Chapter I: Preface

A learned mathematician of the seventeenth century, Ozanam by name, a member of the Academy of Sciences and author of several distinguished works, did not think it derogatory to his dignity to write, under the title of “Mathematical and Physical Recreations,” a book designed for the amusement of youth, in which science lends itself to every pastime, even jugglery and tricks of legerdemain.

“_Jeux d’esprit_” says Ozanam, “are for all seasons and all ages; they instruct the young, they amuse the old, they are welcomed by the rich, and are not above the reach of the poor.”

The object of the book now presented to the reader is also to instruct while it amuses, but we have not thought proper to make use, as Ozanam did, of any physical feats, so called _amusing_. Such do not constitute experiments, and are but ingenious deceptions, intended to disguise the true mode of operation, and we have not desired to make use of or popularise such methods. We wish, on the contrary, that every game we describe, every pastime or amusement of which we give the exposition, should be rigorously based on the scientific method, and looked upon as a genuine exercise in physics, chemistry, mechanics, or natural science. It does not appear to us desirable to teach deception, even in play.

Science in the open air, in the fields, in the sunshine, is our first study; we point out how, in the country, it is possible, pleasantly and unceasingly, to occupy one’s leisure in observing nature, in capturing insects or aquatic animals, or in noting atmospheric phenomena.

We next teach a complete course of physics without any apparatus, and point out the methods for studying the different phenomena of heat, light, optics, and electricity, by means of a simple water-bottle, tumbler, stick of sealing-wax, and other ordinary objects, such as everyone has at hand. A series of chemical experiments, performed by means of some phials and inexpensive appliances, completes that part of the book relating to the physical sciences.

Another kind of recreation, both intelligent and useful, consists in collecting the ingenious inventions which are constantly being supplied to our requirements by the applied sciences, and learning how to use them. We have collected a number of mechanical inventions and appliances, with which most ingenious and skilful people will wish to supply themselves, from Edison’s electric pen, or the chromograph, which will produce a large number of copies of a letter, drawing, etc., to the more complicated, but not less valuable contrivances, for making science useful in the house.

Having described some scientific toys for the young, we have endeavoured to point out those interesting to persons of riper years, and have grouped together curious systems of locomotion, and ingenious mechanical appliances, such as small steam-boats, ice-boats, swimming apparatus, etc., under proper heads.

In addition to the foregoing subjects, we have included some of the experimental details of Chemical Science, with illustrations. We have added a chapter upon Aërial Navigation and Ballooning, with anecdotes of some of our celebrated aëronauts. We have also enlarged upon Light, Sound, Heat, Physical Geography, Mineralogy, Geology, Electrical Appliances, the Electric Light, and most of the latest adaptations of electricity.

It will be seen, therefore, that the present work is not only intended for the young; everyone, it is hoped, will find in it something interesting and also profitable, which, if not desired for self-instruction, may at any rate be turned to account as a means of teaching others that science, which is universal, can, when rightly apprehended, preside even over our pleasures and amusements.

THE EDITOR.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.—INTRODUCTORY.

PAGE

Science and Recreation—The Book of Nature—The Senses—Natural
History—Natural Philosophy—Matter—Objects—Properties of Matter 1

CHAPTER II.—OPEN-AIR SCIENCE.

Science in the Open Air—Aphides—Evaporation by Leaves—An Aquarium—The
Cataleptic Fowl—Needle Points and Thorns—Microscopic Aquarium—Cape
Grisnez—Crystals—Ice on the Gas Lamps 6

CHAPTER III.—PHYSICS.

Physics—The Meaning of Physics—Forces of
Nature—Gravity—Cohesion—Chemical Attraction—Centre of
Gravity—Experiments—Automaton Tumblers 22

CHAPTER IV.—PHYSICS (_Continued_).

Some Properties of Solid Bodies—Inertia—Motion—Friction—The
Pendulum—Equilibrium 35

CHAPTER V.—GASES.

Gases and Liquids—Pressure of the Air—Experiments 44

CHAPTER VI.—WATER.

About Water—Hydrostatics and Hydraulics—Law of Archimedes—The Bramah
Press—The Syphon 59

CHAPTER VII.—HEAT.

Heat—What it is—Theory of Heat—The Thermometer—Expansion by
Heat—Ebullition and Distillation 72

CHAPTER VIII.—HEAT (_Continued_).

Specific Heat—Fusion—Latent Heat—Conduction and Convection of
Heat—Calorescence 88

CHAPTER IX.—LIGHT.

