Chapter VII: Preface: 5 (6)

Shall I trust in falsehood, shall I rely upon the staff of the bruised reed, to consider a lodging-place of wayfarers like this as a strong fortress and a king’s sanctuary, the wing of a flea as a point of diamond, a spider’s web as coral and crystal? When thou seest that the days are pleasant, that time frisks and dances, that the moment goes on to give thee repose, and that the hour frolics and rejoices before thee in the world, thou wilt despise the latter days in thy heart. But it is in falsehood that thou trustest: thou seest the shadow of a gourd as though it were a high and lofty mountain. Is it for these things that thou hast cast the soul behind thy back, and hast turned thy way toward the pleasures of the flesh which cause grief? Whenever thou seest that thy soul loves her God, being mindful of her end, and preparing provisions for her journey with the labor of her hands, thou enragest her; whenever she goes up to the house of the Lord, thou provokest her. Shalt thou forsake eternal glory and everlasting delight for the vanities of imaginary pleasures? And it shall come to pass, when thy heart will ask thee to-morrow, when the vicissitudes of time will leap upon thee: ‘Who has begotten me these?’ that thou shalt answer: ‘The stubbornness of thy heart and its evil counsel.’ If a servant spoils the work apportioned to him, will the spirit of the ruler not despise him? If a man walks about with his master without acknowledging him, will he not hate him?

Wilt thou pride thyself, O mighty man, when thou grazest in the green pastures after the youths in the presence of the sun, when thy stones are set in fair colors in midday, with the multitudes of thy companions? They say to themselves: ‘Eat and drink’, but they have no heart. They only possess bodies and imaginary height of stature: vainglorious and corporeal things which have no spirit. Knowest thou not that there is a record of thy deeds, and that above thee there is an eye that sees and an ear that hears thine arrogance and raging? And now on whom trustest thou to break down the fences which the mightiest of the shepherds have founded? Is there no God above thee to know thy going out and thy coming in? Are no graves beneath thee wherein to take vengeance on God’s enemies? How is it then that thou didst not lay it to thy heart that these vicissitudes which befall thee are the messengers of Providence? They turn not aside when they go to reward or to punish the individuals of mankind or the sects thereof. It is out of the mouth of the Most High that the decree comes to lay the noble low and to set the ignoble on high. When the base man goes up on the ladder of success, it has been brought about by the Lord; and when the man of God goes down from his high place, it is the King who has said: ‘Go down.’

How is it that thou didst not open thine eyes upon these things? Have presumptuous thoughts and idle meditations deluded thee, and prevailed over thee? In the day the lustful reins have given thee counsel, and yet in the night seasons they have chastised thee with whips. With the venom of asps, mixed with the poison of serpents, did they make the clods of indolence sweet unto thy palate. With wanton words did they corrupt, make abominable, and mar for thee every good portion; salvation did they spoil with the flattery of words that are softer than oil. What meanest thou, O sleeper? How did they deceive thee by making thee forever the possessor of the riches of such lands, while thou art merely a sojourner for an appointed time in the innermost part of thy house? Cursed be they, for they have driven thee out that thou shouldst not cleave unto the inheritance of the holy ones, from whose rock thou wast hewn, and that thou shouldst not mingle in the assembly of the holy beings that gave thee life (but the lions’ dens became thy dwelling-place). If, because of the hoards of gold and the treasure of provinces which thou didst amass, thou hast added haughtiness to thy pride, and hast humbled the generous spirit before it, see then how thou art beaten with the rod of folly and the plagues of blindness. Hast thou, because of the treasures of darkness which thou didst bind up, despised the soul that is bound in the bundle of life? Hast thou, for the sake of pieces of silver, crushed and suppressed a truthful longing and a glorious desire? Verily the glory of wealth lasts not. In a little while an evil spirit of the Lord shall come forth to scatter thy possessions, and the fifty thousand pieces of gold, for the sake of acquiring which thou has sold thy soul, shall be as though they had not been. Time will turn round in a little moment, and take away grace and glory from thy head. A fire shall come down from heaven, and consume thee and thy fifty.

Why shall I covet the earth which is like Admah and pleasure which is like Zeboim?[206] Her wrath is stored up in her company; her conspiracy is tightly fastened to her covenant; her sweetness and honeycomb are like chaff before the whirlwind; her end and conclusion are eternal disgrace and everlasting shame. Moreover, how can my flesh be delighted when it is announced to me that I shall live long, since there is no escape from the destruction of death? What avails the age of strength, since at the end thereof come wrath and the grave? What pleasure is there in eighty years, since by their side is the shadow of death? What cheerfulness is there in ninety years, since there is no salvation in their border? Shall ants that languish and perish, and creeping things that melt away like water, exalt themselves to reign? Even if they endure for a day or for two days, will they never be devoured with the sword? How can the fields of Sodom and the sheaves of Gomorrah prosper?

