Chapter II: Part 2

Geologists have divided the second great era of geologic time into units called Periods. The rocks deposited during a Period are called Systems, but more often than not it is convenient to discuss them in terms of easily recognized units of rock, called Formations. Formations are named after areas in which they are well exposed.

The stratigraphic column given in Chapter I shows the Periods and Systems in their correct order, and gives the age in years for each, as determined by radioactivity methods. As you read, refer as often as necessary to this column.

The geologic map on page 35 will help you locate areas where the rocks discussed in the text are exposed, and will greatly facilitate your understanding of the geology of the state.

Cambrian Period
(500-570 million years ago)

The first fossiliferous rocks in Colorado were deposited during the Cambrian Period, at a time when over much of the world the seas were creeping in across wide, level plains formed during the Lipalian Interval. Colorado was not covered by these seas until quite late in the Cambrian Period. Beach deposits progressively younger in age suggest that the sea invaded from the west, and spread slowly eastward, inundating most of the central part of the state but not the extreme north or south.

The beach deposits, now called the Sawatch Sandstone because they are well exposed in the Sawatch Range, are composed mostly of fine quartz sand. They are colored with glauconite, a green mineral, and hematite, a dark red mineral, so that the rock has a variegated appearance. The post office at Manitou is built of this red and green rock, and good exposures of it exist in Williams Canyon near Manitou, along U. S. Highway 24 northwest of Manitou, near Red Cliff and Minturn, and in Glenwood Canyon.

The sea which crept over Colorado at this time contained small conical-shelled mollusks, brachiopods, and trilobites. Their shells can occasionally be found in Cambrian rocks in Williams Canyon and in the Sawatch and Mosquito Ranges. At two localities unusual fossils called graptolites have been found in thin Upper Cambrian shales overlying the Sawatch Sandstone.

Ordovician Period
(440-500 million years ago)

The sea deepened and widened as the Ordovician Period began, and a series of limestones and dolomites was deposited, either on top of the Sawatch Sandstone or, where the Sawatch had not been deposited, directly on the Precambrian. These rocks are now called the Manitou Formation.

The fossils in these rocks are much more varied than those in the Sawatch Sandstone: snails, echinoderms, sponges, cephalopods, brachiopods, and trilobites are common. The Ordovician sea must have teemed with life, as many rocks deposited at this time are more than half composed of animal remains. In addition to hard-shelled animals which formed fossils, there were probably abundant soft-bodied animals such as jellyfish and worms, which left no record of their presence.

After deposition of the Manitou Formation, the seas receded slightly. A new series of sands was deposited above the Manitou in central Colorado. These now form the Harding Sandstone, a formation of unusual interest because it contains remains of the earth’s earliest known vertebrates, primitive jawless fish called Agnathids. In places in the Harding Sandstone there are dense accumulations of the tiny polygonal armor plates from these fish. Although no whole fish have been found, we can reconstruct their appearance by comparing individual plates or groups of plates with later, better known relatives.

Also present in great quantities in the Harding Sandstone are conodonts, peculiar tiny brown tooth-like fossils. Relationships of the conodonts are unknown; they may be parts of the Agnathids, or perhaps they represent some entirely different group of animals, with no living relatives.

After deposition of the sands of the Harding Sandstone, the sea deepened locally and the Fremont Limestone, a massive gray crystalline limestone containing many marine fossils, was deposited. Mollusks (some quite large), brachiopods, and corals contributed their shells to the Fremont Limestone. The chain coral _Catenipora_ and the horn coral _Streptelasma_ may often be used to identify the formation.

The Fremont Limestone was deposited very late in the Ordovician Period. Probably the seas were much more extensive then than present deposits indicate; subsequent erosion has at several times erased the evidence in uplifted areas.

Silurian Period
(400-440 million years ago)

Until very recently, no Silurian rocks or fossils were known in Colorado, and it was thought that seas did not extend into the state during this period. However, a few years ago good Silurian corals and brachiopods were discovered near the northern edge of the state. They occur in broken blocks and patches of Silurian limestone, mingled with blocks of other sedimentary rocks and, oddly enough, with volcanic material.

What seems to have happened here is that sedimentary layers of Silurian age _were_ present over northern Colorado at one time. During some subsequent period of volcanism, volcanic lavas penetrated these sediments from below. Near the volcanic tubes, broken, angular fragments of the surrounding sedimentary rocks were sometimes carried upward or downward by the motion of the lava.

Much later, both the volcanic outpourings (if the lavas ever reached the surface) and the sediments were stripped away by erosion, probably at a time when mountains were rising in the area. Only the deep portions of the tubes that fed the volcanoes were preserved. These tubes are called diatremes, and thanks to the blocks of sedimentary rock in them we know that there were indeed seas in Colorado during Silurian time, seas containing the abundant life of a shallow marine environment very much like that existing at the same time in Illinois, Iowa, and Indiana.

Devonian Period
(350-400 million years ago)

As far as we know now, Colorado was just a little above sea level during most of Devonian time. Early and Middle Devonian deposits are lacking. Late in the period, however, Colorado was widely inundated once more. Embayments of a western sea covered most of the central part of the state and an area in southwestern Colorado around Ouray.

Deposits formed in these embayments have been given several names. Chaffee Formation is the name most commonly used in central Colorado; Ouray Formation identifies rocks of the same age in southwest Colorado. The Chaffee Formation has been subdivided into two well defined units, the Parting Sandstone or Quartzite, and the Dyer Dolomite or Limestone. Many ore deposits are associated with these rock units—notably deposits of lead and zinc. The Parting Sandstone is frequently so well cemented with silica that it is actually a quartzite; thin shale beds or “partings” make it easy to recognize. It frequently contains remains of fossil fish and distinctive beds of algae.

The Dyer Dolomite contains brachiopods and bryozoans, mollusks and corals. Some of the best fossil hunting in Colorado is in Dyer beds around the White River Plateau, where the fossils frequently weather out of the rock as almost perfect specimens.

