Chapter II: Front Matter (2)

Of the several species found in the desert, some, such as the western diamondback rattlesnake have a wide range, while others are restricted to limited areas. Some species attain large size, while others are quite small; some are inclined to be pugnacious, while others are more or less docile. All are dangerous!

It is not within the scope of this publication to enter into a discussion of the many species, so the reader who wishes to pursue that subject further is referred to Klauber’s publication on the rattlesnakes[10].

_The Sidewinder_

There is one rattlesnake of the desert that should be especially mentioned: the sidewinder, or the little horned rattlesnake. It is called sidewinder because of the peculiar method of locomotion that enables it to progress in the sandy habitat which it frequents. Unable to get sufficient traction in loose sand by moving as other snakes do, it throws a portion of its body ahead as a loop, thus serving to anchor or pull the rest of the body ahead. Thus it progresses sideways in a looping, or winding, motion most interesting to observe.

Although the term sidewinder is often used loosely in referring to other species of rattlesnakes, it actually applies only to this particular species—_Crotalus cerastes_.

_Helpful precautions_

In snake country, it is important to take a flashlight along whenever there is occasion to go outside at night in summer to be sure that there are no rattlesnakes lying across your path. If you sleep out of doors. keep your bed off the ground if possible. The widely believed statement that, “a rattlesnake will not crawl across a hair rope” is not true, although such a statement will often precipitate an argument.

Persons much in the field should provide themselves with a suction-type snakebite kit, and should know how to use it. Although you stand 200 chances of being killed by an automobile to one of dying from snakebite, the price of a suction-type kit is cheap insurance against that possibility.

_First aid for rattlesnake bite_

_If, in spite of all precautions, you or some companion should be bitten by a rattlesnake, first-aid should be rendered at once. This is not_ _difficult if you have a snakebite kit, and it is possible even if you do not._

_The following steps are quite universally accepted:_

_1. Apply a tourniquet a short distance above the bite (that is between it and the heart) but do not make it too tight. This prevents the blood and lymph carrying the poison from being spread rapidly through the body. The tourniquet should be loosened for a few seconds every 20 minutes._

_2. Make a short cut about one-fourth inch deep and one-fourth inch long near each fang puncture with a sharp, sterile instrument. A knife or razor blade sterilized in the flame of a match will do._

_3. Apply suction to the cuts. If no suction cup is available, the mouth will do if it contains no open sores._

_4. If antivenin is available, administer it according to instructions, but, if possible, this should be left to a physician. (Recent experiments with antivenin indicate that, in some cases, its reaction may be harmful and that it should be administered only under the care of a physician.)_

_5. Get the patient to medical help as soon as possible, continuing the first-aid treatment enroute. Keep the patient quiet and do not let him get frightened or excited. Rather than require the patient to walk or otherwise exercise, medical aid should be brought to him._

_6. If medical help is not available, and if Epsom salts can be obtained, apply cloths soaked in a strong, hot solution of Epsom salts over the cuts. The sucking, however, should be continued for at least half an hour, preferably for an hour or more. Never give alcoholic stimulants or use permanganate of potash. Snakebite kits give complete instructions; follow them carefully._

1. Poison gland.
2. Hollow fang.
3. Poison duct.
4. Constrictor muscle.
5. Eye.
6. Nasal opening.
7. Pouch enclosing fangs (not shown in drawing).
8. Tongue.

Rattlesnake venom contains digestive enzymes which attack and destroy tissue, and because of this and the possibility of bacterial infection introduced by cutting the skin, another method of treatment—cryotherapy (treatment with cold)—advocated by Dr. Herbert L. Stahnke, Poisonous Animals Laboratory, Arizona State University, seems to be gaining more and more support. This technique is designed to prevent and control the chemical action of the venom and of bacteria, as well as minimizing stress. This latter action is extremely important, since recent research work has indicated that the physiological products produced by the body under stress may more than double the toxic effects of the venom. Cut-and-suction, or any similar treatment, tends to greatly increase stress.