XXXIII. IMMANUEL B. SOLOMON OF ROME

[Italian scholar and satirical poet. He was born at Rome about 1270,
and died at Fermo in the first half of the fourteenth century. He
excelled as poet, and his style is vivid and fluent. His best known
work is _Mahberot ‘Immanuel_, which is modelled after al-Harizi’s
_Tahkemoni_. He boasts, however, that he surpassed his model, and in
some respects this is not without justification.]

The Poet Visits Paradise[207]

While we walked to and fro through the streets of Eden, and looked upon the gallery of the men of wisdom, I perceived men full of splendor and majesty, compared to whose beauty the sun and moon are dark; a place was given them in the world of angels. Not recognizing any one of them, I asked the man who talked with me, that I might know concerning them. And he said unto me: These are the pious of the Gentiles, who prevailed with their wisdom and intellect, and ascended the degrees of the ladder of wisdom in accordance with their ability. They were not as their fathers, a stubborn and rebellious generation; but they investigated with their intellect as to who is the Maker, and who the Creator that fashioned them with His lovingkindness, took them out from nothingness to existence, and brought them to this world; and as to what is the purpose for which He created them. When they asked their fathers, and considered their answers, they knew that they were worthless; they despised their creed, and set their mind to investigate the creed of other nations. Having investigated all the creeds, and having found that the hands of each of them are steadfast in strengthening its own foundations and in disparaging other creeds, they did not say: ‘Let us remain in our creed, for it has been handed down to us by our fathers,’ but out of all creeds they chose those doctrines which are true, and concerning which the wise men did not differ; these doctrines they accepted, and to them they clung. But to those opinions which all nations disparage they turned their back, not their face. As regards God, they arrogantly call Him by a name at which our heart trembles and shudders, for every nation calls Him by a special name. We, however, say: ‘Let His name be what it may, we believe in the truly First Existence, that produced life; that was, is, and will be; that created the universe, when His wisdom so decided; that is hidden from us through the intensity of His revelation; that faints not, and is not weary, and of whose understanding there is no searching; that has mercy upon His creatures, and feeds them, as a shepherd tends his flock; who will call us unto Him, when our end draws nigh, and whose glory will gather us together.’

When we ascended the steps of Eden, we saw wonderful things, for there were set lofty and exalted thrones that appeared to my sight exceedingly marvellous, so that the eye could not be satisfied with seeing. Among them was one throne, the radiance of which filled the world with splendor; it was like the work of bright sapphire, and like the very heaven for clearness. Its footstool had long edges, and the bright metal thereof flashed continually; I longed to sit upon it, and I said: ‘I pray thee, my lord, for whom is this honored and pleasant throne, and for whom is the footstool of image work?’ And he said unto me: ‘As thou livest, this throne is prepared for the mightiest of the shepherds, and for him shall it be; that is Judah, the lion’s whelp, who prevailed above his brethren. The footstool with its flowers and buds is for the lawgiver that departeth not from his presence. And thou shalt sit near him, and shalt be close unto him.’ And it came to pass, when I heard these words, that I remembered the rank of Daniel[208] my brother, who had led me in the right way, and directed my path, and who had been near me when I fled. He is the plate of the holy crown upon my forehead, the life of my flesh and the breath of my spirit. I thought of the full account of his greatness, of his generosity and excellence, of his prudence and understanding, of his humility and righteousness, and of his renown which fills the ends of the earth. I then said unto the man who held my right hand: ‘I pray thee, my lord, show me the place of Daniel and his habitation; what manner of house do ye build for him, and what place is his rest?’ And he said unto me: ‘Know of a certainty that his rank is very high, and that the ends of the earth are full of his renown; even thy rank is too low to reach him. For he bore the sin of many, and made intercession for the transgressors. But because the Highest Wisdom knew that without thee he would find no rest and no repose, it placed thy booth near his booth, though thy worth is less than his; for the Highest Wisdom knew that he will have delight in thy company: he would be Moses, and thou wouldst be Joshua unto him; in order that all may declare, as it is said: ‘Your souls are united, they cling together, and cannot be sundered. Will two walk together, except they have agreed?’

