Chapter XI: Part 11

Among musical instruments one type is of universal distribution: the percussion instruments, or perhaps better instruments for producing noises that carry the rhythm of the song. In the simplest cases these are sticks with which boards or other resounding objects are struck. But besides these we find everywhere the use of some kind of a drum: wooden, hollow boxes, hollow cylinders or hoops covered with a drum head of skin. Rattles, and locally other devices for producing noises occur. Not so general, for musical purposes, is the use of wind instruments. Whistles used as calls are perhaps universal, but the flute or pipe is not used everywhere as a musical instrument. Still more restricted is the use of stringed instruments. At the time of the discovery they were entirely unknown in America. Among primitive tribes, including the whole of America, song was accompanied only by rhythmic beating on instruments of percussion. It is interesting to note that the beats did not always coincide with the accent of the song, but had often an independent, though coordinated rhythm (see p. 315). Singing in several parts is also unknown in primitive music. In Africa solo singing and response of a chorus occurs, and a kind of polyphony due to the overlapping of these. Sometimes true singing in parts has been observed in Africa.

Music is always expressionistic and we are apt to associate with a tune and rhythm a definite mood, but these associations vary considerably with local styles. I have referred, in another place, to the feelings associated among ourselves with the major and minor keys. These are not by any means shared by people who have grown up under the influence of another musical style. It is likely that the symbolic meaning of music alone is vaguer than that of song; but it is difficult to reach a definite decision in regard to this question, for there is very little music without song or without association with symbolic or representative actions. The condition is perhaps comparable to that found in the symbolic significance of graphic and plastic arts, the connotations of which are, as we have seen, certain only when a definite relation between form and implied content exist. It is intelligible that a type of tune that is always applied in mourning ceremonies will produce the proper emotional effect, while the same type of tune without such definite setting might have quite a different effect.

The present state of our knowledge of primitive music does not permit us to establish definite musical areas, but enough is known to prove that as all other cultural features, we may recognize a series of musical areas, each characterized by common fundamental traits. The narrow compass of tunes of east Siberian songs, the falling cadence with repetition of motives on a falling series of fundamental tones among the Plains Indians, the antiphony of Negro songs are examples of this kind. The varying systems of tonality, the use of purely instrumental music, the kind of accompaniment of song, are others. It seems quite certain that it will be possible to determine large areas in which, by diffusion, similar types of musical art have developed and in which, by subdivision, local types may be segregated similar in character to those found in decorative art. Even in the modern folk music of Europe a definite character of the folkmusic of each nation may be recognized. Borrowed melodies adapted to local forms illustrate this type of individuality. As an example of such adaptation I give on the next page a German song which has been adopted by the Mexicans. It was probably carried there by the army of Maximilian.

On account of the interrelation between body movements and articulations it seems likely that rhythmic body movements release rhythmic articulations, that is song; and that in this sense, songs that consist of meaningless syllables may have their origin in movement. On the other hand the excitement engendered by song leads to movements that are related to the rhythm of the song, so that in this sense, a dance is conditioned by the song. We mean here by dance, the rhythmic movements of any part of the body, swinging of the arms, movement of the trunk or head, or movements of the legs and feet. The two forms of expression are mutually determined.

We have to remember here the general remarks which we made in the beginning in regard to all art. We saw that without a formal element art does not exist. Technical work without fixed form does not create artistic enjoyment. In the same way violent, expressive movement born of the passion of the moment is not art. Art as an expression of feeling requires form as much as art born of the control of technical processes. If it were not selfevident we might have pointed out also that the passionate cry is neither poetry nor music. It is, therefore, not appropriate to call dance all the violent movements that occur in the lives of primitive people. We must reserve the term to movements of fixed form, although it may be recognized that in the height of excitement dance may turn into a formless tumult of motion, as music may change to formless cries of wildest excitement.

