Chapter I: Part 1

FAMOUS ART CITIES;

No. 1,

POMPEII

POMPEII

BY

RICHARD ENGELMANN

TRANSLATED BY
TALFOURD ELY, M. A., F. S. A.;
FELLOW OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON

1904
LONDON, W. C. NEW YORK
H. GREVEL & CO. CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS

LEIPZIG, E. A. SEEMANN

PRINTED BY ERNST HEDRICH NACHF., G. M. B. H., LEIPZIG

Table of Contents

Preface
Index
List of Illustrations

PREFACE

The present work forms the first of a series of volumes published under the general title of “_Famous Art Cities_”. The second, (by Dr. Gustav Pauli), treats of Venice; its immediate successors will deal with Florence and Nuremberg. Rome, Siena, Ravenna and Cairo will represent a continuation.

Whoever visits Pompeii for the first time will not grudge a corner beside his guide-book for a _Vademecum_ such as this, which offers the inspiration of the _Genius loci_ to the traveller of artistic tastes. As the one meets his material needs, so the other ministers to the intellectual interests of the man of education, and may, at a later time, preserve or renew in the liveliest fashion his remembrance of what he has seen.

“Vedi Napoli e poi muori”; “See Naples and die!” is a saying one often hears, a saying which means that after seeing Naples in all her beauty one has nothing on earth left to admire.

And in a certain sense this is true enough: there are but few places which in beauty of scenery can compare with the Bay of Naples. Yet a visit to Naples is not all; equally with the City of the Living, so attractive to the stranger for its life ever freshly throbbing early and late, the City of the Dead, Pompeii, deserves also thorough investigation and careful study. Whoever goes to Naples must not fail to turn his attention also to its near neighbour Pompeii. This nowadays is so easy a matter, whether one drives along the beautiful roads between smiling gardens that adorn the slopes of Vesuvius, or takes train across the lavabeds close to the sea, whose waves break on the embankment. The goal is quickly reached: there is music and refreshment in one of the hotels which are in front of the ruins; then quickly to the entrance; where we settle as to tickets and guides, and through the Porta Marina or Sea Gate we enter the ancient city.

But what is Pompeii, and why should we not leave Naples without seeing Pompeii also. Those whose memory goes far back enough remember that in April 1872 the eyes of all were turned to the neighbourhood of Naples. But this time it was not the splendour of the country that caused universal attention, and brought to the Bay of Naples countless foreigners from near and far. It was a drama of Nature at once imposing and terrible that formed the attraction for the hosts that gathered there. Vesuvius which for several years (since 1865) had never quite slumbered, showed itself once more in all its terrors, and ever more awful than before: showers of fire burst forth to a vast height from old craters and new, clouds of ashes darkened the air for miles, and filled the streets even of distant towns: immense streams of lava burst from the mountain’s flanks hurling death and destruction before them.

And yet in spite of all its terrors the eruption did not equal the one with which Vesuvius first in historic times announced itself as a volcano and covered with lava and ejected stones the three cities of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae, to say nothing of less famous places. The desolate cone of ashes which now towers high above the ordinary surface did not exist at an earlier period; right up to the summit the mountain was clothed with woods, while on its flanks the grape ripened into costly wine (see fig. 1, a Pompeian wall-painting representing in all probability Monte di Somma before the evolution of the crater of Vesuvius). And if one enquirer or another drew some conclusion as to the volcanic nature from the depression on its summit and the fruitfulness of the neighbouring land, yet people thought it altogether extinct, and believed they had nothing to fear from it.

Then, on August 24th, A. D. 79, clouds of smoke rose suddenly from the mountain, stones were hurled forth, the heavens grew dark, so that it might well be thought night had come on, every one took to flight as he could, one got in another’s way. Whoever was out of the city hastened back into it, to rescue what he could. He who was in the city sought to reach the open country as quickly as possible. Those on shore hurried to the sea, those at sea hurried to the shore. In short there was everywhere the most terrible confusion, no one knew what was to come next. We can scarcely realise sufficiently the horrors of the situation. What in 1872 is reported of Portici and Resina and Torre del Greco, can give but a faint idea of what happened in 79 when the danger came much nearer and was far more unexpected. A description by the younger Pliny, whose uncle met his death at Stabiae in the eruption of Vesuvius, has been preserved for us, telling of what happened that day at Misenum, a place distant from Vesuvius about twenty miles in a straight line. This may be abridged as follows--“For several days vibrations of the earth had been noticed, but less fear was aroused because this is not an unusual phenomenon in Campania. On that night however they were so violent that everything seemed to be upset.”