There is nothing to marvel at that I was joyful, for I knew that my lot fell in pleasant places, being aware that I shall have redemption on account of him. And I said unto the man: ‘As thou livest, show me the splendor of his throne, where he rests. For I know that its height mounts up to the heavens, and its head reaches unto the clouds.’ And the man said unto me: ‘Come with me, and I shall show thee his joy and the glory of his resting-place.’ So I went after him, led and supported by him, until he brought me to the tent of Oholiab the son of Ahisamach, where were also Bezalel the son of Uri the son of Hur of the tribe of Judah, and all the princes of the congregation. Angels kept on bringing material for the work, and were making pleasant and beautiful canopies that shone like the brightness of the firmament, whose covering was of every precious stone, and whose structure was of sapphire, and tables, lamps, thrones, and crowns for the pure souls. We saw there a big ivory throne overlaid with gold, which gave life to him that finds it, and health to all his flesh. Crown stones glittered upon it, and garments of blue and purple and scarlet were spread over it; they sparkled like burnished brass, the glory of all lands. Upon the top of the throne was a crown, the weight of which was a kikkar of gold, and a precious stone that cannot be obtained for fine gold, nor can silver be weighed for the price thereof. A voice was saying: ‘Proclaim that the merchandise thereof shall be for them that dwell before the Lord.’ And the man that talked with me said: ‘Hast thou seen the crown and the lofty throne whereupon thy brother Daniel rises as a lion, and lifts himself up as a lioness? This is his resting-place for ever, and here shall he dwell, because he hearkened to the word of the Lord, and there is no sage or thinker like him in all the earth.’ Thereupon I rendered praise and thanks unto my Lord, because He brought him to the rest and to the inheritance; and I said: ‘Blessed be the Lord who is one, and who has no second, because He has not forsaken His lovingkindness and His truth toward my master.’

When we ascended to the higher steps of Eden, we saw a thing whereat we marvelled; for there we saw men who during their life were ravenous beasts, bad to God and bad to men; they died as wicked men the death of them that are slain; their blood was poured out as water, and their flesh as dung. When I saw them shine like the brightness of the firmament, their height mounting up to the heavens, and their head reaching unto the clouds, I said in my heart: ‘Behold, the Lord has forgiven the sin of many, and makes intercession for the transgressors.’ I then inquired of the man that talked with me, that I might know the reason why these men deserved this lofty rank. And he said unto me: ‘These men sinned, dealt perversely, and transgressed; for their sin they perished before their time, and were filled with bitterness; they were delivered into the hands of cruel people, and fell wounded, having been pierced through, into the lions’ dens and upon the mountains of the leopards; they were left together unto the fowl of heaven and unto the ravenous birds of the mountains. When they approached the bitterness of death, they recalled the wickedness they had done, and accepted the bitterness of death with love, knowing that it came to them as a just retribution. Death was more pleasant unto them than life, because they considered that they deserved a greater calamity, and that through these sufferings they were redeemed from a severer punishment than death. When at the point of dying they showed their joy and delight with their mouth and heart; and because they had received part of their punishment in the corrupt world, wrath was averted from their souls. Their death having been cruel and bitter, it was accounted as a crown of glory and a diadem of beauty upon the head of their souls. It is, therefore, because of their death that they deserved this glorious rank.’

XXXIV. JUDAH B. ASHER

[German Talmudist. He was born in Germany in 1270, and died in 1349
at Toledo where he was rabbi. He was a son of the great talmudic
authority Asher b. Jehiel, known as the _Rosh_, and brother of
Jacob, author of the famous code entitled _Turim_.]

Ethical and Moral Admonitions[209]

Take heed that ye belong not to the following four sects which will not see the Presence of God:

THE SECT OF LIARS. Let no false and deceitful matter be found in you, but truth and faithfulness shall be the girdle of your loins. There was a man in our family, named Rabbi Eliakum, who was in the house of the governor, and was entrusted with everything. The governor boasted to his own people that this Eliakum never uttered any falsehood, whether he derived any benefit, or not. It is narrated that there was once a wicked man who committed all kinds of sins. One day he asked a wise man to teach him the way of repentance in an easy manner, and the latter said to him: ‘Refrain from telling lies.’ He went forth joyful and glad of heart, thinking that the wise man permitted him to walk in the stubbornness of his heart as heretofore. When he determined to steal, as had been his custom, he reflected: ‘What am I to do in case somebody asks me: “Whither art thou going?” If I tell the truth: “To steal,” I shall be arrested; if I tell a lie, I shall transgress the command of the wise man.’ In the same manner he reflected on all other sins, and repented with a perfect repentance.

THE SECT OF SCOFFERS. Be ye not scoffers, lest your bands be made strong,[210] and lest a fire consume your spirit. Guard yourselves against mockery and derision, for it is forbidden that a man should fill his mouth with laughter in this world. Be not merry on account of money, for this is likewise the way of robbers.

THE SECT OF FLATTERERS. Take heed that ye flatter not any man, and respect no person in judgment.

