII, 21-24, and Deuteronomy
XIV, 22-29; also _Tractates Maasrot_ and _Maaser Sheni_ of the
_Mishnah_. Consult Babbs, _The Law of Tithes_.

17. Simeon (38) his son, said, "All my days I have grown up amongst the wise, and I have found nothing better for man than silence (39); not learning but doing is the chief thing (40); and whoso multiplies words causes sin" (41).

(38) Simeon beg Gamaliel I lived at the time of the war with
Rome. See Josephus, _Jewish Wars_, IV, 3, 9.

(39) Cf. chapter III, 17.

(40) Where words fail, deeds tell. _Non scholae sed vitae_.

(41) Cf. Proverbs X, 19.

18. Rabban Simeon, the son of Gamaliel (42) said, "By three things is the world preserved (43); by truth, by judgment, and by peace, as it is said, 'Judge ye the truth and the judgment of peace in your gates'" (44).

(42) Rabban Simeon II, son of Gamaliel II (80-115 C.E.) and
grandson of Simeon (verse 17).

(43) Cf. chapter I, 2. _Torah_, Temple service, and
benevolence are the foundations and, at the same time, the
aims of the world. Truth, judgment, and peace maintain the
world's permanency.

(44) Zechariah VIII, 16.

Rabbi Chanania (45), the son of Akashia, said, "The Holy One, blessed be He, was pleased to make Israel worthy; wherefore He gave them a copious _Torah_ and many commandments, as it is said, 'It pleased the Lord, for his righteousness' sake, to magnify the _Torah_ and make it honorable'" (46).

(45) This saying did not belong originally to _Abot_, but was
taken from _Makkot_, III, 16. According to Goldschmidt, it
was introduced into the _Mishnah_ from the separate editions,
and then found its way into the Talmudical texts of _Abot_.
This verse is recited at the end of each chapter. See Rawicz,
_Commentor des Maimonides_, p. 114, n. 1.

(46) Isaiah, xlii, 21.