[Music:

Denkst du daran, mein tapfer Lagienka, dass ich dereinst in
unserm Vaterland, an eurer Spitze nah bei Dubienka, viertausend
gegen sechzehntausend stand? Denkst du daran, wie ich vom Feind
umgeben,
mit Mühe nur die Freiheit uns gewann? Ich denke
dran, ich danke dir mein Leben; doch du, Soldat, Soldat denkst du
daran.[Trans. 1]

Yo trobador, yo pobre sin fortuna, si te admiro las
gracias que tu tienes; yo no te veo mas bella que la luna, si te adoro
me perdonas otra vez. Proscrito yo, en extranjero
suelo, no hay piedad de un triste trobador. Proscrito
yo en extranjero suelo, no hay piedad de un triste trobador.[Trans. 2]
]

[Trans. 1] Do you remember, my brave Lagienka, that I once stood in
our fatherland, at your head near Dubienka, four thousand
against sixteen thousand? Do you remember how I was surrounded by
the enemy,
how hard it was to gain our freedom? I remember,
I owe you my life; but you, soldier, soldier, remember it too.

[Trans. 2] I troubadour, I poor without fortune, if I admire the
graces that you have; I don’t see you more beautiful than the moon,
if I adore you,
forgive me again. Banished I, in a foreign
soil, there is no mercy for a sad troubadour. Banished
I, in a foreign soil, there is no mercy for a sad troubadour.

We observe among all primitive tribes that emotions finding vent in motor activities adopt a definite form. In this sense dance as an art form may be purely formal, that is, devoid of symbolic meaning. Its esthetic effect may be founded on the enjoyment of body movement, often reinforced by that emotional excitement that is released by the dance movement. The more formal the dance, the stronger will be the purely esthetic enjoyment, as against the emotional element.

We are not well informed in regard to the local distribution of dance types among primitive people but enough is known to allow us to state that, as in decorative art and in music, areas of similar dance forms occur. The joint dances of the Pueblo Indians in which participate a large number of dancers dressed alike and in formation, are quite foreign to the North Pacific coast where the single dance prevails. In the formal woman’s dance of the Northwest Coast, the dancer stays in the same place with hands raised to the height of the face, palms forward and trembling. The body movements are carried on by gentle bending of the knees and slight swaying of the body. The Koryak dancer who holds the drum, moves in quite another way, swinging his body from the hips and beating the drum (see fig. 73, p. 79). Joint dances of the two sexes are rare and the dancers do not often so move that their bodies are in intimate contact. We find more frequently either single dances or a number of performers who repeat the same movements. The effectiveness of the dance is increased by the order in which the dancers stand and move.

Symbolic movements are perhaps even more frequent than purely formal dance. They are used not only in accompanying song but also in oratory, and the muscular play accompanying lively conversation of both the speaker and the hearer is a manifestation of the relation between language and symbolic movements. These are also standardized in each cultural area. The number of organically determined gestures is very small. Most of them are culturally patterned. Many are so automatic that they are called forth immediately by the form of thought. In other cases the speaker enhances the effect of his words by appropriate gestures and the meaning of song is often brought out more vividly by significant movements. Thus the chorus of the Indians of the Pueblo of Laguna sing:

“In the east rises the sun youth,
Here westward he moves with life and vegetation.
Carrying them in his basket while he is walking along.”

When this song is sung the singer faces westward and moves forward. The word “vegetation” is expressed by pushing the hands alternately upward; “basket” by describing a wide circle with both hands and bringing them together in front of the body. The gesture expresses the act of carrying in a basket. The word “walking” is indicated by stretching the hands out forward in front of the body and waving them up and up.

The Kwakiutl sing as follows:[167]

“I am going around the world eating everywhere with
Cannibal-at-the-North-End-of-the-World.
I went to the center of the world; Cannibal-at-the-
North-End-of-the-World is crying “food”.

[167] F. Boas, Social Organization and Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians, Annual Report of the United States National Museum, 1895, p. 457.

The dancer accompanies this song which is sung by a chorus, with movements. His arms tremble from right to left. To the words, “I am going” the arms are stretched out to one side; “All around the world”, they swing around in a round circle; “I,” the shoulders are alternately brought forward and backward; “eating everywhere”, the right hand stretches far out as though it was taking food, and is then brought to the mouth, while the left describes a wide circle, indicating “everywhere”; “Cannibal-at-the-North-End-of-the-World”, both hands are bent inward and the finger tips moved toward the mouth, meaning “the eater”; “I went” is expressed as before; “Cannibal-at-North-End-of-the-World is crying ‘food’ for me”, the sign of the cannibal spirit is made; then the arms are stretched far backward, the palms turned downward, and the head is lowered, this being the cannibal spirit’s attitude when crying “food”. “At the center of the world”, when these words are sung the dancer is in front of the fire and looks up to the rear of the house in the characteristic attitude of the cannibal, the rear of the house being the center of the world.