Mississippian Period
(310-350 million years ago)

The sea continued to cover most of Colorado after the end of the Devonian Period, well into Mississippian time. Mississippian rocks are characteristically thick, massive gray limestones collectively called the Leadville Limestone. This unit is well known as the host rock for many Colorado ore deposits, notably those around the town of Leadville.

During Mississippian time the western sea, warm and rich in organisms, covered much of North America. Brachiopods and corals flourished, as did many other forms of life. The seas during part of this time extended completely across Colorado to merge with seas that covered the midwestern part of the United States.

Over all this vast area, as well as southwest into Arizona, the gray, massive, fossiliferous Mississippian limestone is remarkably uniform and easily recognized, although it is called by different names in different areas.

Late in Mississippian time, the Colorado area rose slightly and the sea in which the Leadville Limestone was deposited receded. An interval of erosion followed. The surface of the limestone was dissolved and pitted, tunnels and caves formed where running water etched deep into the rock, and a reddish soil formed on the surface and in the hollows. This portion of the limestone, which in some places also contains pebbles of chert, is named the Molas Formation. Part of the Molas may be Pennsylvanian in age.

Pennsylvanian Period
(270-310 million years ago)

As the Pennsylvanian Period began, the Colorado area continued to rise. Earliest deposits of this age are fine-grained black shales and sands—the Glen Eyrie Formation along the southern Front Range and the Belden Formation in west central Colorado. Then, through millions of years, mountain-building took place. Some areas rose more than others, so that formerly flat-lying marine sediments were bent and broken, and a series of high mountain ridges and deep basins were formed. Geologists sometimes call these the Ancestral Rocky Mountains.

Although the pattern of the mountains changed repeatedly, the Ancestral Rockies consisted principally of two large ranges. One range roughly paralleled the present Front Range, but lay thirty to fifty miles further west. The other extended from the San Luis Valley northwest toward Colorado National Monument, including the area around the Black Canyon of the Gunnison and the present Uncompahgre Plateau. Coarse sediments washed off both sides of both ranges, and accumulated as alluvial fans and valley fill along the mountain margins. These exist today as the Fountain Formation of the eastern Front Range, the Minturn Formation between the ancient uplifts, and the Hermosa Formation west of the western uplift.

FOUNTAIN FORMATION
MINTURN FORMATION
HERMOSA FORMATION

In the Flatirons near Boulder, Red Rocks Park near Denver, and the Garden of the Gods near Colorado Springs we see well exposed examples of the Fountain Formation. The Minturn Formation is visible along the Eagle River west of Wolcott, and along Gore Creek near Vail. The Hermosa Formation forms striking red cliffs north of Durango. In the Sangre de Cristo Mountains area, exceptionally great and rapid deposition took place, and the Minturn Formation is very thick.

In west central Colorado, near the towns of Eagle and Gypsum, a large basin formed. In it, gypsum and other salts were deposited as arms of the sea were cut off from the main marine area. The unusual appearance of the hills along the Eagle River, especially north of U. S. Highway 24, is caused by the presence of gypsum in the bedrock.

In a similar manner, the Paradox Basin was formed in southwestern Colorado. Thousands of feet of gypsum, salt, and potash were deposited here, probably also precipitated in restricted arms of the sea. These minerals, the so-called evaporites, have since significantly controlled development of the landscape in Gypsum Valley and other parts of this region. (See The Plateaus in Chapter I and the section on Gypsum in Chapter III).

Between the mountain masses and their surrounding alluvial deposits, shallow seas repeatedly invaded the lowland areas of the state. Marine fossils in some parts of the Minturn Formation bear witness to as many as twenty marine cycles. Strangely, the Pennsylvanian Period appears to have been cyclical in other parts of the United States as well, for marine sediments are found alternating with nonmarine sediments in Pennsylvania, Illinois, Kansas, Nebraska, and New Mexico. In middle Pennsylvanian time, general uplift occurred in Colorado, and almost the entire state was above sea level for the rest of the period.

Permian Period
(223-270 million years ago)

By the end of the Pennsylvanian Period, the mountains of the Ancestral Rockies had been almost entirely removed by erosion, and the deep basins were filled with sediments. Colorado was once more a great plain, sloping gently to the northeast. In eastern Colorado, a shallow sea gradually dried up, leaving some thin limestone and gypsum beds along its margin. The western shore of this sea was edged with beaches and sand dunes, preserved as the Lyons Sandstone. The buildings of the University of Colorado, as well as many homes and other structures in the Boulder-Denver area, are faced with this beautiful salmon-colored sandstone.

In the western part of the state, Permian deposits consist mostly of shales and sandstones. The red color of these rocks, and the complete absence of fossils in them, suggest that the environment in which they were deposited was not marine, but was a vast, level mudflat subject to alternating wet and dry periods. The shales and sandstones collectively are called the Maroon Formation, named for Maroon Bells, near Aspen, where they are dramatically exposed in the mountain cliffs.

During part of Permian time, a shallow sea extended from Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming into the northwest corner of Colorado. In this sea was deposited the Phosphoria Formation, a highly phosphatic limestone containing only rare, poorly preserved molluscan fossils.

As the Paleozoic Era ended, Colorado was still flat and low-lying. By this time land plants and animals had evolved, but if vegetation grew in the Colorado area, or animals roamed it, they left few fossil remains. Tracks of early reptiles have been found in the Lyons Sandstone. Dune sandstones here and in adjacent areas suggest that desert conditions may have prevailed, in which case Colorado would have been very similar, scenically and climatically, to Sahara regions today.

MESOZOIC ERA

The Mesozoic Era, popularly known as the Age of Reptiles or Age of Dinosaurs, is divided into three periods. The climate of the entire earth appears to have been warmer then than it is at present, perhaps because of a different distribution of land and sea areas, or because continental areas were not as high and mountainous as they are just now. Colorado was a rather low land area for most of the first two Mesozoic periods; then a vast sea covered the entire state for the remainder of the era.