“My mother burst into my bedroom, and I too was in the act of getting up to wake her in case she should still be asleep. It was now the seventh hour, yet it was still gloomy and dark. Since the neighbouring houses were much damaged and ready to fall, we decided to leave the city, and our example was followed by the whole of the terrorstricken inhabitants who hustled and pushed past us as we went. When we were out of the immediate neighbourhood of the houses we stopped:--there were extraordinary things to see. The vehicles which we had collected were being thrown in opposite directions, although the surface of the ground was quite level, and even stones thrust under them could not keep them in the same position. Besides, the sea appeared to retire, at least the shore was extended, and many creatures belonging to the sea were stranded on the sands. From the other side came a threatening black cloud, pierced by glittering lightning: it seemed to descend upon the earth and brood over the waters; already it had quite enveloped Capri and withdrawn Cape Misenum from our sight. When my mother saw this, she adjured me to abandon her and take to flight alone, that I might at least save my own life; I on the contrary refused to think of escaping without her, seized her hand, and compelled her to set forth. Ashes were already falling, though as yet to but a slight extent; I look behind me, thick mist is threatening in the rear and pursues us; let us, said I, while we can still see, step aside, so as not by remaining in the road to be thrown down and trampled on in the darkness by the multitude following us. Scarcely had we seated ourselves when dark night fell round us as it does in closed rooms when the light is put out. Then were heard lamentations of women, cries of children, shouts of men, some called to their parents, others to their children, others to husband or wife; some bemoaned their own fate, others that of their dear ones, some even prayed for death. Many raised their hands to the gods, still more cried that the gods no longer existed, that the last eternal night had come. Nor were there wanting those who increased existing terrors by false news, that Misenum had fallen in ruin and was in flames, which was loudly proclaimed and believed though it was not true. Gradually things became clear again; this seemed to us not the light of day, but a token of the approaching fire. Then followed again darkness and showers of ashes; had we not often stood up to shake ourselves free of the ashes we should have been covered by them and overwhelmed by their weight. At last the thick cloud little by little dispersed as if dissolved like smoke; soon it was actually day, and the sun broke forth, though overcast as it is wont to be in time of eclipse; everything seemed to our eyes altered and covered with ashes as if with snow.”

If at Misenum, at so considerable a distance from the actual point of eruption, things went on as here described, what scenes must have been enacted in Pompeii, the inhabitants of which were drawn into joint suffering in quite another way. It is commonly said that the people of Pompeii were at the time congregated together in the amphitheatre at the extreme end of the city, to witness gladiatorial contests, so that for the most part they could more easily escape. This however is a mere myth, as is proved by the ruinous condition of the amphitheatre when first discovered as well as from the history of the city. In A. D. 60 the city had been deprived by the Roman Senate of the privilege of exhibiting gladiatorial contests because such a performance had given occasion to a sanguinary struggle between the inhabitants of Pompeii and those of Nuceria who were allowed a share in the use of the amphitheatre (the scene is represented in a Pompeian wall-painting, fig. 2); and in A. D. 63 a terrible earthquake had destroyed a great number of buildings and among them the amphitheatre so that it is certain that at the time of the eruption neither gladiatorial shows nor wild beast hunts could have been held in it. Yet the greatest number of the inhabitants must have succeeded in escaping since on the basis of the skeletons found up to the present time the number of those who perished within the city can be estimated at 2,000, out of a total of 30,000 inhabitants. Many of course may have fallen a sacrifice to the eruption of Vesuvius also outside the city walls; thus for example in 1880-81 there were found the remains of such, who had met with their death to the south of the city, probably on what was then the bank of the Sarno. Those however who had fled before the storm to cellars or similar places were doomed to certain destruction, because all exit was cut off by the falling pumice-stone and ashes, others who had taken refuge in the upper rooms may still have escaped during a pause in the shower of pumice-stone. Many indeed in vain: after they had worked their way through the layer of pumice-stone they sank down exhausted and were enveloped by the ashes. But since these ashes which came down mixed with rain contained much Pozzolana earth they have taken a fixed shape around the bodies; in the course of centuries the bodies have shrunk to a few remains of bones, but the hollow impression has remained in the shape. Thus attention having been drawn to this through the frequent occurrence of similar cases, as soon as a hollow appeared in the stratum of ashes during the excavation, the opportunity has been seized and liquid plaster poured in. By this process the bodily forms of various inhabitants of Pompeii, of animals, and of inanimate objects have been preserved, casts which do not indeed exhibit the sharp outlines to which we are accustomed in those produced by artistically prepared moulds, yet which are of the highest interest to the observer as direct reminders of those terrible hours. See figures 3 and 4.

* * * * *

When the mountain had in some measure discontinued its work, the showers of stones and ashes had ceased, and the sun had appeared again, the inhabitants of Pompeii who had escaped returned to their city; but they had some trouble to find it, for it was buried beneath stones and ashes. They endeavoured as far as it was possible, to secure some salvage from the ruins; and so many a work of art, as well as most of the treasures in gold and silver, may well have been withdrawn from the protecting bosom of the earth either by their lawful owners or by unauthorised persons. A systematic excavation of the houses, however, and a reoccupation of the city were not to be thought of, the ruin was too complete for that. So much the better for us for whom in this way under the ashes from Vesuvius an ancient Roman city has been preserved in the precise condition in which it was on the twenty fourth of August A. D. 79 (apart of course from the changes which certain materials must have undergone in so long a time). It seems that the people of Pompeii settled further towards Vesuvius; the ruins of their old city so far as they appeared above the accumulated rubbish gradually collapsed, others disappeared before the plough which began to pass over the fields, and thus after a few centuries the name of Pompeii with the place which pertained to it vanished from the memory of men. So it remained throughout the whole of the Middle Ages; often enough indeed the countryfolk while tilling their fields struck against old masonry or found ancient utensils, but the isolated occurrences remained unnoticed.