The further development of movement accompanying the song leads to true pantomimic and ultimately to dramatic performances.

CONCLUSION

We have now completed our review of the forms of primitive art and we shall try to sum up the results of our inquiry.

We have seen that art arises from two sources, from technical pursuits and from the expression of emotions and thought, as soon as these take fixed forms. The more energetic the control of form over uncoordinated movement, the more esthetic the result. Artistic enjoyment is, therefore, based essentially upon the reaction of our minds to form. The same kind of enjoyment may be released by impressions received from forms that are not the handiwork of man, but they may not be considered as art, although the esthetic reaction is not different from the one we receive from the contemplation or the hearing of a work of art. When speaking of artistic production they must be excluded. When considering only esthetic reactions they must be included.

The esthetic effect of artistic work developing from the control of technique alone is based on the joy engendered by the mastery of technique and also by the pleasure produced by the perfection of form. The enjoyment of form may have an elevating effect upon the mind, but this is not its primary effect. Its source is in part the pleasure of the virtuoso who overcomes technical difficulties that baffle his cleverness. As long as no deeper meaning is felt in the significance of form, its effect is for most individuals, pleasurable, not elevating.

We have seen that in the various arts definite formal principles manifest themselves, the origin of which we did not try to explain, but which we accepted as present in the art of man the world over, and which for this reason we considered as the most ancient, the most fundamental characteristics of all art. In the graphic and plastic arts these elements are symmetry, rhythm and emphasis of form. We found symmetry to be very generally right and left and suggested that this may be due to the symmetry of manual movements as well as to the observation of right and left symmetry in animals and in man. We also observed that rhythmic repetition runs ordinarily in horizontal bands and pointed out the general experience that natural objects of the same or similar kind are arranged in horizontal strata, such as woods, mountains, and clouds; legs, body and limbs. Rhythmic form seems to be closely related to technical processes, although other causes of rhythmic repetition are revealed in poetry. The simplest technical processes produce a simple repetition of the same motives, while with increasing virtuosity more complex orders become the rule. The more virtuosity is developed, the more complex are the rhythms that are liable to make their appearance. The ability of primitive artists to appreciate rhythm seems to be much greater than our own.

The desire to emphasize form made itself felt in the application of lines to the rim. We also observed the tendency of the rim designs to become exuberant and to encroach upon the decorative field. No less important is the tendency to attach ornament to prominent places of the decorated object and to divide the decorative field according to fixed principles.

While the features so far considered are common characteristics of art the world over, they do not explain the style of separate areas. We considered this problem in some detail in the field of decorative art. Here our attention was first arrested by the fact that purely formal art, or perhaps better, art that is apparently purely formal, is given a meaning endowing it with an emotional value that does not belong to the beauty of form alone. It is an expressionistic element that is common to many forms of primitive art. It is effective because in the mind of the tribes certain forms are symbols of a limited range of ideas. The firmer the association between a form and a definite idea, the more clearly stands out the expressionistic character of the art. This is true in the graphic and plastic arts as well as in music. In the former a geometrical form, in the latter a sound cluster, a particular type of musical phrasing, if associated with a definite meaning, evokes definite emotions or even concepts. A study of these conditions shows also that a uniform reaction to form is indispensable for the effectiveness of an expressionistic art, a condition which is not fulfilled in our own modern society, so that an expressionistic art can appeal only to a circle of adepts who follow the lines of thought and feeling developed by a master. Symbolic art can still be applied successfully in the case of a few symbols that have fixed associations which are valid for all of us.