Light and its Sources—What is Light?—Velocity of Light—Reflection and
Refraction—Relative Value of Lights 93

CHAPTER X.—LIGHT (_Continued_).

Vision and Optical Illusions—The Eye Described—Accommodation of the
Eye—Chromatic Aberration—Spinning Tops 102

CHAPTER XI.—OPTICS.

Optical Illusions—Zollner’s Designs—The Thaumatrope—Phenokistoscope—The
Zootrope—The Praxinoscope—The Dazzling Top 116

CHAPTER XII.—OPTICS (_Continued_).

Optical Illusions Continued—Experiments—The Talking Head—Ghost
Illusions 129

CHAPTER XIII.—OPTICS (_Continued_).

Vision—The Eye—The Stereoscope—Spectrum Analysis—The Spectroscope—The
Telescope and Microscope—Photography—Dissolving Views—Luminous
Paint 140

CHAPTER XIV.—SPECTRAL ILLUSIONS.

A Spectre Visible—Curious Illusions—Ghosts 161

CHAPTER XV.—ACOUSTICS.

The Ear and Hearing—Physiology of Hearing and Sound—Sound as Compared
with Light—What is Sound?—Velocity of Sound—Conductibility—The
Harmonograph 166

CHAPTER XVI.—ACOUSTICS (_Continued_).

The Topophone—The Megaphone—The Autophone—The Audiphone—The
Telephone—The Phonograph—The Microphone 180

CHAPTER XVII.—ACOUSTICS (_Continued_).

The Tuning-Fork—The Syren—Sound Figures—Singing Flames 193

CHAPTER XVIII.—ELECTRICITY.

Derivation of Electricity—Sealing Wax Experiment—The
Electrophorus—Leyden Jar—Positive and Negative—The
Electroscope—Electric Machines 197

CHAPTER XIX.

Velocity of Electricity—Experiments—The Electric Egg—Force of the
Electric Spark 212

CHAPTER XX.—GALVANISM.

Galvani’s Discovery—The Frogs Electrified—Experiments—Volta’s
Pile—The Test—Its Usefulness—Faraday’s “Researches.” 217

CHAPTER XXI.—MAGNETISM.

The Loadstone—Magnetic Curves—The Magnetic Needle—The Mariner’s
Compass—Magneto-Electricity 254

CHAPTER XXII.—APPLIED ELECTRICITY.

Sundry Electrical Appliances—Mr. Edison’s Inventions—The Electric
Light—The Gyroscope—A New Electrophorus—Electric Toys 262

CHAPTER XXIII.—AERONAUTICS.

Pressure of Air in Bodies—Early Attempts to fly in the Air—Discovery
of Hydrogen—The Montgolfier Balloons—First Experiments in Paris—Noted
Ascents 293

CHAPTER XXIV.—CHEMISTRY.

What Chemistry is—The Elements—Metallic and Non-Metallic—Atomic
Weight—Acids—Alkalis—Bases—Salts—Chemical Combination and Study 307

CHAPTER XXV.—CHEMISTRY (_Continued_).

Chemistry without a Laboratory 313

CHAPTER XXVI.—CHEMISTRY (_Continued_).

Chemistry and Alchemy—Chemical Combinations—The Atmospheric Air 336

CHAPTER XXVII.—THE ELEMENTS.

Non-Metallic Elements 348

CHAPTER XXVIII.—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS (_Continued_).

Chlorine—Bromine—Iodine—Fluorine—Carbon—Sulphur—Phosphorus—Silicon—
Boron—Tellurium—Arsenic 366

CHAPTER XXIX.—THE METALS.

What Metals are—Characteristics and General Properties of
Metals—Classification—Specific Gravity—Descriptions 386

CHAPTER XXX.—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.

Radicals—Acids—Bases—Neutrals 410

CHAPTER XXXI.—MINERALOGY AND CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

The Minerals—Characteristics—Crystals and their Forms—Descriptions of
Minerals 424

CHAPTER XXXII.—NEW LOCOMOTIVE APPLIANCES.

The Kite—The Aerophane—Ice Yachts—Sailing Trucks—Water Velocipedes 448

CHAPTER XXXIII.—ASTRONOMY.

Introductory—History of Astronomy—Nomenclature 466

CHAPTER XXXIV.—ANGLES AND MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES.

The Quadrant—Transit Instrument—Clocks—Stellar Time—Solar Time—“Mean
Time” 474

CHAPTER XXXV.—THE SOLAR SYSTEM.

Gravitation—The Planets—Size and Measurement of the
Planets—Satellites—Falling Stars—Comets—Aerolites 486

CHAPTER XXXVI.—THE SUN.