More remarkable indeed is it that when the architect Domenico Fontana in the year 1594 constructed a canal to bring the water of the Sarno to Torre dell’ Annunziata, a canal which still at the present day intersects Pompeii, people were not incited to a thorough investigation by the numerous relics of antiquity that during these operations must have been cleared out of the way. It was not till the discovery of Herculaneum (1709) that men’s thoughts were directed to another city, smitten by a like fate--Pompeii--and when in 1748 peasants again struck upon masonry and other more valuable objects, then at last people began to mark the spot and to undertake more extensive excavations. Not, it is true, in a very commendable way, since it was gold and silver and the greater treasures of art that were especially sought, the excavators contented themselves with grubbing the earth, and when at most the better wall-paintings had been cut away, filling up again the excavated houses. Such for a long time was the system of excavation; even after an interest in the matter had been roused in higher quarters the work was carried on with more or less provision of labour, often only two or three workmen being employed--for many years indeed the excavations were altogether discontinued. Only the time when Naples was under the rule of France forms a glorious exception: the work was entered on with zeal: as many as six-hundred and seventy four persons with twenty six carts and seven mules were employed to remove the _lapilli_, and thus the few years 1806-1815 shew more results than the preceding period of more than half a century. With the return of the Bourbon _régime_ the old conditions of course reappeared, and it is only in modern times that an improvement in this respect has been brought about. Since Naples has become part of the Kingdom of Italy the work (and this is especially due to the energy of Giuseppe Fiorelli) has been arranged in a rational manner and vigorously pushed forward, so that the completion of the excavations may be expected within a conceivable time. Men and a great many boys are daily employed, some in excavating, others in carrying the _lapilli_ in baskets to the waggons which then are taken on a railway away from Pompeii. (See the illustration on page 1.)

While Herculaneum for the most part (only with the exception of some portions lying close to the sea, which resemble Pompeii) has been covered by a vast stream of mud to a depth of twenty metres, the mass of which hardened into tufa cannot be broken up without great trouble, so that the excavation of the city can be effected only by a process of mining, and this too with great care, on account of the city of Resina lying above it, the stratum which covers Pompeii may be called comparatively light. Whitish-grey pumice-stones, the so-called _lapilli_, of various sizes, cover the ground to the height of two to three metres; above lies a layer of volcanic ashes, which mixed with a quantity of pozzolana earth and falling with frightful torrents of rain, the usual accompaniment of volcanic eruptions, passed through the upper layers of pumice-stone, and made their way where the _lapilli_ could not fall (e. g. into the cellars). Over these lie in some places, but less abundantly, other _lapilli_ which proceeded from later eruptions of Vesuvius, and the scanty soil that in the course of centuries has developed from the ashes. All this therefore had to be removed in order to lay bare the ruins. The system and method then according to which the excavations were in earlier times conducted was in the highest degree prejudicial to the remains of the buildings; for since after once reaching the original ground level the excavators worked onwards uniformly upon that level, it necessarily followed that the upper parts of the buildings, which after the decay of the beams were supported only by the surrounding masses of pumice-stone, fell in ruin, and so always only slight remains were preserved.

In modern times on the contrary, since Fiorelli’s administration (1861), the aim has been to preserve in its original position every part of the ancient walls that is concealed under the surface. This object is attained by the excavators as they work from above carefully removing one horizontal layer after another and supporting the masonry thus brought to light until it is possible to replace the woodwork destroyed in the course of centuries by new timber of equal size. Thus they have succeeded in preserving not only a part of an upper story overhanging the street, but also others of the higher portions of the buildings altogether uninjured. In this way the parts of the city lately excavated present an appearance essentially different from that of those previously uncovered; and since too everything is left on the spot that can be left, especially pictures and mosaics, and since every effort is made to protect them against the unfavourable effects of the weather, by roofing, and coating with wax, and other means; while it is no longer the case (as it used to be) that everything is either removed to the Naples Museum, or (as also often happened) wantonly destroyed, the visitor is afforded an opportunity of forming for himself a far more truthful picture of ancient life than was possible at an earlier period. (See fig. 5, giving a view of part of the excavated city. The Street of Mercury lies before us, which reaches to the Forum. The roofs which are seen in the illustration serve to protect the wall-paintings, mosaics, &c. and are therefore almost exclusively modern.)