The wide distribution of symbolic forms and the remoteness of their resemblance to the objects they symbolize led us to a consideration of the question of their history. We examined particularly the theory that all artistic reproduction is by origin naturalistic and that geometrization grows up only when the artist tries to introduce ideas that are not inherent in the object itself. We saw that this theory cannot be maintained, because realistic representation and geometrization spring from distinctive sources. In plastic art the contrast between the two tendencies does not appear as clearly as in graphic art. In the former it is found more in surface treatment than in general outline. In graphic art the matter is complicated by the difficulties involved in representing a three-dimensional object on a two-dimensional surface, a problem which the artist has to solve. This may be done in one of two ways. Either a perspective representation of the object as it appears at a given moment may be attempted, or the artist may decide that the essential point is to show all its characteristic parts, no matter whether they are visible in a single view or not. The former method lays stress upon the accidental features, it is impressionistic; the latter stresses those elements that are felt to constitute the fundamental qualities of the object, it is expressionistic. The two methods which we called the symbolic and the perspective are absolutely distinct and the one cannot be developed from the other. We have also seen that the consistent application of the perspective method is reached only when we introduce also the principle of indistinctness of those points that are removed from the center of the field of vision and that of dependence of color upon environment. Both of these have been tried in our day, without having found general acceptance. The symbolic method is always more or less wavering in the application of its principle. Sometimes perspective correctness of outline is attempted with a considerable degree of freedom in regard to the detailed treatment of those symbols that are considered important. Of this character are the Egyptian paintings with their vacillation between front and side views. In other cases the realism of outline is entirely sacrificed and the form may be reduced to a mere assembly of symbols.

The theory has been advanced that geometric ornament developed through the degeneration of perspective designs; in part perhaps also through that of symbolic designs. It is assumed that the symbol, or the object represented was misunderstood and that in course of time through a process of slurring, by careless and inaccurate representation the forms became fragmentary and finally lost all semblance to the original. It is not possible to accept this theory, because the conditions under which the supposed slurring occurs are seldom realized. Slovenly work does not occur in an untouched primitive culture. Misunderstandings may happen in cases of borrowing of designs or in that of a gradual transformation of those concepts that find expression in decorative art. Actual slurring is found in factory production. By an examination of a few cases of this kind we were able to show that it does not lead to geometrization, but to the growth of an individualism akin to that of our handwriting. It cannot be denied that in such cases occasion for re-interpretation with consequent changes of form occur, but these are not frequent. On the other hand we were able to show that reading in of realistic meanings into geometric forms is quite common. We proved this by means of a detailed comparison of the style of painting and embroidery of the North American Plains Indians which we found to be practically identical everywhere, while the interpretations varied from tribe to tribe. This phenomenon agrees with the general tendency to keep intact the form, but to endow it with new meaning according to the chief cultural interests of the people. We pointed out the prevalence of the same tendency in folk-tales and ritual. As a general explanation the geometrization of realistic patterns is, therefore, unacceptable. In the majority of cases it seems to be rather due to the inclination of man to give a meaning to geometric form, as we enjoy reading meanings into the forms of clouds and mountains. We were also able to describe a few cases in which the process of reading in has actually been observed.

Another fact prevents us from considering geometrization as a general historical process. It is very seldom only that the steps are found so distributed that they can be proved to follow one another in time. Much oftener all are found at the same time among the same people.

Considering all these points we reached the conclusion that the stylistic form which contains to a greater or lesser extent constant geometrical elements, is decisive in determining the manner in which representations are rendered. We were thus led to the attempt to find the principles underlying art styles.

We approached this subject by the study of a few art forms. We compared a number of art styles that make use of the spiral and found in each characteristic traits, as well regarding the form of the spiral as in the handling of the decorative field. In the same way we observed that in the art of the North American Indians the same kind of triangles and rectangles are used by all the tribes, but that there exist typical differences in the treatment of the decorative field. The problem was carried through in some detail by means of a study of the decorative art of the North Pacific coast which is highly symbolic in character. This example taught us an additional point, namely that in symbolic art the selection of symbols is of decisive importance in defining the style and that the arrangement of the symbols is subject to the same formal treatment of the decorative field which control the arrangement of geometrical motives.

On the basis of this study we conclude that the particular types of geometrical motives that enter into the representative form, as well as the treatment of the decorative field determine the character of the design and that the degree of realism depends upon the relative importance of the geometric and representative elements. When the purely decorative tendency prevails we have essentially geometrical, highly conventionalized forms, when the idea of representation prevails, we have, on the contrary, more realistic forms. In every case, however, the formal element that characterizes the style, is older than the particular type of representation. This does not signify that early representations do not occur, it means that the method of representation was always controlled by formal elements of distinctive origin.