THE SECT OF THOSE THAT TALK SCANDAL. Be very much on your guard against this thing, for it leads to many sins; most men stumble over it. Our teachers of blessed memory said in tractate Baba Batra: ‘Most men are prone to robbery, few of them to incest, and all of them to slander.’[211] The last part is explained as referring to something which resembles slander. Our teachers of blessed memory also said: ‘Let no man talk of his friend’s merits, if he may thereby be led to blame him.’[212] To all such cases refers the saying: ‘I have not found for the body anything better than silence.’[213] A man should always think before speaking: if there is any profit in his speech, he should speak, otherwise he should be silent; how much more should he abstain from speaking, if there is harm in his speech!

Guard yourselves against pride, for every one that is proud is the abomination of the Lord. Pride is God’s garment, and he who makes use of the crown shall perish. A wise man has said: ‘How can a man be proud, having passed twice through the womb?’ Cling to humility, for it is the best of all qualities, and it is for this virtue that Moses our teacher, peace be upon him, was praised, as it is written: ‘And the man Moses was very meek.’[214] And our teachers of blessed memory said: ‘Be exceeding humble of spirit.’[215] Our teachers of blessed memory also said: ‘That which wisdom made a crown for its head did humility make a sandal for its heel.’[216]

Take care to honor every man, that ye may thereby be honored, as it is written: ‘For them that honor Me I will honor.’[217] Some people asked a wise man: ‘How is it that we always see thee honor every man?’ He replied: ‘I have not seen a man in whom I do not discover an advantage over me for which I should honor him. If he is old, I say: “This man performed more good deeds than I.” If he is rich, I say: “This man gave more alms than I.” If he is young, I say: “I committed more sins than he.” If he is poor, I say: “This man suffered pain.” If he is wiser than I, I honor him for his wisdom. If he is not wiser than I, I say: “His punishment is lighter than mine.”’ Hear this, and know it for yourselves.

Be also careful to love and respect him who reproves you. We thus read in the tractate ‘Arakin, in the chapter _There Are Estimations_: Rabbi Johanan says: ‘I call heaven and earth to testify against me that Akiba was beaten several times on account of me, because I used to complain against him to Rabban Gamaliel; and yet he loved me all the more for that, in order to fulfil that which is written: “Reprove a wise man, and he will love thee.”[218] A wise man has said: ‘Love him who reproves thee, and hate him who lauds thee; for he who reproves thee benefits thee, while he who lauds thee harms thee.’

Consider also that man is a sojourner on earth, his days are counted and he knows not their number; nor does he know when he will be summoned before the King of kings to render account and reckoning of all that he has done. He should therefore perform all the good deeds he can; and let no commandment be too small in his sight, for there is no limit to its reward. In the world to come, when the Lord, who is blessed, pays the righteous their reward, the righteous man will ask: ‘Why do I get such a reward?’ and it will be said unto him: ‘Because thou performedst such and such a good deed on such and such a day.’ Whereupon he will sigh, saying: ‘For such a small thing I get such a great reward! Woe to the days that I wasted, in which I did not occupy myself with good deeds.’ The wise man should therefore take heed not to waste an hour of his life, but should occupy himself with good deeds, and continually meditate in the fear of the Lord and in His service.

XXXV. KALONYMOS B. KALONYMOS B. MEIR

[Satirical writer and philosopher. He was born at Arles in 1286, and
died in the first half of the fourteenth century. He lived for some
time in Rome, and acquired fame as an original writer and
translator. His best known works are _Eben Bohan_ (Stone of
Investigation) and _Masseket Purim_. The former, written in rhymed
prose, and modelled to some extent after Jedaiah ha-Bedersi’s
_Behinat ‘Olam_, is a sharp criticism of the author himself and of
his contemporaries, while the latter is an extremely clever parody
of the Talmud. He also translated scientific books into Hebrew.]

Admonitions To His Heart[219]

O my heart, draw nigh, I pray thee; keep silence, and hearken; consider my meditation; know and discern the coming out of my words; give ear to my sayings. Shalt thou never observe the covenant? shalt thou be like an adamant harder than flint? and shalt thou not take the flint of the testimony to cut off thy foreskin and to remove thy reproach?[220] If in the days of delight and in the time of good will thy ways are unstable, what will happen when the end is come upon thee? The days of evil shall rise against thee to destroy thee; thou shalt be driven forth from the midst of men; in solitude shalt thou dwell, deserted and forsaken. What will become of thy dreams? Thou wilt be grieved for the former days that were better, and wilt groan at thy latter end.

O my heart, consider, hearken unto this. Knowest thou not that youth lasts not forever, and that the end of man is to die? A brother cannot redeem, none has power, and the riches of the gold of Sheba and the heights of the mountains profit not. Even if I ascend up into the heaven, and make my bed in Sheol, I shall never be able to redeem my life from destruction. Behold, a day is coming, a day of vengeance and a year of recompense, in which He will fill me with bitterness. There is no escape, for the snares of death will overtake me within the straits. As for Him who tries the hearts, His eyelids will on that day try the open and secret deeds of the children of men.