Triassic Period
(180-225 million years ago)

Saharan conditions continued to prevail in western North America during the early part of the Mesozoic Era. In central Colorado, the lowest Mesozoic deposits are the Triassic Lykins Formation, a series of soft, bright red sandstones and shales. Where the Lykins is exposed along the Front Range, its bright red color identifies it. Because of its softness, it is often less prominent than adjacent rock layers in the mountain foothills. The Lykins Formation includes some evaporites, apparently derived from Permian evaporites washed into the Triassic ponds and lakes which existed occasionally in this region.

Over almost the entire state, the rocks deposited at this time are very similar. Formation names may differ—Lykins, Moenkopi, Chinle, Ankareh, Wingate—but the rocks are almost universally fine-grained sandstones and shales with a red or pink color. They represent ancient coastal plain, dune, or delta deposits. Toward the western edge of the state they coarsen, and contain layers of conglomerates similar to the Triassic conglomerates of northern Arizona and Utah. These suggest that mountain-building was taking place west of here at that time.

There are virtually no fossils known from Triassic rocks in Colorado, although some fossil palm fronds have been found west of the San Juan Mountains, in the southwestern corner of the state.

Jurassic Period
(135-180 million years ago)

During the Jurassic Period, Colorado was still a low, flat desert area with intermittent streams flowing eastward over the surface of older sediments. The Navajo Sandstone, formed from dune sands, was deposited in the western part of the state. Streams flowing eastward from Utah brought fine sediments—silts and muds—to western Colorado, forming what is now the Carmel Formation. Near Canon City, coarse gravels bear witness to local uplift in Jurassic time. Both these gravels and the Carmel Formation were overlain by more dune sands, now hardened into the Entrada Sandstone.

In Late Jurassic time the Colorado area, which had been predominantly desert since Permian time, appears finally to have been submerged once more. Fine calcareous muds of the Curtis Formation, containing ammonites, belemnites, and other marine shellfish, show us that a shallow sea transgressed from the west over the wind-blown sands. This sea was, geologically speaking, of short duration—only a few million years. Bounded on almost all sides by desert, it seems to have dried up, depositing the gypsum that is now present in a thin layer along the Front Range between Denver and Canon City in the Ralston Formation.

At about this time, however, the climate underwent a major change. Deposits above the Ralston indicate an increasingly moist environment, the environment in which the Morrison Formation was deposited over most of Colorado and parts of the adjacent states of Kansas, Arizona, Utah, and Wyoming. The Morrison Formation is exposed in many places, and is characteristically composed of layers of fine, limy mud, brightly colored in streaks of red, brown, green, and blue. In most areas it is so soft that it becomes soil-covered; it is well exposed only in roadcuts or where it is protected from erosion by a “caprock” of harder sediments or lava. Spectacular outcrops can be seen in new roadcuts along U. S. Interstate highway 70 just west of Denver.

Fossil dinosaur bones occur in great numbers in the Morrison Formation near the towns of Morrison and Canon City and at several other places in Colorado. Those at Canon City have been quarried extensively, and are now mounted in a number of museums in the United States. At Dinosaur National Monument, in eastern Utah and northwestern Colorado, many excellent remains have been found; those in Utah can be seen in place in the rock in a striking exhibit at the National Monument.

Some of the dinosaurs known from the Morrison Formation reached 80 feet in length. Both plant-eating and meat-eating types are known. In addition to the bones themselves, gastroliths or gizzard stones can frequently be found; these highly polished stones were as essential to dinosaur digestion as gravel is to a chicken or a caged canary.

Along with the dinosaur fossils are found abundant remains of water plants called charophytes. These plants formed tiny spiralled balls of calcite as part of their reproductive activities; both the little balls and the stalks of the plants themselves occur in many parts of the state. In western Colorado, near Grand Junction, silicified shells of freshwater snails can also be found in the Morrison.

Early in the 1900s vanadium, radium, and uranium were discovered in Jurassic sandstones and mudstones of western Colorado. Extensive mining in this area has revealed that these elements often become concentrated by groundwater in organic material such as fossil plant stems or dinosaur bones. The search for radioactive minerals has thus brought to light many ancient fossil accumulations.

Cretaceous Period
(70-135 million years ago)

Early in Cretaceous time, marine conditions once more prevailed in Colorado. This is indicated by a marked change in rock types from beach and near-shore deposits to true marine sediments.

The sandstones derived from beach sands sometimes include coarse pebbles of chert which can be traced to sources in Permian rocks of Utah and Nevada. Occasionally the beach and near-shore deposits include marine shells like oysters, indicating that there were brackish and salt water lagoons and marshes along the shore. The Dakota Formation represents the beach of the transgressive or advancing sea. This formation contains oil in eastern Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming; the oil itself may have been derived from decay of organic materials in swamps behind the beaches and bars.

As the sea deepened in eastern Colorado, finer sediments were deposited. These included the black muds of the Benton Shale, and the Niobrara Limestone, a shallow-water deposit containing abundant shells of clams (_Inoceramus_ and _Ostrea_) and ammonites and tiny one-celled animals called Foraminiferida. Above the Benton and Niobrara Formations lie the fine gray muds of the Pierre Shale. Several thousand feet thick, the Pierre contains occasional beautifully preserved ammonite shells as well as bones from fossil fish and swimming reptiles.

The rocks deposited in western Colorado at this time are markedly different from those deposited in eastern Colorado. In the east, deposits are fine and very limy, containing abundant shells and little in the way of coarse debris. In the west, sandstones of the Mesa Verde Formation dominate, and coal beds suggest marshy or swampy conditions inshore from the ancient ocean. This is just the pattern we would expect from a low-lying region bordering a shallow sea, a region similar perhaps to the southeastern Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States today.