That the movable objects, especially those of gold, silver, bronze, and terracotta, should have been brought to the Museum is of course only reasonable and proper. Considering the various characters of the host of visitors to Pompeii, it could scarcely fail to happen that one or other article was destroyed through too rigid an examination, quite apart from the fact that among such visitors there are always some who “out of love for Antiquity” are ever ready to carry away with them some souvenir of the city. Hence it is necessary, if we would form an accurate representation of the life of the ancients, to avail ourselves of the Museo Nazionale in Naples, where all the furniture from Pompeii is preserved so far as place has not been found for it in the little museum in Pompeii itself at the Porta della Marina. Perhaps however if Italy’s financial difficulties come to an end (as they must some day) a plan will be carried out which has long been talked of, viz., that a house in Pompeii should be furnished exactly as it was ages ago, equipped with all the articles which were used in daily life, even if they have to be collected from different houses. Thus with less trouble one could form a general conception of the life of that epoch, a much more difficult task under present circumstances when one has to examine the various articles of furniture one by one in the Museum far from their original position.

These movable objects moreover are commonly to be found in the lowest layer of pumice-stone to the height of one metre; torn from their proper places by the breaking down of the roof they have necessarily assumed this position. For this reason the rooms are first of all cleared to within half a metre of the ground, and then the remainder is subjected to a thorough examination by experienced excavators. Since there are always some such rooms ready, it is possible, if distinguished visitors arrive even unexpectedly, to arrange a so-called gala excavation, such as is often mentioned in the papers. The stratum of pumice-stone only half a metre thick is simply removed, and something is sure to be found. For the most part it is objects used in daily life, utensils of bronze or terracotta, with or without their contents, also candelabra, lamps, &c. Statuettes too of bronze are not uncommonly found. These “war-preparations” are however the cause of great dangers to the buildings, the pumice-stone sucks up water like a sponge, and so never allows the walls to get quite dry, which is however the first and most important condition for their preservation.

But enough of excavations. Let us turn to the consideration of the city itself.

At first sight the city gives the impression of the greatest uniformity. Apart from size and the wealth of its former inhabitants one house seems to have been built at the same time, and adorned with the same artistic resources as another. Yet that is the result of the stucco-coating which under the Empire gradually became so fashionable that it was deemed advisable to cover everything with it. A more accurate examination however convinces us that under the stucco lie concealed the most distinct periods of building, with the help of which the gradual development of the city can be recognised.

To determine the architectural history of the city there are--apart from the very meagre literary tradition--two means, firstly the distinction of the material of which the houses are built, and secondly the measures employed. In respect of the first point it proves that limestone which could be procured in the immediate neighbourhood of Pompeii from the deposits of the Sarno, was employed in the earliest period for building houses, with clay as cement. With this was associated also tufa, a volcanic product which when just quarried can be easily cut. An essential progress was made by the introduction of lime-mortar, the knowledge of which was apparently transmitted through the Carthaginians to the western Greeks and the inhabitants of Italy. By the aid of this lighter and smaller stones could be utilised to form walls capable of supporting considerable weight. In place of lime-mortar there was gradually introduced Pozzolana (named from Pozzuoli on the Bay of Naples), a volcanic earth resembling cement in its effect. Of lasting influence was further the introduction and gradual spread of building with kiln-baked bricks, although in private buildings they were never employed to such an extent as in Rome and other Italian cities. Finally, the last period, that of the restoration, when the question was how in the shortest time and with limited means to rebuild the city which had been almost entirely destroyed by the earthquake of the year A. D. 63. (The devastation had been so complete that the Roman Senate could deliberate as to whether the people of Pompeii should be permitted to rebuild their city.) Haste and negligence and the use of the first materials that came to hand characterise this epoch.

As a second means of distinguishing the various periods one from another we have the standard of measure employed. According as the walls have been built in conformity with the Oscan or the Roman foot (the Oscan foot has a length of .273 of a metre, the Roman of .29) the corresponding buildings can be assigned to the one or the other period, and since it was not usual to demolish what already existed, but to make use of it as far as possible, people have through observation of the various measures, attained even to the possibility of distinguishing the older parts of buildings from the later, and often recognising their earlier destination.

With the help of those distinguishing marks, and of the scanty notices handed down by ancient writers, and of the inscriptions we are enabled to establish the following as to the city’s history.

Whether the name Pompeii is connected with πέμπω, πομπή or is derived from the Oscan _pompe_ = five is all the same to us, since we can draw no further conclusion therefrom. In any case nothing further is known as to the year of foundation: though from the ruins of the temple in the Triangular Forum which belongs to the sixth century we may conclude that the city was already in existence at that period. It was founded in regular form by the Oscans on a hill formed by an old stream of lava, but was at a later time about B. C. 420 occupied by the Samnites. Two streets the _Strada di Mercurio_ with its extension southwards from the Forum (Fig. 6) and the _Strada di Nola_ (_Decumanus major_, Fig. 7) traverse the city from one end to the other, and fix thereby the direction of the streets from north to south and east to west. Only now and then have special peculiarities of the surface led to slight deviations in the parallel streets. The city was encircled by a wall, which was protected by towers at regular intervals to give it greater security, on the other side in order to allow of large bodies of armed citizens mounting the wall in time of danger, steps were in parts added to the wall, in other parts a slope of earth was placed against it. Only on the west and southwest sides had the walls been broken down in antiquity and replaced by houses, apparently to gain space for the extension of the city. Pompeii, true to its origin, had, in the Social War (B. C. 90-88), joined the Italians and with the rest had bravely defended its independence against the Romans; nay in the year 89 it had sustained a siege by Sulla himself. For this it was punished, being compelled to give up part of its possessions to the colonists sent by Sulla in the year 80. (Hence the new name of the city _Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum_.)