The following description of treatment is excerpted from “American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene,” Volume 6, Number 2, March, 1957, _The Treatment of Snake Bite_, by Herbert L. Stahnke, Fredrick M. Allen, Robert V. Horan, and John H. Tenery:

_1. Place a ligature (tight tourniquet) at once between the site of the bite and the body, but as near the point of entrance of the venom as possible._

_2. Place a piece of ice on the site while preparing a suitable vessel of crushed ice and water._

_3. Place the bitten hand or other member in the iced water well above the point of ligation._

_4. After the envenomed member has been in the iced water for not less than 5 minutes (N.B. research has shown that the danger generally attributed to a ligature is not present when the member is refrigerated), remove the ligature, but keep the member in the iced water for at least 2 hours._

_5. Pack the envenomed member in finely crushed ice. This hypothermia must continue for approximately 24 hours, and the patient must not be permitted to chill, since this increases body stress._

_6. Change from hypothermia to cryotherapy. This is accomplished as follows: after the first 24 hours following the bite, the patient should be kept somewhat uncomfortably warm—that is, to the point of perspiration—and encouraged to drink much water. This step is exceedingly important. Unless the patient is kept uncomfortably warm the proteolytic portion of the venom will not leave the site of the bite. Consequently, when hypothermia is stopped, the concentration of this part of the venom is greater and the tissue destruction will be proportionately increased. Hypothermia should be avoided entirely if this step is not meticulously observed._

_7. The warm-up period after Cryotherapy is important. This must be done gradually. Remove the member from the crushed ice and place it in ice water (without ice). Allow the water to warm to room temperature._

Dr. Walter C. Alvarez in the _Santa Fe New Mexican_, 8-18-57: “Recently, Dr. Wm. Deichmann, John E. Dees, M. L. Keplinger, John J. Farrell, and W. E. MacDonald Jr. reported that hydrocortizone is a life-saving drug when given to animals that have suffered poisoning from rattlesnake venom. Instead of only the 17% of the untreated animals that survived, 75% of treated animals were saved.”

Back-fanged snakes

The southwestern desert regions are credited with harboring several genera of snakes whose grooved back teeth indicate that they may have poisonous properties. Of these, the Sonora lyre snake[11] (_Trimorphodon lambda_) and the Mexican vine snake (_Oxybelis aeneus auratus_) are the only species of sufficient size to be considered as even remotely dangerous to mankind. Species of the genera _Tantilla_ (black-headed snake), _Hypsiglena_, and _Sonora_ are too small and too difficult for the amateur to identify to be considered in this publication.

Gila monster
(_Heloderma suspectum_)

More conflicting statements are made about the Gila (HEE-lah) monster than about any other desert reptile. Some persons insist that it is not poisonous, others are sure that even its breath is poisonous: that it spits or blows its poison: that the animal has no anal opening, hence undigested fecal matter remains in the body, decays, and is the basis of its poison; and so on.

Here are the facts. The lizard is poisonous and its bite may be serious, possibly fatal[13]. Its breath is not poisonous, and although the animal seems to have a chronic case of halitosis, this has nothing to do with its dangerous properties. It does not spit poison, but when angered it frequently hisses, the outcoming blast of air sometimes carrying droplets of saliva. It has a normal anal opening and voids fecal matter in a perfectly normal manner. It is not a walking septic tank as many persons believe.

Largest of the lizards native to the United States, and the only species found in this country which is poisonous, the Gila monster rarely attains a length of 2 feet. Average specimens are smaller. Its beady skin, heavy body, short legs, and waddling gait set it apart from all other lizards except its close relative, the also poisonous _Heloderma horridum_ of Mexico. The Gila Monster is a spectacular black and corral color, while the other is black and yellow.

Gila monsters are found in southern Arizona, their range extending northwestward into the southern tip of Nevada and southwestern Utah.

_Food and habits_

Food consists chiefly of bird and reptile eggs, young rodents, and such small or juvenile creatures as it is able to capture. It is especially fond of hen eggs and may be kept in captivity for a long time without other food. It is also fond of clear water, which seems strange because of the scarcity of this liquid in the natural habitat of the lizard. If provided with a basin of water it may lie partly submerged for hours.