Toward the end of the Cretaceous Period, the sea receded from Colorado. Beaches and bars of the retreating sea left a sandstone layer which now outcrops prominently east of the Front Range as the Fox Hills Sandstone. Above lie interbedded sands and coals, the Laramie Formation. The presence of coal above beach sands shows that the coal swamps moved eastward as the sea retreated.

The exact age of the shoreline deposits and coal beds varies from place to place in such a way as to indicate that the sea withdrew slowly and irregularly. In general the shore moved eastward, but there are localities such as North Park where deposition lasted much longer than elsewhere. In some places no real beach was formed at the ancient strand line.

In western Colorado, the end of Cretaceous time is marked by coarser beds, indicating an increased rate of uplift in Utah. Conglomerates were deposited in the beds of the McDermott Formation, now visible along the Animas River south of Durango.

CENOZOIC ERA

It is characteristic of earth history that the younger the rocks are, the more we know about them. This is because younger rocks lie near the surface, have not been disturbed as much by mountain building processes as have older rocks, and have not been affected as strongly by repeated erosion. Many of the events of the Cenozoic Era are documented in detail in the geology of Colorado, and these events have intimately influenced the scenery as we see it today.

The Cenozoic is the Age of Mammals. How it happened that mammals triumphed over reptiles is one of the mysteries of geology. Some scientists think that climatic changes—dropping temperatures and increases in rainfall—swung the balance in favor of the warm-blooded mammals. Others believe that cosmic ray bombardment during some unusual astronomical event may have destroyed many surface-living dinosaurs, while small burrowing mammals (as well as many small reptiles) were able to survive. Still others maintain that the superior intelligence and regulated body temperatures of mammals enabled them to win out in the battle for survival without the aid of climatic or cosmic change.

The names Tertiary and Quaternary, used for the two Cenozoic Periods, are holdovers from early studies in geology in which rocks were divided into Primary (very hard, crystalline rocks such as igneous and metamorphic rocks), Secondary (well consolidated layered rocks), Tertiary (layered rocks which are not fully cemented but which are nevertheless fairly well consolidated), and Quaternary (sediments in which the grains have not become cemented together).

Tertiary Period
(3-70 million years ago)

During the first part of the Tertiary Period, uplift began in earnest in Colorado and adjacent states. This uplift was part of the great Laramide Orogeny that built the Rocky Mountain chain from Alaska to New Mexico. The entire area rose above the level of the sea, and mountains were thrust up in a great series of north-south ranges that extended unbroken almost the length of the continent. Between the ranges, thick layers of gravel and sand, derived from the surrounding highlands, were deposited in intermontane basins. Occasional freshwater limestones and shales indicate the presence of lakes.

In Colorado, many details of the formation of the Rockies stand out in bold relief. The Front Range moved upward sharply, mostly as a linear block broken or faulted along both edges. Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments along the margins of the block were steeply tipped and in some places even overturned, while in some localities Precambrian rocks were thrust out over the younger sediments.

Just east of the Front Range, especially in the area around Denver, the land remained lower and was the site of thick deposits of gravel and sand eroded from the range. The Denver Formation, the Arapahoe Conglomerate, and the Dawson Arkose are more than 2,000 feet thick in this area. These are delta and river sediments, all varying a great deal from place to place. Individual layers of sand or gravel are not continuous over extensive areas, but some, such as the Castle Rock Conglomerate, are very prominent locally.

Along the eastern margin of the Front Range west of Castle Rock and Sedalia, rocks deposited at this time are now folded steeply, indicating that the mountains continued to rise even as basin sediments were being deposited.

In southern Colorado, the Sangre de Cristo and Wet Mountains were also formed as upthrust blocks. Between them, the Huerfano Basin and adjoining Raton Basin received particularly rapid alluvial deposition. In the Raton Basin, quantities of vegetation were deposited in swamps and marshes, forming the thick coal beds which can now be seen in road cuts west of Trinidad and along the Raton Pass highway. Huerfano Basin deposits contain some of the earliest known horse remains, skeletons of a tiny four-toed horse called _Hyracotherium_ (formerly known as _Eohippus_).

Other rising ranges provided material for alluvial deposition in North Park, Middle Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley. Layers of basalt and volcanic peaks show that as the mountains rose, the crust cracked and allowed lava to rise to the surface in great quantities. Tertiary basalts are very much part of the Colorado landscape: some can be seen west of Granby, others in Table Mountains east of Golden. Near Boulder, Valmont Dike was intruded, though lava may not have reached the surface in that area. Spanish Peaks in southern Colorado, Mesa de Maya, the Rabbit Ears Range, Grand and Battlement Mesas, and many other volcanic features were formed at this time.

Most of the rich mineral deposits of Colorado are thought also to have been formed during the early part of the Tertiary Period. Solutions rich in gold, silver, zinc, lead, copper, and sulfides of iron seeped into joints and faults in the crust as the mountains were pushed upward. Ore minerals crystallized out, sometimes in veins in the ancient Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks, sometimes in Paleozoic sediments. These are further discussed in Chapter III.

Further to the north and west, the Uinta Mountains rose. They are a fault-block range, but they lie at right angles to the general north-south trend of the Rocky Mountains. South of them the Uinta Basin, one of the largest of the intermontane basins, received shaly deposits in a great lake which existed here for probably several million years. The lake extended over some 100,000 square miles, and during its existence great quantities of tiny organisms lived in its waters. Oily material from these organisms was deposited in the mud of the lake sediments, particularly in the eastern end of the basin, there to remain trapped in a great oil-shale deposit. Fossil fish, crayfish, algae, and many forms of insect and plant life have been found as fossils in these lake shales.

West of Pikes Peak, another lake formed, dammed by a lava flow from a nearby volcanic field. Fine volcanic ash falling into this lake preserved the trunks and leaves of many plants as well as abundant insects, fish, and occasional mammal bones. These are now protected and exhibited in Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument. The fossil plants, among them redwoods, poplar, hackberry, and pine, suggest a climate warmer than the present one, and have been taken to indicate that regional uplift to the present altitude had not yet occurred.