O my heart, turn round, and seek thy God within thee. It is enough for thee to reveal thyself as one of the vain fellows. Turn behind thee, for there is still hope now. Thou shalt again dwell in tents as in the days of the solemn feast, settled in a pleasant place. Fear God, and keep His commandments which are enjoined upon thee. If thou seekest Him, God will be gracious unto thee; it is from Him that thy fruit is found, the fruit which He gives according to thy deeds. Perform good deeds while thy mind is at ease, thy body fresh, and thy constitution, not lacking the right proportion, abides under the shadow of good health. It is within thy power to lift up the curtain, so that the cloud may be consumed. Look upon thy weapons wherewith thou doest thy work, thy quiver and thy bow; the strength and the blood of the body are thy rod and thy staff; in them lies the stability of thy fortune; thou shalt find them when thou seekest them; none among them is perverse or crooked.

O my heart, be strong and of good courage while the freshness of youth yet lasts: the tree of knowledge is yet in its greenness, its leaves are not scattered, and the twin-leaf is not divided; before old age strips me of the coat of youth, and sets me naked and bare: before ‘the one that departeth and cometh not back’[221] will be taken away from me; while the cord that fell unto me in pleasantness is not yet loosed, and before the golden bowl is broken; before the pure pieces of gold are changed, and before the wheel which turns about in the world by the command of the Almighty on high is broken. Then shall follow days of terror, during which the half-dead and feeble will not die for a month or for some years. But it shall happen one day that we shall awake and see that we were like unto them that dream.

O my heart, if not now, when shall I seek rest for me? Shall I do it in the days of hoary hair, when the strength fails? The branch of all mortals shall wither; even the tender and delicate shall be dried up and wither when they grow old; their skin shall shrivel. Will God create a new thing in me, that I may have youth after I have grown old? Behold, I was formed out of clay; nature fashioned me small in my dimensions; I have the face of a man, not the face of an eagle that renews its youth at the time of old age. Moreover, I am of contrite spirit; to my disadvantage, I was different from the young men my companions. In my youth, without old age and without mature years, I almost grew old and became grey. My strength was enfeebled as that of a woman. My senses grew weak, my thoughts became deranged, and yet I was not advanced in years. My face was wrinkled before my time, and my skin was dried up, so that it became like furrows. My head which, while in its freshness, was as the most fine gold, and upon which brown hair was grown, has white branches now, because hoariness, snowing in its midst, is scattered over it. In the prime of my life, while still in its full strength, my hair was plucked and torn out, and was moved out of its place. Shall my stature, which was like a palm-tree, and my back, which was straighter than a hedge, now be bowed down as a rush, so that none can raise it? My locks, which were curly and intertwined, fall out and are scattered. The tresses of my head, which were desirable as gold, and the hair thereof which was like purple, has become scanty, and through its departure has left breaches. What shall I do when God arises to seek my iniquity; for behold, my sins shall surely be found.

XXXVI. LEVI B. GERSHON

[Philosopher, biblical commentator, mathematician, and physician. He
is commonly called Gersonides, and is also known as Leon of Bagnols.
He was born at Bagnols in 1288, and died in 1344. He was exceedingly
versatile, and displayed keen originality in all branches. His best
known works are his commentaries and his philosophic book _Milhamot
ha-Shem_ (Battles of the Lord).]

The Difficulties in Investigating the Problem Whether the Universe Is
Created or Eternal[222]

It behooves us first of all to point out the great difficulty of this investigation, as this will lead us to some extent to make the investigation into this problem more complete. For by being aware of the difficulty of a problem, we are guided to the way which leads us to the attainment of the truth thereof.

The fact that the philosophers who have hitherto investigated it greatly differ from one another in their opinions concerning it points to its difficulty; for this proves that arguments may be derived from the nature of existing things, wherewith each of the conflicting views can be either established or refuted. And it is very difficult to investigate a problem with such a peculiarity.

What undoubtedly points to the great difficulty inherent in this enquiry is the fact that we have to investigate whether all existing things were created by God, who is blessed, after a period of non-existence, or were never created at all. Now it is manifest that if we desire to fathom one of the attributes of an object, by the way of speculative investigation, whether that object possesses that attribute or not, it is first of all necessary that we should know the essence of the object and its attributes. For it is only through them that we may attain to that which we seek to know. It is thus evident that one who desires to investigate this problem thoroughly must first of all know the essence and attributes of the thing under examination as far as it is possible for man to perceive. This would necessitate that a man desirous of thoroughly investigating this subject should know the nature and the attributes of all existing things, so that he may be able to explain whether there is among them a thing or an attribute which would lead us to the conclusion that the universe was not created; or whether there is among them a thing or an attribute which would lead us to the conclusion that the universe was created; or whether there is not among them a thing or an attribute from which it could be concluded either that the universe was created, or that it was not created. The matter being so, a man, to whom the knowledge of one of the existing things or of the attributes thereof, so far as a human being can possibly know, is inaccessible, is unable to make as thorough an investigation of this problem as is humanly possible. Now it is evident that to obtain as thorough a knowledge of all existing things and of their attributes as is humanly possible is extremely difficult.