Occasionally encountered ambling across stretches of open desert, especially in the spring, the Gila monster is normally docile and bends every effort toward escape among the stiff stems of some bush or beneath the protecting spine-clad stems of a cactus plant. Sometimes an individual with a “chip on its shoulder” may be met, or one in a normal state of mind may be teased or prodded into anger, when it advances with open mouth, sputtering and hissing.

When aroused, the Gila monster is remarkably agile, making quick turns of its head to snap at nearby objects. If it secures a grip, it hangs on with bulldog-like tenacity, grinding the object between its teeth.

Gila monsters reproduce by means of eggs which are about 2½ inches long with a tough, parchment-like skin. From 5 to 13 eggs are deposited by the female in a hole which she scoops in moist sand in a sunny location. After laying the eggs, she covers them with sand, and leaves them for the heat of the sun to hatch.

1. Poison gland.
2. Grooved tooth.
3. Poison duct.
4. Opening, poison duct.
5. Eye.
6. Dissected lower jaw.

The Gila monster’s tail serves as a storehouse of nourishment, being thick and heavy in times of plenty, and thin and rope-like in the early spring when the reptile first appears after months of hibernation, during which time it has lived on the reservoir of fat stored in its tail.

_Poison of the Gila monster_

The poison of the Gila monster is produced by glands in the lower jaw. To be most effective, the poison must be ground into the wound through action of the grooved teeth, the process taking a little time. Bitten persons who immediately have broken away sometimes show no effects of the venom, therein lying the basis for the widespread statement that Gila monsters are not poisonous.

Bitten persons who have been unable to release themselves show symptoms of poisoning similar to persons suffering from rattlesnake bite, although the poison is more neurotoxic in action. Breathing and heart action are speeded up, followed by a gradual paralysis of the heart and breathing muscles.

_Treatment is essentially the same as that for rattlesnake bite, which is described earlier in this booklet. A physician should be summoned at once. Stimulants are dangerous, and no one should be permitted to give the patient any alcohol whatever._

Prevention is much simpler than cure, so Gila monsters should be allowed to mind their own affairs unmolested. Normally they are not pugnacious, and it would be very difficult for one to bite a human unless it were being teased or handled or were stepped upon by a bare-footed child. Please do not kill or capture Gila monsters. These interesting lizards are a unique feature of native desert wildlife threatened with extinction. Please leave them for other people to see and enjoy. Furthermore, the Gila monster is protected by State law.

Harmless Creatures Mistakenly Believed Poisonous

Practically everyone is aware of the widespread fear of snakes exhibited by people of all races and in all walks of life. This fear although largely emotional, is rationalized by many persons with the statement “Well, it MIGHT be poisonous.” Other persons believe that there is some rule of thumb, such as a flat or triangular-shaped head, by which all poisonous snakes may be recognized. A great many persons kill all snakes, just on general principles. Thus the innocent suffer with the guilty, the harmless with the dangerous.

As scientists explore deeper and deeper into the intricacies of animal behavior and obtain more and more knowledge of the ecological relationships among animals and between animals and plants, it becomes increasingly clear that these relationships present a delicate balance or adjustment of nature. Epidemic diseases, disasters such as fires and floods, and radical climatic changes may upset or alter these relationships, sometimes with far-reaching effects.

But the greatest and most persistent disturber of the biological peace is MAN. Almost every time man reduces or destroys one phase of nature, he releases, in so doing, previously unrecognized forces which turn on him in a manner that he least expects. Snakes, in general, live on small rodents, thereby helping to maintain a balance whereby rodents are unable to increase to such a point that they get out of nature’s control. Kill all of the snakes in a given area, and some of the control on rodent population is removed with a resulting increase in the destruction of vegetation and consequent damage to farmers’ crops. So if you must kill snakes, by all means limit your activities to those which are known definitely to be poisonous.

One of the purposes of this booklet is to familiarize the desert dweller or visitor with the snakes that ARE poisonous. All the rest are harmless, in fact they are generally beneficial to mankind, even though their heads may be triangular in shape. A given territory is capable of supporting a rather definite number of snakes. Kill the harmless ones and those that come in to take their place may be poisonous species.