Another rich deposit of fossil insects and plants occurs near Creede. Other lake deposits in South Park contain ash layers with fossil algae and snails.

In southwestern Colorado, extensive Tertiary lava flows, ash falls, and river deposits form the eastern part of the San Juan Mountains, the largest volcanic area in the state. Mineral collectors are attracted to this region by the many excellent localities for agate and other siliceous stones.

Still another center of Tertiary volcanism was located in what is now Rocky Mountain National Park. Specimen Mountain, northwest of Trail Ridge, was an active volcano about 30 million years ago, shedding ash and lava over much of northern Colorado. The rhyolite which now caps the hill west of Iceberg Lake, on Trail Ridge Road, was derived from this volcano, but is now separated from it by the deep glaciated valley of the Cache la Poudre River and Milner Pass.

Volcanic ash at times drifted far eastward and blanketed the surface of the plains, burying specimens of many animals and plants. The White River Formation, extending from northeast Colorado northward into South Dakota, is formed of such drifting ash. Many now-extinct mammals have been excavated from this formation.

Sometime after the mid-Tertiary episode of violent volcanic activity, Colorado was uplifted to its present altitude. This was a general uplift, raising the plains and plateau areas as well as the mountains. The uplift was not an abrupt process, but continued for perhaps ten million years. It raised the entire state 3,000 to 5,000 feet above its previous level.

During the remainder of the Tertiary Period, Colorado was the site of erosion rather than deposition. However, some stream material was deposited in the mountain valleys, and on the prairies wind-blown and stream-borne sands were spread thinly, interlayered with impure limestones deposited in ponds and lakes. In the San Luis Valley, deposition was probably more continuous than elsewhere, as the exit from the valley was blocked by volcanic flows. The deposits in this valley, sands and clays of the Santa Fe and Alamosa Formations, form a great artesian basin. The rich agricultural development of the valley is made possible by water wells tapping these formations.

Quaternary Period
(3 million years ago to present)

The most significant feature of the Quaternary Period in Colorado, as elsewhere in the northern hemisphere, is the evidence of glaciation. During the first part of the Quaternary Period, known as the Pleistocene Epoch, great continental glaciers covered most of Canada and much of northern United States. The ice sheets did not extend southward as far as Colorado, but large valley glaciers developed in many of the mountain ranges of the state and left their traces in many mountain valleys.

The conditions leading to Pleistocene glaciation are not fully understood. Climatic changes may have been initiated by a decrease in solar radiation, changing patterns of ocean currents, reduction of solar heating by volcanic dust, or an increase in general elevation of the land. As the climate became cooler and moister, snowfall increased in the north and at high altitudes. In areas where winter snowfall exceeded summer melting, glaciers developed.

In Colorado, glaciers formed along the crests of the Front Range, the Sawatch Range, the Elk Mountains and West Elk Mountains, the Sangre de Cristo and Mosquito Ranges, the San Juan Mountains, and the Park and Gore Ranges. Glaciation in Colorado was selective: in many places elevation was sufficient for glaciation, but snowfall apparently was not great enough. Where they did occur, the glaciers extended down to elevations of about 8,000 feet. There, temperatures became mild enough to melt the ice.

The mountain glaciers have left many tell-tale signs of their presence. Valleys above 8,000 feet are U-shaped, their upper ends bounded by horseshoe-shaped, steep-walled cirques. In the lower portions of the valleys, at elevations just above 8,000 feet, lie long lines of glacial debris known as moraines: terminal moraines forming crescents across the valleys to show where melting glaciers dropped their rocky loads; lateral moraines along the sides of valleys; medial moraines where glaciers from two valleys met. Terminal moraines, often forming effective barriers across the present streams, may act as dams, creating lakes such as Grand Lake in Rocky Mountain National Park.

There were at least three distinct glacial episodes in Colorado. This is known because careful studies of glacial debris in moraines reveal three different degrees of rock weathering. All three stages can be seen in or near Rocky Mountain National Park. The oldest is represented by a moraine about three miles west of Estes Park, where the Big Thompson River traverses a wide U-shaped valley before entering its narrow, unglaciated canyon. The next oldest is represented in terminal moraines further up the valley, at Aspenglen campground. The youngest is shown in a prominent terminal moraine about one mile west of the park entrance in Horseshoe Park.

A large lateral moraine separates Hidden Valley from the south side of Horseshoe Park, and an almost equally large lateral moraine is present on the north side of this valley. At Moraine Park, both sides of the valley are edged with lateral moraines also.

Studies in Rocky Mountain National Park have revealed many other details of glaciation in this area. These are described in Park Service brochures and guidebooks, in the museum at Park headquarters, and in informative roadside signs.

Several small glaciers are still present in the Colorado mountains, all in sheltered cirques above 11,000 feet. These may be remnants of the former larger glaciers, or new glaciers formed after a long warming episode. A hike to one of these glaciers is a rewarding experience for anyone interested in geology. Some of the more accessible are St. Mary’s Glacier west of Denver, Arapaho Glacier west of Boulder (the Boulder Chamber of Commerce sponsors a festive hike to Arapaho Glacier every August), and Tyndall Glacier in Rocky Mountain National Park.

The Ice Age brought drastic changes also to the landscape below 8,000 feet elevation. Heavily loaded with glacial debris, mountain streams disgorged coarse sands and gravels along the mountain front and in the intermontane basins. As the glaciers melted after each period of expansion, the swollen streams cut deeply into their former deposits and into much older rocks as well. Royal Gorge, the Black Canyon of the Gunnison, and many of the deep, colorful canyons of the Plateau Province were cut or at least deepened by these waters. The canyons along the east face of the mountains—Big Thompson, Boulder, Clear Creek, and others—were also deepened and sharpened by the rushing ice-fed torrents.