What makes this investigation more difficult is the fact that the investigator must necessarily have some knowledge of the First Cause as far as it is possible. For this enquiry leads him to investigate whether God, who is blessed, could possibly have existed at first without this world, which He afterwards brought into existence and created, or it is necessary that the world should have always existed with Him. It is, however, evident from the preceding argument itself that it is necessary for a man, desirous of making this investigation as perfect as possible, to know of the essence of God, who is blessed, all that can be attained, so that he may be able to decide accurately whether God, who is blessed, can possibly be active at one time, and cease to be active at another time, or whether this is impossible. This greatly adds to the difficulty of this investigation, since our knowledge of the essence of the First Cause is necessarily slight, as has become manifest from the preceding.

Another point which makes this investigation still more difficult is the circumstance that it is hard to know from which essences or attributes of existing things it is possible for us to attain to the truth of this problem. For it is necessary that a man, desirous of making this investigation perfect, should know this at the very outset, otherwise he can only attain to the truth thereof by accident.

The statement of the philosopher,[223] as recorded by the author of the _Guide_, points to the difficulty of this investigation. It is as follows: ‘As for the things concerning which we have no argument, and which are too high for us, our statement about them is, according to this, as difficult as our statement whether the world is eternal or not.’[224] This shows that this question was considered extremely difficult by the philosopher, so that he was perplexed and doubtful about it, despite the numerous arguments he mentioned to prove that the universe is eternal. The reason for that is undoubtedly because the philosopher assumed that there were numerous arguments likewise to prove that the universe was created, and that his own arguments did not in any way establish the truth in this matter; and this is the very truth, as will be explained further on. Now if this question was considered difficult by the philosopher, despite his high rank of wisdom, how much more difficult would it be to other men who are lower than he on the ladder of knowledge?

And indeed we find that the opinions of the ancients concerning this investigation are diametrically opposed to one another. Some maintain that the universe was created and destroyed an endless number of times. Others hold that it was created only once; these are divided into two opinions: some of them think that the universe was created out of something, as, for instance, Plato and the later philosophers who follow his doctrine; while others think that the universe was created out of absolute non-existence, as for instance the early Mutakallimites, like Yahya the grammarian, according to what Ibn Rushd recorded of him in his commentary on the _Metaphysics_. In this theory they were followed by the Mutakallimites. This view was also adopted by the great philosopher, the author of the _Guide_, and by many of the sages of our religion. But there are still others who maintain that the universe is eternal. This is the theory of the philosopher and his followers. It is evident that the cause of their disagreement concerning these doctrines is the variety of objects from which they derived their proofs with regards to the nature of existing things, or because they were compelled by the Torah, or because of these two causes combined.

XXXVII. PROFIAT DURAN

[Philosopher and grammarian. He is called Maestre Profiat and Efodi,
but his Hebrew name was Isaac b. Moses ha-Levi. He was born in the
second half of the fourteenth century, and lived for some time in
Perpignan. During the persecutions in 1391 he was an ostensible
convert to Christianity. He afterwards wrote an epistle entitled _Al
Tehi ka-Aboteka_ (Be not like thy Fathers) in which he attacked
Christianity in such a manner that the superficial reader may take
it as a eulogy on that religion. His best work is his
philosophic-critical Hebrew grammar entitled _Ma’aseh Efod_. It is
so called because the letters אפד are the initials of דוראן
פריפוט אני.]

The Definition of the Science of Language and Its Branches[225]

The science of language is a science comprising grammar, rhetoric, and poetry. It is therefore fitting that its definition should be given in a manner that harmonizes with these three branches, and afterwards each of them should be differentiated by its specific characteristic. I say that the science of language is a science which teaches the general methods that may be employed in a language, in a manner fitting the conventionalities of that language. By saying: ‘In a manner fitting’ I wish to convey that the expression must agree with that which is conceived by the mind, according to the linguistic axioms. I call the study of language a science, because the term ‘science’ is indeed more comprehensive than the philosophers think. For they have defined science as an acquisition which the mind attains by true beginnings and causes; by ‘true beginnings’ they mean the beginnings which are known either through the nature of the intellect, as the first principles, or through sense perception, or through experience. According to this, the study of language is no science at all, for its beginnings are conventional, and are not evolved through any of the ways that I have mentioned. In our opinion, however, the term ‘science’ is more comprehensive, for we call science anything that is known through investigation, analogy, or proof, no matter whether the principles and beginnings upon which it is based are essentially true, or arbitrary and conventional. The teacher[226] has already called such sciences ‘conventional sciences.’ Accordingly, the study of language is a science, and the definition of science rightly applies to it; for by it are known, through investigation and proof, the results derived from principles and beginnings which have been laid down in it. The wise man R. Jonah said in the description of grammar that it signifies investigation and searching. This is merely an interpretation of the term, which does not give us the definition of grammar itself.