In all parts of the country certain creatures, particularly reptiles, are credited with supernatural powers for causing injury or aid to human beings. Among aboriginal peoples, these superstitions are a part of their religion and have a powerful effect upon their thinking. For example, among the Hopi Indians of northern Arizona, snakes may be messengers who, if properly indoctrinated, will convey to the rain gods expressions of the people’s need for moisture in order that their crops may mature.

Even among a people who for years have had the benefit of scientific knowledge, superstitions persist. The hoopsnake and the milksnake offer cases in point, and there will be readers of this booklet who will toss it aside in anger because it states that both of these myths are without substantiation in fact.

These imaginary tales are passed from generation to generation and are the strongest in regions where the percentage of uneducated people is high. This situation exists in the South and Southwest. Many persons who have been denied educational opportunities are extremely credulous and have a long list of creatures to each of which they credit injurious or helpful powers. A majority of these creatures are perfectly harmless, but they are too numerous to be given space in this publication. However, it seems only fair to mention a few of the commonest of these persecuted species in the hope that they may be recognized as not only harmless, but in many cases actually beneficial to man. Thus may their unwarranted persecution be somewhat reduced.

Banded gecko
(_Coleonyx variegatus_)

Quite small, with velvety skin and delicate markings making it appear fragile and semitransparent, this lizard has little to inspire fear. Hiding away during daylight hours in dark and preferably moist retreats, it comes forth at night in search of insects for food.

It is rarely seen unless disturbed in its hiding place, which may be in the corner of a closet or cupboard beneath the sink. If captured, it struggles to escape, emitting a faint, high-pitched squeak.

Although the banded gecko is sometimes mistaken for the young of a Gila monster, in general the desert people accuse it of no definite crime, stating merely “we have heard that it is very poisonous,” and in consequence, kill it whenever they find it.

Solpugid
(_Eremobates_ sp.)

Probably because of its large and prominent jaws, the solpugid, _Eremobates sp._, which is closely related to the spiders, is greatly feared.

“Anything so ugly MUST be poisonous,” seems to be the principal basis for its unhappy reputation.

It is often found inside buildings where it has gone in search of insect prey, and Mexican families living in adobe houses with dirt floors are reported to be terrorized by it. In Mexico and in many parts of the Southwest it is known as _niña de la tierra_ or child-of-the-earth.

The range of the solpugid or sun spider is by no means limited to the desert, but its reputation as a poisonous creature seems to be much worse in the Southwest than elsewhere.

The solpugid not only is perfectly harmless to man but does not rely on poison in capturing its prey, as it has no venom glands whatever.

Jerusalem cricket
(_Stenopelmatus_ sp.)

Whereas the solpugid is called child-of-the-earth in the southern portions of the Southwest, in the northern part of this territory another creature, the Jerusalem cricket, sand cricket, or _chacho_ is reported as imbued with the same dangerous qualities evidently credited to any creature to which this name has been applied.

Although quite common, the Jerusalem cricket, _Stenopelmatus_ sp., is shy and nocturnal in its habits. Its striking appearance is due to its head which is round, bald, and with markings on top that form, with the use of a little imagination, a simple, smiling face. It is this that suggests to the Spanish-speaking people of the Southwest, who occasionally dig it from its burrow, the name “_niña de la tierra_.” The Navajo Indians call it _woh-seh-tsinni_, meaning Old Man Bald-head.

By the superstitious natives, this creature is believed to be highly venomous and frequently the death of a horse or cow is blamed by the owner on a “_chacho_” that has crawled into the hay.

Actually, the Jerusalem cricket is harmless and may be handled with perfect impunity by anyone, although it may inflict a painful nip.

Vinegaroon
(_Trithyreus_ sp.)

Since people coming from Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas bring the majority of tales regarding the deadly characteristics of the little vinegaroon or whip-tail scorpion, fear of it is apparently more widespread over the cotton belt as a whole than within the desert regions of the Southwest.

The name vinegaroon stems from the fact that when the little creature is injured or smashed it gives off the odor of an acetate similar to that of acetic acid, the principal ingredient of vinegar.

Equipped with a massive pair of pincers, the vinegaroon, like the solpugid, gives an impression of fierceness which is probably the basis for much of its reputation as a dangerous criminal. However, the pincers are used in catching and holding prey and have no poison mechanism in connection.