Under Augustus also was an enlargement of the city undertaken, the _Pagus Augustus Felix_ being then founded. That numerous storms have broken over Pompeii may be seen by the walls, stripped as they have been completely of their massive facing and restored only to such an extent as was absolutely necessary (originally two massive walls were built and the space between them filled with rubble and concrete, see fig. 8-10); the towers seem not to have been placed on the wall till a later time. The city has eight gates, which were more or less strengthened by fortifications; especially in the case of the Gate of Nola, on the east side, on which attack was most to be expected, one can clearly recognise how one fortification has been from time to time strengthened by others. Interesting too in another way is the Gate of Herculaneum on the northwest side of the city, in front of which the road is bordered right and left by graves, in accordance with the usage of the ancients to place their graves beside the public roads outside the city. (See fig. 11.)

The streets of the city are essentially distinguished from those of our cities by their narrowness; the widest measure barely seven metres, some indeed are not more than from two and a half to three metres broad. They were made so narrow with the object of securing shade in the streets, so necessary a requisite in the South, the want of which one feels in a most unpleasant way for example now where in Pompeii there is no shade. A part of the width is taken up by the footpath running on each side, which slightly raised above the level of the street is paved with small stones, or bricks, or pieces of marble, according as the fancy or the wealth of the owner of the adjoining property, (on whom evidently rested the care of the footway), prompted the choice of one method or another. The carriage road itself is paved with polygonal blocks of lava, in which the wheels have often worn deep ruts. (See Fig. 12 and 17.) If the ruts were too deep, or otherwise repair of the street was found necessary, the remedy was applied in the simplest fashion, the stones were merely relaid so that those little used came where the wheels ran and those cut up by traffic were transferred to another place. This explains the curious fact that stones worn into deep ruts are often found in positions where no wheel can ever have come. Then on both sides of the street run gutters, through which the water is conducted into deep drains and so removed from the city. In the violent showers of rain which in the South at times pour down in torrents these provisions might often have proved insufficient and the street also may have been under water. In order therefore to provide the foot passenger with as dry as possible a crossing from one side of the roads to the other, stepping-stones have been placed at intervals across the street. These met the requirements of the case without interfering with the carriage traffic (for the draught-animals were attached only at the extremity of the pole, so they could pass between the stones more easily than would be possible with our modern way of harnessing). Some streets on the other hand were entirely closed against wheel-traffic. This was quite possible, carriages being as a rule employed for the transport of persons only in travelling outside the city. Besides the difference in width the streets of Pompeii are essentially distinguished from those of our cities by the circumstance that the houses at any rate on the groundfloor have no windows. The ancient house in its main features was built solely with regard to interior effect. Only occasionally was the surface of the outer wall broken by small openings widening inwards, which are all that can be compared with our windows (Fig. 13); and these too, raised far above the height of a man, are barred by lattice of iron or terracotta. On the other hand the street-front was often enlivened by painting, the outer wall was divided into panels which were painted red or yellow with various ornaments according to the taste of the respective householders. Larger paintings are often to be found, as the twelve gods, sacrifices to the Lares, the household gods, _etc._ In places likely to be misused were painted a pair of serpents _etc._ as a deterrent. Besides these things there were all sorts of inscriptions on the houses. A distinction is usually made between two classes of inscriptions, _Dipinti_ and _Graffiti_. The former are painted on the walls with a broad brush in large letters, for the most part in red colour on a white ground. By _Graffiti_ on the other hand are understood inscriptions slightly scratched with a pointed style or nail in the plaster. The _Dipinti_ contain summonses to elections, announcements of Games &c. _Duumviri juri dicundo_, the Board of Two, the highest magistracy of the city, are to be elected; there being no newspaper, the names of the candidates are painted on the walls, and underneath is written Proposed by so and so (Fig. 14). Or a new troop of gladiators arrives: in order to entice as many spectators as possible, an advertisement is written on the walls with the names of the principal combatants and the number of their victories, nor do they forget to add that to guard against the sun’s heat awnings are spread over the theatre; in short one lights on the very footsteps and traces of quickly throbbing life, so that one feels oneself carried back into the time of the old citizens of Pompeii.

With almost greater originality the life of the old Pompeians rises before us in the _Graffiti_. Scarcely a spot strikes the eye that is not covered with such outpourings of gay or wicked fancy scratched in the slightest strokes. Here one tells another’s secrets, there one celebrates in verse a sweetheart, a third complains of the obstinacy of a maiden, a fourth, no doubt a boy fresh from school--he could not reach far--attempts to write down the beginning of a well-known poem but he does not get much further than the first words. A second, proud of his learning, begins the verse afresh, yet he too comes to a standstill when he has carried the verse a little further. A third at last completes the whole verse. At another place a parasite gives a broad hint for an invitation or pays his debt of thanks. (See fig. 15. Semper M. Terentius Eudoxus unus supstenet amicos et tenet et tutat, supstenet omnem modum.)