On the prairies, rivers dumping their loads of sand covered the older rocks. Sand dunes developed along the river channels. Bones and huge tusks of hairy mammoths were sometimes buried in these soft deposits; now they are occasionally revealed as the dune and river sands are washed or blown away by continuing erosion.

About 20,000 years ago, man arrived in Colorado. Soon after this, the water supply of the valleys diminished greatly, and erosion slowed down correspondingly. The climate gradually became semiarid to arid. Many features of the natural scene were much as they must have been a century ago, without the highways, dams, and television aerials of today. Buffalo and many smaller types of game roamed the plains and foothills; deer, elk, and bighorn sheep were plentiful in the mountains. Nomadic tribes camped and hunted in both mountain and prairie. In the western part of the state, homes could be built in the shelter of great caves, as at Mesa Verde, and game could be supplemented with corn and squash planted on plateau surfaces.

Several features of Colorado scenery changed with increasing aridity. The glaciers of course were gone or nearly gone. Streams were no longer the violent torrents they had been. Many mountain lakes, filled with sediment and vegetation, became instead mountain meadows. And the once fertile intermontane valleys became deserts.

On the eastern side of the San Luis Valley, the Great Sand Dunes developed at this time. These dunes nestle against the Sangre de Cristo Range, where strong southwesterly winds blowing across the wide valley tend to funnel toward Mosca and Music Passes. These winds lift loads of sand from the lightly vegetated valley floor, and drop it as they rise over the mountains. Where the sand is dropped, the dunes have formed. They rise to about 700 feet above the valley floor, and cover about forty square miles. The low rainfall of the area, seven to eight inches per year, keeps vegetation from creeping over the dunes and makes them a most distinctive feature of Colorado, a lesson in geology in the making.

* * * * * * * *

Geologic processes in Colorado now seem to be much reduced from what they were a few thousand years ago. Reduction in rainfall has led to reduced erosion. Mountain-building, having reached a climax in Tertiary time, has declined markedly. However, we find evidence that volcanism has occurred within the last few thousand years and faulting within the last few hundred, and Colorado streams rise after sudden mountain storms to approximate the violent torrents of glacial times. Colorado’s scenery, fashioned during some three billion years of earth history, is ever changing.

III
Geology and Man in Colorado

Colorado’s first permanent settlers arrived in 1858, when gold was discovered in river sands near what is now the city of Denver. The ensuing gold rush, coming ten years after the rush to California, rivalled it in fury and brought sudden wealth to lucky miners and the adventurous merchants who grubstaked them. Several hundred mining towns or “camps” sprang into existence almost overnight, their sites determined by the geology of the mountain areas. The cities of Denver, Boulder, and Golden were established as milling and shipping centers for the products of the mines. In 1876 the now-wealthy area, previously part of Kansas Territory, became the State of Colorado.

For more than a hundred years Colorado’s minerals—products of her long and diverse geologic history—have influenced her development in many ways. The state’s early wealth, stemming from bonanzas in gold and silver, is evidenced by palatial homes, hotels, and public buildings constructed during the first few decades of mining activity. Some of these are still standing—the opera houses at Central City and Aspen, Central City’s famous Teller House, and the Grand Imperial Hotel at Silverton are examples.

Many of the stories and legends of Colorado’s gold camps are recounted in _Stampede to Timberline_, by Muriel Sibell Wolle, delightfully illustrated with sketches of old mining towns as they appear today. _Mining in Colorado_, published by the U. S. Geological Survey, also makes fascinating reading, as it contains many historical anecdotes and eyewitness accounts of gold-rush days.

Development of the metal-mining areas in Colorado followed a definite sequence. Placer gold was usually discovered first. Recovery of placer gold was followed by mining of gold from veins or “lodes.” Although at first only native gold was mined, gold-bearing compounds such as telluride were soon recognized as an additional source, especially at Gold Hill, Cripple Creek, and of course the camp that came to be known as Telluride. As gold sources were depleted, silver, first produced as a byproduct, became of prime interest. Lead and zinc were in turn byproducts of silver mining. Other metals, notably copper, vanadium, tungsten, and iron, were produced later. Molybdenum is the Johnny-come-lately of the state’s mining industry, but is now the chief metal produced. A uranium boom in the 1950s brought a short rush to western Colorado and new vigor to the economy.

Oil was discovered near Canon City in 1862. The nearby Florence field and a small, shallow field near Boulder preceded much greater discoveries in the Denver Basin, the Uinta Basin, and southwest Colorado. Oil reservoirs, confined to areas of sedimentary rock, are found primarily in the Prairie and Plateau Provinces of the state, and recovery of the oil has done much to distribute population to these areas.

Coal is also restricted to sedimentary rock areas. Coal production in Colorado has waxed and waned with the years, but has provided fuel for export, for the railroads, for the manufacture of electric power, and for many of the state’s industries.

A good picture of present mineral production in Colorado can be obtained from the following summary for 1971, prepared by the Colorado Bureau of Mines:

Product Value

Molybdenum $105,389,456
Petroleum 90,494,459
Sand and gravel 32,842,503
Coal 30,251,443
Natural gas 18,695,225
Uranium 18,048,692
Vanadium 15,863,554
Cement 13,377,520
Zinc 13,310,787
Lead 6,582,025
Tungsten 6,360,020
Limestone and dolomite 5,397,570
Silver 4,198,054
Fluorspar 3,887,210
Copper 3,875,976
Stone 1,961,279
Gold 1,832,791
Clay 962,986
Iron 880,047
Pumice 309,370
Tin 278,862
Gypsum 253,856
Pyrites 142,640
All others 1,091,927
Total ($376,288,252)

Colorado is now the nation’s leading producer of molybdenum, tin, and vanadium, and second in output of tungsten. In oil production it ranked twelfth among the states in 1968, but ninth in reserves, with 420,000,000 barrels of proven reserves on 1 January 1969. An as yet untapped source of oil lies in the oil shales of western Colorado.