The hairlike posterior appendage, or tail, is without any protective or offensive mechanism whatever, so that the creature is perfectly harmless insofar as human beings are concerned.

In fact, like the solpugid and the banded gecko, its food habits cause it to rid the world of a great many insects during the course of its life and many of its victims are certain to be noxious to the interests of mankind.

All of these creatures, then, are not only harmless, but are actually beneficial to man, and they deserve to be freed from the persecution resulting from ignorance and superstition, and to be permitted to live in their normal relationship with other creatures.

REFERENCES CITED

[1]Kent, Melvin, and Stahnke, H. L., “Effect and Treatment of Arizona
Scorpion Stings,” _Southwestern Medicine_, April, 1939, pp. 12-121,
124.

[2]Bogen, Emil, “Poisonous Spider Bites,” _Journal of the American
Medical Association_, Vol. 99, No. 24, December 10, 1932.

[3]Thorp, Raymond W., and Woodson, Weldon D., _Black Widow, America’s
Most Poisonous Spider_, University of North Carolina Press, 1945.

[4]Baerg, W. J., “The Effects of the Bite of _Latrodectus mactans_,”
_Journal of Parasitology_, Vol. IX, No. 3, March, 1933, pp. 161-169.

[5]Wehrle, L. P., “Observations on Three Species of _Triatoma_,”
_Bulletin of the Brooklyn Entomological Society_, Vol. XXIV, No. 3,
June, 1939, pp. 145-154.

[6]Matheson, Robert, _Medical Entomology_, Charles C. Thomas, Baltimore,
Md., 1932.

[7]Jones, W. Ray, King County Medical Association, Seattle, Washington.

[8]Githens, T. H., “Snake Bite in the United States,” _Scientific
Monthly_, August, 1935, pp. 163-167.

[9]Pope, Clifford H., _Snakes Alive and How They Live_, Viking Press,
New York, 1942.

[10]Klauber, L. M., _Rattlesnakes, Their Habits, Life Histories, and
Influence on Mankind_, 2 vol., University of California Press,
Berkeley, 1956.

[11]Cowles, R. B., and Bogert, C. M., “Observation on the California
Lyre Snake, _Trimorphoden vandenburghi_, Klauber. With notes on the
Effectiveness of Its Venom,” _Copeia_, July 16, 1935.

[12]Stahnke, Herbert L., _Scorpions_, Arizona State University
Bookstore, Tempe, Arizona, 1949.

[13]Loeb, Leo, and collaborators, _The Venom of Heloderma_, Carnegie
Institution of Washington, 1913.

PUBLICATIONS YOU MAY WISH TO READ

Comstock, John Henry: “_The Spider Book_,” Comstock Publishing Co. Inc.,
Ithaca, N. Y., 1948.

Klauber Laurence M.: “_Rattlesnakes, Their Habits, Life Histories, and
Influence on Mankind_,” 2 volumes, University of California Press,
Berkeley, 1956.

Minton, Sherman A. Jr.: “_Snakebite_,” Scientific American, p. 114,
January, 1957.

Shannon, Federick A.: “_Comments on the Treatment of Reptile Poisoning
in the Southwest_,” reprinted from Southwestern Medicine, Volume
XXXIV, No. 10, October, 1953.

Stahnke, Herbert L.: “_Scorpions_,” Poisonous Animals Research
Laboratory, Tempe, Arizona, 1956.

Stahnke, Herbert L.: “_The Treatment of Venomous Bites and Stings_,”
Poisonous Animals Research Laboratory, Tempe, Arizona, 1958.

INDEX

A
About deserts and poisons 1
Acknowledgements vii
Ants 17-19
_Aphonopelma_ 13
_Apis mellifera_ 20
Arizona coral snake 24-25
Arizona mountain kingsnake 24-25
Assassin bug 14
_Avicularia_ 13-14

B
Back-fanged snakes 30
Banded gecko 35
Bees 17, 19, 21-22
Bellows bug 14
Black-headed snake 30
Black widow spider 7-10
_Bombidae_ 16
Brown house spider 10
Brown recluse spider 10-12
Brown spider 10
Bumblebee 17, 19