Now when a speech is merely in conformity with the principles and rules of the language, without having sweetness, beauty, polish, and embellishment, in the simple and complex forms, and is not free from superfluity or excessive brevity compared with the meaning intended to be conveyed, such a discourse is said to be merely grammatical; the man who essentially and constantly speaks in that manner is said to be a grammarian; and the power by which he speaks in that manner is called grammar. When the speech also has sweetness, beauty, polish, and embellishment, in the simple and complex forms, it is said to be rhetorical (it is derived from the expression: ‘How sweet are Thy words unto my palate!’[227] which signifies: how sweet and pleasant are they!); the author of such a speech is called a rhetorician, provided that this manner of speech is essential and constant with him; and the capacity which he has for such a speech is called rhetoric. If in addition to all these characteristics, the speech is also metrical, it is called a poem; its author is called a poet, provided this is essential and constant with him; and the capacity which he possesses for that is called poetry. By the word ‘metre’ I mean to say that the portions of the discourse are equal in the number of their vowels (thou already knowest about that). This is called a poem, because by means of the metre it is possible to sing it aloud. The term ‘poem’ has also been applied to anything that is to be understood allegorically, as, for instance, the Song of Songs, and others. The rhetorical discourses and poems of the Jews have a special characteristic which I have not seen or heard in the discourses and poems of other nations. The Jewish rhetoricians and poets add sweetness, beauty, and polish to their sentences by giving their rhetorical discourses and poems the form of the scriptural verses and of the sayings of the wise and by their endeavoring that that form should agree with the meaning of their discourses, either according to the plain meaning of the Bible, or according to some figurative application which they put into the discourse. It is the highest degree of elegance and beauty in rhetoric and rhetoricians when they make their discourses to be in harmony with, and add to them sweetness from, the divine speech. This is due to the circumstance that the Hebrew tongue is now deficient, as was explained, and therefore the rhetoricians, when they wish to render their discourses sweet and elegant, find it necessary to embellish and beautify them with the rhetorical expressions that exist. Accordingly, their loss is cancelled by their gain, and their deficiency turned to advantage. I have likewise noticed that the Jewish rhetoricians possess another peculiarity not shared by the rhetoricians of other nations: the knowledge of grammar comes to them naturally, and their discourses are always in conformity with the principles and rules of the science of language, though they do not study the books that were composed on this science; yet it is only casually, and very rarely, that they commit mistakes or errors according to the principles of the language. One is not to condemn or to blame them for that, for even in the works of nature casual mistakes are sometimes found. This power of theirs with which they were endowed by nature caused them to neglect and disregard the study of the books devoted to the science of language, which are accounted by them as things of nought and confusion.

XXXVIII. SIMON B. ZEMAH DURAN

[Rabbinical authority and philosopher. He was born at the island of
Majorca in 1361, and died in 1444. He lived for some time in
Algiers. His literary activity was devoted to philosophy, Bible, and
Talmud, and his best known work is _Magen Abot_ (Shield of the
Fathers), which is a theological-philosophical treatise.]

On the Problem Why the Wicked Prosper and the Righteous Are in
Distress[228]