Thus witticisms and drolleries abound in those inscriptions, so that one who passed through the streets and had a liking to decipher these scrawls need not want for amusement. Variety too is afforded by the fountains (Fig. 16) which were fed from the public water-supply (probably this was a branch of the conduit which brought the water to Naples from the mountain range on the east). In Pompeii, as in Palermo at the present day, the water was for better distribution conducted into reservoirs raised on high pillars. From these the water was brought through lead pipes to the public fountains and to the houses. (See fig. 17, representing a corner of the Stabiae Street with the pillars to support the water.) These fountains were ornamented with small reliefs, for example a Silenus leaning on a wine-skin, from the opening of which the water escapes; an eagle that has seized a hare (here the water flows out of the hare’s mouth), and similar representations. On the fountain’s brim may still often be seen the place where the young people drinking straight from the spout used to put their hands. To this picture of the streets however the liveliest touches were given by the shops, rooms open on the outside their whole breadth, in which retail trade was carried on. As at the present time, in the palaces of Italian cities, the groundfloor is occupied by shops which bring in to the owner an excellent rent, the rich Pompeians also did not disdain to establish shops on the street-side of their houses which without any connection with the principal edifice were let to persons engaged in trade, to whom a kind of upper chamber above the shop often served as a dwelling. Or the householder himself carried on a trade, in which case he established a connection with the inner part of the house by means of a door, to facilitate his watching over the business, whether he managed it in his own person or through a slave. There are cook shops, recognised as such by the hearth and the pots fixed in it, from which the food was ladled out (fig. 18 and 19), oil shops with large pitchers similarly fixed, and huge barrels in the background (fig. 20), shops where wine and other drinks were sold, with shelves built up like steps so as to admit of arranging the drinking vessels conveniently, and with a little room at the back for regular customers: there are butchers’ and bakers’ shops that by means of pictures bring before the passer by the various objects to be purchased therein. In short an abundance of fresh sights, so that the eye can experience no weariness.

So much for the streets of Pompeii. Of open spaces for public use there have been found as yet two, if we leave out of consideration the doubtful Forum Boarium, excavated at an earlier period in the neighbourhood of the amphitheatre, but afterwards filled up again, viz., the principal Forum (_Forum Civile_) and the one called from its shape the Triangular Forum. The latter a three-cornered space in the southwest angle of the city lying close to both theatres from which an open flight of steps leads, is certainly one of the oldest parts of the city, as is amply proved by the scanty remains of the Temple situated there, which is contemporary with the most ancient temples of Paestum and Selinus. The open space was surrounded on three sides by a colonnade, and a portico or Propylaion forms the entrance to it (fig. 21 and 22). The Temple, dedicated according to the latest researches to Minerva, had apparently like the Temple of Zeus at Agrigentum, seven columns on the narrow sides, and according to its form must be classified as Pseudodipteros (before the eruption it had already been destroyed and on its site a very modest sanctuary had been erected). Close to it is a seat, from which could be enjoyed the magnificent view over the sea and the splendid Monte Santangelo far spreading and towering high into the air. On the other side a small dome indicates an ancient fountain. To a later epoch belongs the _Forum Civile_, lying to the northwest of the above, and forming a rectangle (fig. 23 taken from the south side, fig. 24 from the north). That the laying out of this is comparatively modern, follows from the fact that through the surrounding buildings a series of streets have been reduced to blind-alleys, which at the time of their formation was assuredly not intended. The decoration of the Forum, it seems, was not yet completed when the eruption of Vesuvius buried Pompeii. The footpath was to be paved with marble slabs, and a colonnade was to be erected all round, double on the South, with a gallery above for women, when the games were held in the Forum. But this was never carried out; the architectural members lie around still unused. The built up bases too for statues of honour and equestrian statues seem to have been still unoccupied, if some excavation made shortly after the eruption has not robbed us of the chief objects. The ancestors of the emperors, the Julian family, and the Kings of Rome ought to have been placed around on pedestals, yet the only inscriptions found are those referring to Romulus and Aeneas. Of the business prevailing in the Forum, taken up as it was with trade and commerce and even schoolwork, we derive information from the Pompeian wall-paintings, e. g. fig. 25. Vehicles were not admitted, and there are indeed indications that (at elections and on similar occasions) the approaches could be completely closed with railings. In no other part of Pompeii are there so many public buildings, no private house ventured to intrude here. In the first place at the north end, the Temple of Jupiter, clearly identified by the bust found in it (fig. 26), springs forward far into the Forum and rises on a lofty substructure, to which led a flight of steps with projecting sides, once adorned with equestrian statues. Twelve Corinthian columns, six in front, three on each side, supported the Vestibule; while other columns within the cella (probably Ionic, above which rose Corinthian) supported the entablature. The large pedestal at the back was no doubt intended for the Capitoline Trinity, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva (fig. 27 and 28). On the right, abutting on the Temple is a Triumphal Arch, which formerly covered with marble and adorned with statues and fountains must have presented an imposing appearance. The eastern long side of the Forum, is, on the north, occupied by the so-called Pantheon, more correctly the Macellum, i. e. Meat market (fig. 29). That such it is, is shown above all by the space on the right at the back, which clearly contained a butcher’s stall built up with arrangement for discharge of water, and also by the shops on the south side, which to judge by the pictures placed there, contained stalls for provisions of various kinds. In the midst of the court rose apparently a domed structure on columns (hence the pedestals). Here the fish were stripped of their scales, at least a great number of scales were found in the drain. United with the Macellum there was a chapel for the cult of the Imperial family; the marble statues found here have been removed to Naples, and are replaced in Pompeii by plaster casts. The paintings of the entrance wall (fig. 30) deserve special notice on account of the beautiful architecture. The central picture represents Io watched by Argos. Next comes an apartment once splendidly furnished, which is usually called Senaculum, but its destination is not as yet ascertained. It is thought that it was a sanctuary of the tutelary deities of the city, the _Lares Publici_. With greater certainty the adjoining building on the right may be designated as a “Temple of Vespasian” (fig. 31). From a relief on the altar standing in front of the temple (fig. 32) in which the temple itself is represented, (it is the sacrifice of a bull that is depicted, as usually offered to the Genius of the emperor), we can recognise that the edifice was dedicated to the worship of the emperor. Since it was built before the earthquake of A. D. 63, yet was not quite ready for use at the time of the catastrophe, it is most probable that it was founded in honour of Vespasian’s Genius.