Motion of the Sun—The Seasons—Character of the Sun—Sun-Spots—Zodiacal
Light 496

CHAPTER XXXVII.—THE EARTH.

Form of the Earth—Motion of the Globe—Rate and Manner of
Progression—Latitude and Longitude—The Seasons 504

CHAPTER XXXVIII.—THE MOON.

What is it Like?—Moon Superstitions—Description of the
Moon—Phases—Tides—Eclipses 510

CHAPTER XXXIX.—THE STARS.

The Planets and Asteroids 521

CHAPTER XL.—THE FIXED STARS.

Fixed-Stars—Magnitude of the Stars—Constellations—Descriptions
of the Zodiacal Constellations—Northern and Southern Star
Groups—Distance of Stars 535

CHAPTER XLI.—THE STARS (_Continued_).

Double and Multiple Stars—Coloured and Variable Stars—Clusters,
Groups, and Nebulæ—The Galaxy, or Milky Way—How to Find out the
Principal Stars 546

CHAPTER XLII.—NEW ASTRONOMICAL APPLIANCES.

A Celestial Indicator—Astronomical or Cosmographical Clock—A Simple
Globe—A Solar Chronometer 557

CHAPTER XLIII.—PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY.

Geography and Geology—The Earth’s Crust—Origin of the Earth—Denudation
and Excavation by Water—Rocks, Gravel, and Sand—Classes of Rocks 564

CHAPTER XLIV.—GEOLOGY.

Crust of the Earth—Geological Systems—Eozoic, Primary, Secondary,
Tertiary, Pre-Historic Formations 573

CHAPTER XLV.—GEOLOGY (_Continued_).

The Mesozoic System—The Triassic, Oolitic, and Cretaceous
Formations—The Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene—The Glacial
Period—Pre-Historic Man 584

CHAPTER XLVI.—PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Igneous Rocks—Land and Water—Springs, Wells, and Geysers—Snow and
Ice—Their Effects 601

CHAPTER XLVII.—THE SEA AND THE SKY.

The Sea—Salt Water—Waves and their Effects—Under Water—The Floor of the
Ocean 610

CHAPTER XLVIII.—PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. METEOROLOGY.

The Atmosphere—Winds and Air Currents—Wind Pressure—Storms—Rain–clouds—
Water-Spouts—Atmospherical Phenomena 628

CHAPTER XLIX.—PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. METEOROLOGY (_Continued_).

Atmospheric Phenomena—Thunder and Lightning—Aurora Borealis—The
Rainbow—Mock-Suns and Mock-Moons—Halos—Fata Morgana—Reflection and
Refraction—Mirage—Spectre of the Brocken 642

CHAPTER L.—PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. CLIMATOLOGY.

Weather; Climate, and Temperature—Isothermal Lines—Isobars, Weather
Forecasts, and Signs of the Sky 651

CHAPTER LI.—BIOLOGY. PART I.: BOTANY.

Plants and Animals—Structure of Plants—Flowering Plants—The Stem—The
Leaves—Forms of Leaves 658

CHAPTER LII.—FLOWERING PLANTS.

Organs of Increase and Reproduction—The Flower—The Calyx—The
Corolla—The Stamen—The Pistil 675

CHAPTER LIII.—FLOWERING PLANTS (_Continued_).

The Floral Axis—Inflorescence—Fruit—Seed—Nutrition of Plants—Absorbtion
of Constituents 679

CHAPTER LIV.—ZOOLOGY.

Classification of Animals—Vertebrates and
Invertebrates—Protozoa—Hydrozoa—Actinozoa 700

CHAPTER LV.—ECHINODERMATA—ANNULOSA—ENTOZOA—INSECTA.

Sea-Urchins—Star-Fishes—Feathery Stars—Sea-Cucumbers—Worms—Leeches—
Rotifers—Tape Worms—Insects 712

CHAPTER LVI.—THE ANALYSIS OF CHANCE AND MATHEMATICAL GAMES.

Magic Squares—The Sixteen Puzzle—Solitaire—Equivalents 726

CHAPTER LVII.—GAMES (_Continued_).

The Magic Top—The Gyroscope and Scientific Games 740

CHAPTER LVIII.—SCIENCE AT HOME.

Scientific Objects for the Household 747

CHAPTER LIX.—DOMESTIC SCIENCE.

Science and Domestic Economy 757

CHAPTER LX.—CURIOUS INVENTIONS.

Some Curious Modes of Transit 770

SCIENTIFIC RECREATIONS.