Indeed the difficulty about the wicked man who is prosperous seems to be no difficulty at all. For God, who is blessed, is good, and bestows good upon all. He does not withhold good from the wicked, just as He does not withhold from the lions their claws wherewith they tear their prey, for they are needed for the acquisition of their food. In all this the philosopher and the theologian concur; there is no difference between them. The only difference between them is that the philosopher cannot believe that divine Providence should attach itself to an individual, to save him from evils for his righteousness, or to withhold bliss from him for his wickedness; while the theologian believes that Providence attaches itself to an individual just as it attaches itself to the entire species which is permanent. For an individual man’s intellect is as permanent as the species, and hence Providence attaches itself to him, just as it attaches itself to the species. There is a very subtle speculation in this. For it is known that the species exist only in the intellect, and that nothing but individuals actually exist. Aristotle, however, in his _Metaphysics_ has explained that the matter is quite the reverse, that the individuals create the species in their intellects, through repetition.[229] Now since the species have no actual existence, and Providence can only attach itself to that which has actual existence, what is the cause of their permanence according to the philosopher? For he is of the opinion that Providence attaches itself only to that which has permanence, and the species is the only thing that has permanence; but the species has no existence, and Providence cannot attach itself to that which has no existence. He therefore says that Providence is confined to the spheres, stars, and separate intelligences, and that the species are preserved through the influence that emanates from them to this mental existence. But as to individuals, all their affairs are abandoned to chance, there being no difference between individuals of the human race and the individuals of animals. The theologian, however, believes that divine Providence attaches itself to individuals on account of their intellect, although it has not the same permanence as the separate intelligences and as the intellect of the spheres. All that is found in this lower world was created for the use of man. Accordingly, from Providence that is attached to each individual man there emanates a Providence to the species of the animals, so that through their preservation the existence of man should be preserved. Upon this matter the philosophers are agreed; when they have investigated the functions of the limbs and the functions of the animals, vegetables, and minerals, they have found them all to be for the benefit of man, either for his food, raiment, sustenance, and dwelling-place, or for curing his diseases. For even in harmful things there may be found a cure and some benefit for man. If a pious man has sometimes been cured with the excrement of a devouring lion, or with the skin of a venomous snake, then that injurious thing was created for the benefit of man. Similarly, if one planted a vineyard, and made wine which a pious man has drunk when stung by a viper and has been cured thereby, then that wine was created for the benefit of that pious man. In a similar manner our saintly teacher[230] said, when he was cured of an illness by apple-cider seventy years old that was in the possession of a Gentile: ‘Blessed be He who handed over His world to custodians.’ It is likewise for this reason that our sages of blessed memory said: ‘The Holy One, blessed be He, has only four cubits of the law in His world.’[231] They likewise said: ‘The entire world was created to attend to man.’[232] Ben Zoma said: ‘Blessed be He who created all these to serve me.’[233] Concerning all this I have already written in a preceding chapter. Now it is impossible that all this is by mere chance, and is, therefore, due to divine Providence, as I shall, with the help of God, explain at full length, when treating of the soul.

A strong argument is urged by the theologian against the philosopher in this connection. Since man’s intellect is as permanent as the angels, divine Providence ought to attach itself to the intellect, as it attaches itself to the angels. Moreover, this fact made itself manifest to the senses, as Scripture relates of the punishment of the wicked, that some times hyperphysical and supernatural calamities befall them, having been forewarned by a man renowned as a prophet; at the same time the righteous are delivered from these calamities, and prosper against the laws of nature. This cannot be attributed to chance and accident, for it occurred very frequently, and the warning had been given by a man sent by God, who is blessed, whose message could not be doubted. With all these arguments the theologian establishes his belief that God, who is blessed, supervises every individual of the human race, giving a goodly reward to the righteous, and bringing calamities upon the wicked.

To this the philosopher replies and says that, had the affairs of the world been arranged in this manner, the contention of the theologians would have been justified. But we also see that supernatural calamities befall many righteous men, and, on the other hand, many of the wicked who deserve evil prosper in a manner contrary to natural reason. Had things been arranged by God, who is blessed, as the theologian maintains, the righteous man should have been delivered from the misfortunes which had befallen him, and prosperity should have been withheld from the wicked.

The theologian says with regard to the misfortunes that have come upon the righteous that it is a fallacious contention. The fallacy is due to one of two considerations: either on account of the subject, or on account of the object. As to the subject, it is possible that this man who, according to all appearances, is righteous, is not good at all; for He who understands his secrets knows that he is bad; men are deceived about him, and decide that he is good, but He who understands his thoughts knows him to be bad. Or he may have committed a crime for which he deserves this calamity. As to the object, it is possible that these occurrences which appear to be bad are not bad at all, but are for the good of the sufferer.

In this manner the theologian evades the philosopher’s objection with reference to the righteous upon whom misfortunes have come, and this ramifies into many details. As to the prosperity of the wicked, the theologian likewise says that there is a fallacy due to one of two considerations: either on account of the subject, or on account of the object. As to the subject, it is possible that this wicked man, although his deeds committed openly show him to be undoubtedly bad, must have performed a good deed for which he deserves this prosperity as a recompense. As to the object, it is possible that this prosperity is for his own harm. This, too, is a general argument having many ramifications with which the theologian evades the objection with reference to the wicked who is prosperous.

XXXIX. JOSEPH ALBO

[Spanish theologian and philosopher. He was born about 1380, and
died about 1444. His philosophic treatise entitled _‘Ikkarim_
(Principles) is one of the great favorites of Hebrew readers. He has
a clear style, and makes himself readily understood. It is no doubt
due to this characteristic that he supplanted his master Hisdai
Crescas, author of _Or ha-Shem_ (Light of the Lord).]

The Various Ranks of Prophecy[234]