On the south of this follows the large building raised according to the inscription by the priestess Eumachia at her own cost and dedicated to Concordia Augusta and Pietas. This was apparently devoted to industrial purposes. Since the fullers (fullones) have dedicated a statue to the foundress in the crypt (fig. 33) we may surmise that the whole structure served as a market hall for woollen stuffs.

The south side of the Forum is occupied by three buildings closely resembling one another, each of which consists of a large hall. The central hall was apparently intended for the meetings of the Decurions, the city magistrates of Pompeii, while on its left the judicial Duumvirs had their seat, on the right the Aediles.

On the West side first of all comes the Basilica, with its end bordering on the Forum (fig. 35). This served for market purposes, to the relief of the Forum, and at the same time afforded space for the administration of justice in the raised tribunal at the end opposite the Forum. It must have produced an impression of grandeur with its internal columns on which the roof rested, and its walls decorated with pillars arranged in two rows one above another, the walls being in their upper story provided with wide openings flanked by columns. Under the tribunal is found a cellar-like room which was formerly always called a prison; it is however little suited for this purpose, not being sufficiently enclosed, if at least it were a question of imprisonment for a long period. Next comes the Temple of Apollo (fig. 36), separated from the Basilica by the Strada della Marina. That the sanctuary which was formerly designated the Temple of Venus was dedicated to Apollo results both from an Oscan inscription on the floor of the Temple and also from the _Omphalos_, the Navel of the earth introduced into the _cella_, which on account of its relation to Delphi is frequently indicated in connection with Apollo. A Tripod also, equally an attribute of Apollo, is painted on a pilaster in the courtyard. This courtyard was surrounded by a Corinthian colonnade, in front of which stood statues of deities that were honoured in conjunction with Apollo (Venus, Diana, Mercury and others; also a bronze statue of Apollo himself, see fig. 34). In front of the steps leading up to the Temple stands the great altar on which the burnt-offerings were placed. When we return to the Forum we at once notice the gauging table with the standard measures (the original is in Naples) with openings beneath, which can be closed or opened to let the measured fluids or corn run out (fig. 37). Next to this is a dilapidated chamber which is now supposed to have been a sale-room, and north of this a public lavatory, so situated as not to be overlooked from the Forum. An edifice of uncertain purpose (Prison? Treasury?) ends this side of the Forum, which is united with the Temple of Jupiter by a wall pierced by a door.

Of other sanctuaries there are in Pompeii the Temple of Fortuna in the wide mainstreet leading northwards from the Forum, placed at the corner of the Street of Nola (here too the temple is approached by a flight of steps, on a landing in which stands the altar, see fig. 38); and also, in the Street of Stabiae, the small temple of Zeus Meilichios (this name belongs to it according to an Oscan inscription found at the Gate of Stabiae). In this during the building of the temple of Jupiter the deities worshipped in the latter sanctuary had found refuge. Then there is the Temple of Isis near the _Forum Triangulare_ (fig. 39). This according to the inscription over the entrance had been rebuilt after the earthquake, at his own cost, by the six years old N. Popidius Celsinus (i. e. wealthy freedpeople who wished to obtain for their son a position of greater distinction than they themselves could assume must have done this in his name). In consequence of this Master Popidius Celsinus received the title of Town-Councillor.