As part of the natural environment, water plays a major role in man’s activities. Water problems in Colorado revolve mainly around the best use of runoff in a state whose major catchment basins are across the continental divide from her largest population centers and most fertile farm land. Groundwater, closely related to surface water distribution and movement, is a geological problem, and in Colorado as in other states many government and private geologists serve farm and industrial communities in the search for usable supplies.

CAUTION: Old mines are dangerous! They may contain water or deadly gases, or be on the verge of collapse. Keep away from abandoned prospect pits and mine shafts. WARN AND WATCH YOUR CHILDREN.

GOLD, SILVER, AND OTHER METALS

Colorado’s placer and lode sources of gold, which gave first impetus to the series of mining booms in the state, were fantastically rich. Summit and Lake Counties, for instance, each produced more than $5,000,000 in placer gold between 1859 and 1867. During the same nine-year period, more than $9,000,000 in lode gold was produced from Gregory Gulch, a tiny canyon between Central City and Black Hawk. Other districts rivalled or surpassed these figures.

Early in the game it was recognized that almost all the deposits occurred along what came to be known as the “mineral belt,” a fifty-mile-wide zone extending southwest from the Boulder region. Most of the metals mined in the state come from this belt, but there are three notable exceptions: Cripple Creek, Silver Cliff, and western Colorado vanadium and uranium districts. In the first few years of the Colorado rush, gold ores and placer gold were discovered only in the northeastern part of the mineral belt. Gradually the belt was found to extend further and further southwest: Tincup was discovered in 1861, Silverton in 1870, Lake City in 1871, and Telluride in 1875. Aspen, on the western edge of the belt, was not discovered until 1879, perhaps because the area was difficult of access and lacked the easily recognizable native gold.

In the northeast part of the mineral belt, gold and other minerals occur in veins in Precambrian granite and gneiss. In the Leadville and Aspen areas, ores are associated with altered Paleozoic limestones. At the southwest end of the mineral belt, in the San Juan Mountains, ore veins are found near or in Tertiary volcanic rocks. Native gold, gold-bearing compounds, and other metallic ores in these veins originated where mineral-rich solutions from deep within the earth penetrated fissures and joints in the surrounding rock. Regardless of the age of the host rock, almost all the ores of Colorado were deposited in the early or middle Tertiary Period, about 35 to 70 million years ago.

Gold and silver are no longer mined extensively in Colorado, although any summer Sunday will see weekend operators panning near mountain streams or trundling rock from one-man mines. The recent rise in the price of silver has encouraged many miners to reopen old shafts. The most active mines in the state today are those producing molybdenum, lead, zinc, and vanadium. (Vanadium, although a metal, usually occurs in Colorado with radioactive minerals, and so is discussed with them rather than with the metals.)

Telluride
Denver
Colorado Springs
Alamosa
BOULDER
Ward
Gold Hill
Boulder
Nederland
GILPIN
Central City
Black Hawk
JEFFERSON
Golden
CLEAR CREEK
Empire
Georgetown
Silver Plume
Idaho Springs
SUMMIT
Breckenridge
EAGLE
PITKIN
Aspen
GUNNISON
Tincup
CHAFFEE
PARK
Climax
Alma
Como
Fairplay
TELLER
Cripple Creek
FREMONT
OURAY
Ouray
Camp Bird
Ironton
SAN JUAN
Silverton
HINSDALE
Lake City
LA PLATA
Durango
MINERAL
Creede
CUSTER
Silver Cliff

All told, some 430 metal mining districts have been established as legal entities in the state of Colorado. Each of these districts had the right to draw up its own regulations concerning prospecting, claims, and mining rights, within a framework established by the Federal government. Only a few of the districts ever became really significant producers. The geology and history of several of the leading areas are presented in the pages that follow.

Boulder County

Gold Run, near Gold Hill, was the scene of one of the earliest strikes in Colorado. Gold was found here in December 1858, and was sluiced from stream sands and mined from veins early in 1859. Active placer mining lasted only about a year, however, and lode mining dropped off rapidly as near-surface oxidized ores were worked out. When a smelter was erected at Black Hawk in 1868, and sulfide ores could be treated, there was a revival of activity. In 1869 the Caribou and Poorman mines near Nederland were discovered; they quickly became the most active mines in the county. The Ward district opened soon after.

In 1872, a gold-silver telluride called petzite was found in veins at Gold Hill. Renewed prospecting in this area resulted in location of mines near Sunshine, Salina, and Magnolia. During the years that followed, new mines appeared almost as fast as old ones were depleted. In 1892, the peak year, more than $1,000,000 in gold and silver was produced; total production has been about $25,000,000.

In 1900, a black mineral common in the Nederland area was recognized as ferberite, an ore of tungsten, and a new rush to the area started. During the next eighteen years Boulder County was the main tungsten producer in the United States; about 24,000 tons of tungsten trioxide, worth $23,000,000, were produced here. The ore was found in nearly vertical veins six inches to three feet thick, in a lenticular area about nine miles long extending from Nederland northeast to Arkansas Mountain, four miles west of Boulder.

Boulder County is characterized by an abundance of small mines. Old shafts, pits, and mine buildings can be found throughout the central part of the county. Little mining is done here today; many of the towns that once peppered these hills have fallen into decay or disappeared entirely.

Central City and Idaho Springs

The Central City-Idaho Springs area was the principal metal mining region in the state until the late 1880s. In 1858, rich placer deposits were discovered in gravels and river terraces along both forks of Clear Creek. Exploration upstream led to discoveries of rich oxidized quartz veins at Central City, Black Hawk, and Idaho Springs. These veins, which generally trend northeast-southwest, extend through the mountains in a zone about six miles long and three miles wide between the two forks of Clear Creek.