Besides the flight of steps in front the temple was approached by means of a secret staircase, serving no doubt to give the priests access to the temple unseen by the multitude of worshippers of Isis. The small building on the left of the temple, the so-called _Purgatorium_, contains a staircase which most likely led to a reservoir filled with water from the Nile which was used in the ceremonies. In front of this lies an altar approached from the side, and on this altar at the time of its excavation were found ashes and remains of sacrifices. On the right near the entrance is a walled up cavity which contained the ashes and remnants of burnt fruits, undoubtedly the remains of sacrifice. It may here be mentioned that in front of the temple there was found a tablet of hieroglyphics which had nothing to do with the worship of Isis, and therefore served only as an imposition; also that at the time of the eruption the temple was shut; in the ashes from Vesuvius there was preserved so exact an impression of the door with its three leaves that a drawing of it could be made from the impression.

In the open space behind the Tribunal of the Basilica the latest excavations (since 1898) have resulted in the discovery of a temple which certainly was dedicated to the guardian goddess of the Roman colony, Venus Pompeiana. At the time of the catastrophe of the year 63 it was thrown down, and was to have been completely rebuilt, as the building stones lying around indicate. It would assuredly have been the largest and most splendid sanctuary of the city, if the outbreak of Vesuvius had not prevented the carrying out of the plan.

Of first rank among the other public buildings are the two theatres, which closely connected with each other lie between the _Forum Triangulare_ and the Street of Stabiae (a broad flight of steps designed for festive processions leads from the _Forum Triangulare_ to the Theatres). The smaller theatre (fig. 40), formerly roofed over, served probably for musical performances, while the larger (fig. 41) was employed for scenic exhibitions. Of these figure 42, an extremely fine mosaic from Pompeii may perhaps serve as a specimen. It is to be observed that, as in the case of most theatres, the seats have at the back a hollow for the feet of those sitting above. The broad low steps of the lowest row were utilised for the arrangement of _bisellia_, that is wide seats properly intended for two persons, the use of which was a privilege of the Decurions. Above, on the edge of the enclosing wall, stones are to be seen which served to carry the masts from which awnings were stretched for protection against the glare of the sun. It is to this that the promise _vela erunt_ refers in the advertisements of the theatre.

Together with the theatres should be named the amphitheatre, situated at the southeast extremity of the city, a building of very great size, which was calculated to meet the requirements of the neighbouring towns as well. Apparently it originally lay without the walls, and was included in the time of fortification only at a later period as forming a point of danger. Seen from without the building produces a comparatively mean impression (fig. 57), since to avoid having to raise the outer walls too high the arena or fighting place has been dug out (fig. 43). From the outside steps lead to the upper tiers, the lower tiers are reached by means of steps from a vaulted corridor which runs round the whole amphitheatre under the second tier. This is interrupted in the middle of both the longer sides, on the west by reason of a small entrance to the arena by which the corpses of the slain gladiators were dragged out. To the arena itself two wide entrances led from north and south, one of which, the southern, turns at a right angle on account of its nearness to the city wall. At the northern entrance a small separate passage could be made in order to keep the spectators apart from the gladiators who passed in and out at this point. This was effected by means of a latticed partition, for which purpose stones with holes in them were used, which are still to be seen. Small dark rooms at the entrances, provided with very low doorways, may have served as cages for wild beasts. Here too, as in the Theatre, the steps of the first row were broad and low, being intended for the arrangement of _Bisellia_. The wall which separated the spectators from the arena were found when first excavated to be adorned with paintings, which are now indeed completely destroyed, but are preserved in copies made immediately after their discovery. Without exception they represent scenes from the Amphitheatre, partly fights between wild beasts, partly combats of gladiators. (See fig. 56 as to which it is doubtful whether it was found in the amphitheatre; the gladiator standing on the right being badly wounded has let fall his shield; standing quietly he raises the thumb of the left hand to entreat the mercy of the people, for only if he looks death in the face unmoved can he hope to be granted his life; in our case his death seems certain, for his opponent steps up to him with drawn dagger to give him the _coup de grâce_.) On the breastwork wall traces were still visible of a lattice by means of which the spectators were to be protected against possible attacks of the wild beasts in the arena.

In connection with the amphitheatre may be mentioned also the barracks for gladiators, situated to the south of the large Theatre (fig. 44). To all appearances the large space surrounded by columns belonged originally to the Theatre, and was intended to afford protection to visitors to the Theatre in case of rain occurring suddenly. But when the passion for gladiatorial exhibitions had so prevailed that even smaller cities thought themselves obliged to keep special bands of gladiators, the second row of columns that no doubt originally existed was done away with and in its place paltry cells erected for them. That we have to do with gladiators and not, as has been supposed, with soldiers, a garrison for Pompeii, has been indisputably proved by the discovery of gladiators’ weapons (now in the Naples Museum, fig. 45 and 60) of paintings and _Graffiti_ relating to gladiators. The cells were raised in two stories, and in such a way that the upper were approached by means of a wooden gallery. In one cell on the west side a great set of fetters was found used for chaining prisoners; in the same room, but not as is commonly reported fastened in the fetters, some skeletons were found, those therefore of prisoners who when the catastrophe came had not been able to escape. The surrounding columns are painted red and yellow, only the two centre ones of the east and west sides are blue, perhaps because these served as marks in certain military exercises.