The ores filled a multitude of cracks and fissures in the Precambrian bedrock. The veins are usually less than five feet thick, and are almost vertical and often clustered in zones up to thirty feet wide. The position of one of the vein systems may be seen clearly between Black Hawk and Central City—the ore-bearing rock has been mined out, but a series of collapsed tunnels marks the line where the veins crossed the valley. A monument here commemorates the discovery of Gregory Gulch, one of the richest localities in the state.

Several rich veins were mined in both directions—southwest from Central City and northeast from Idaho Springs—until the mines met. The Argo tunnel, marked by dilapidated buildings and extensive dumps on the north side of Idaho Springs, connected the two districts; it was completed in 1904.

The “Patch,” a deep crater-like hole on Quartz Hill, about one mile southwest of Central City, is an intriguing feature in this area. It was produced by glory-holing, a mining technique in which a deep tunnel is deliberately caved by blasting, so that ores above the tunnel can be removed. This glory hole was dynamited below an irregular mass of highly broken rock where many ore-rich veins converged. After the caving, ores were taken out through the remaining part of the tunnel.

The principal ore minerals of Central City and Idaho Springs are native gold, pyrite, sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, and tennantite. Prospecting for uranium was carried out during the 1950s but no uranium was ever mined here.

The area has produced almost $200,000,000 worth of gold, silver, lead, zinc, and copper. A few mines still operate seasonally or on a small scale, but tourists, many of them riding Jeeps across the mountainous terrain to visit mines and ghost towns, are often more visibly active than the mines.

Georgetown, Empire, and Silver Plume

A few miles southwest of Idaho Springs, another mining area had a similar, though less productive, history. In 1859, placer and lode gold were discovered near what is now Georgetown. Placer mining dominated here between 1859 and 1863. Gravel and crushed rock from decomposed quartz and sulfide veins were washed through sluiceboxes in the same way as placer gravel, gold being caught in riffles or gunny sacking on the bottoms of the troughs. The veins were found to be decomposed to depths of about 40 feet; below this the gold occurred closely associated with sulfides such as pyrite, sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite, from which it could not easily be separated. However, smelters were developed in 1866 for treatment of these sulfides, and gold, silver, lead, and copper were recovered. Gradually, as the gold was worked out, silver and lead became the important products of the mines.

Leadville

Placer gold was discovered in 1859 in California Gulch, about seven miles north of the present town of Leadville. The rush that followed was short but sweet; the camp was called Oro—gold! About $5,000,000 was produced from the placer mines within two years, though by 1861 the area was all but deserted, for the easily won placer gold was gone.

In 1875 a smelter was erected a few miles downstream from Oro to process cerussite—silver-rich lead carbonate—that occurred in the placer sands. For years this mineral had been considered a nuisance because, being much heavier than sand, it tended to separate out with the gold. The new town of Leadville sprang up near the smelter and shortly afterward more lode deposits were discovered south of the placer workings. From $63,000 in 1875, production climbed to $2,500,000 in 1878 and more than $15,000,000 in the peak year of 1882.

Geologically, the ores of this district occur as Tertiary replacements and veins in Ordovician, Devonian, and Mississippian limestones. The “Blue” or Leadville Limestone, of Mississippian age, contains the richest ore. Ore deposits were formed after the limestones had been faulted and cracked extensively by mountain-building movements; the ores themselves probably crystallized from molten or gaseous materials involved in related igneous intrusions. River gravels and glacial debris mask the true nature of the lode deposits, but studies in the mines show that the fault systems along which ores are deposited trend north or north-northeast.

The Leadville district is now experiencing its third mining boom as a newly recognized lead-zinc orebody is being developed. Production is expected to reach 700 tons of ore per day by 1971. Total production of gold, silver, lead, zinc, and copper in the district has reached $500,000,000.

Breckenridge

Breckenridge was also discovered in 1859, with placer gold the first attraction. The placers gave out in 1862 after about $3,000,000 in gold had been recovered. Earliest attempts to mine the rich silver and lead veins of the district were in 1869.

As at Leadville, the sedimentary rocks of the area were intruded by granitic masses in Tertiary time, but here the sedimentary rocks are mostly Pennsylvanian sandstones and shales. These rocks were badly faulted and broken during the intrusion, and the ores were deposited as the granitic material cooled. The lode deposits occur mostly in small veins well hidden by surface sands and gravels. Some of the veins yielded exceptionally beautiful crystallized wire and flake gold, specimens of which are on display at the Colorado School of Mines library in Golden and in the Denver Museum of Natural History.

Dredging for alluvial gold was attempted in 1898 in the Breckenridge district, but this method of extracting gold was not successful until 1905. A number of dredges operated between 1910 and 1925. These floating behemoths shovel up gold-bearing gravels from the bottom and one side of the pond on which they float, sort out the gold in giant sluiceboxes, and spew out the leftover gravels in great arc-shaped heaps that can be seen near Breckenridge and Fairplay and in a number of other valleys in Colorado. They depend for their operation on a plentiful supply of water and a shallow water table, but they can sift through quantities of gravel at relatively low cost. All told, about $7,000,000 in gold has been dredged from this district.

Fairplay

Another gold field discovered in 1859 was in the northwest corner of South Park, along the headwaters of the South Platte River. Several mining camps were established here. After early production of rich placer deposits, claims were consolidated and large flumes constructed so that gold could be recovered by hydraulic mining. In this type of mining, streams of water from high-pressure hoses are directed at gravel surfaces. The gravels are washed into long sluiceboxes, where gold is caught in riffles. Hydraulic mining continued upstream from Fairplay until about 1900.

In 1922 a dredge was constructed near Fairplay to process gravel along the South Platte and in the valley floor. An even larger dredge, constructed in 1941, operated until 1952, when rising labor costs overrode the narrow margin on which it operated. At the time operations ceased, the dredge was recovering about six cents in gold for each cubic yard of gravel processed.