The pattern of artistic expression that emerges from a long, cumulative process determined by a multiplicity of causes fashions the form of the art work. We recognize the permanence of pattern in those cases in which a useful form that has lost its function persists as a decorative element; in the imitation in new materials of natural forms used at one time as utensils, and in the transfer of forms from one technique to another. The fixity of the pattern does not permit the artist to apply natural forms unmodified to decorative purposes. His imagination is limited by the pattern. In cases of greater freedom the representative value may not be seriously encroached upon. Such is the case for instance, with the oriental palmetto and the ear ornaments of the Marquesas Islands, on which in olden times two deities were represented, back to back, while nowadays two girls in a swing are carved, in exactly the same spacial arrangement. When the pattern is highly formal and not adapted to representation, an apparent geometrization may be the result. The distinction between these two aspects appears clearly in those cases in which pictography and symbolic geometric art appear side by side.

The art of the North Pacific coast proved also that we must not assume that the style of a tribe must always be uniform, but that it is quite possible that in different industries, particularly when carried along by different parts of the population, quite distinctive styles may prevail. The excellence and consistency of a style as well as the multiplicity of forms depend upon the perfection of technique. We found, therefore, that in those cases in which technical work is done by the men alone, they are the creative artists, that when the women do a great deal of technical work they are no less productive, and that when the two sexes carry on different industries they may develop distinctive styles. It is, however, more frequent that the style of a dominant industry may be imposed upon work made by other processes. Weaving in coarse material seemed to be a most fertile source of patterns that are imitated in paintings, carvings, and pottery.

A comparison of the fundamental elements that are found in the graphic and plastic arts,—in the arts of space,—as contrasted with those of poetry, music, and dance,—the arts of time,—brings out certain differences and similarities. Common to both are rhythm, and it seems likely that the rhythm of technique is merely a spacial expression of the rhythm of time, in so far as the rhythmic movements result in rhythmic forms when applied to technical pursuits. We may perhaps also speak in both types of art of attempts to emphasize closed forms, for often we find musical phrases, and single ideas in poetry closed by what might be called a decorative end, consisting of burdens or of codas. Similar elements may also appear as introductions in the beginning. Completely lacking in the pure arts of time is symmetry, because an inverted time order does not convey the impression of symmetry, as is the case in the arts of space. It occurs only in a symmetrical arrangement of phrases. Dance contains elements of both the spacial and time arts. Therefore, the principles of the former may be clearly observed in dance forms. Rhythmic movements and rhythmic spacial order, symmetry of position and of movement, and emphasis and balance of form are essential in esthetic dance forms.

The graphic and plastic arts owe much of their emotional value to the representative and symbolic values of form. This is no less true in literature, music and dance. Narrative and poetry so far as they contain intelligible words, always have a meaning which may have a deep significance because they touch upon those aspects of life that stir the emotions. Frequently there is an added meaning, when the words have a symbolic, ulterior significance related to religious beliefs or philosophical ideas. In music and dance also symbolic significance is often attached to form.

* * * * *

We are at the end of our considerations, but one question remains to be answered. We have seen that the desire for artistic expression is universal. We may even say that the mass of the population in primitive society feels the need of beautifying their lives more keenly than civilized man, at least more than those whose lives are spent under the urgent necessity of acquiring the meagre means of sustenance. But among others also the desire for comfort has often superseded the desire for beauty. Among primitive people the καλὸν κἀγαθόν coincide. Goodness and beauty are the same. Do they then possess the same keenness of esthetic appreciation that is found at least in part of our population? I believe we may safely say that in the narrow field of art that is characteristic of each people the enjoyment of beauty is quite the same as among ourselves: intense among a few, slight among the mass. The readiness to abandon one’s self to the exaltation induced by art, is probably greater, because the conventional restraint of our times does not exist in the same forms in their lives. What distinguishes modern esthetic feeling from that of primitive people is the manifold character of its manifestations. We are not so much bound by a fixed style. The complexity of our social structure and our more varied interests allow us to see beauties that are closed to the senses of people living in a narrower culture. It is the quality of their experience, not a difference in mental make-up that determines the difference between modern and primitive art production and art appreciation.

TEXT FIGURES

Page

Fig. 1. Front of painted box, Tlingit, Alaska
(A. M. N. H. 19/1074) 18

” 2. Jar from Zuni (A. M. N. H. 50.1/3333) 19

” 3. Coiled basketry 20

” 4. Twined basketry (From G. T. Emmons, Basketry of the Tlingit,
Memoirs A. M. N. H., Vol. 3, fig. 294, p. 240) 20

” 5. Chipped flint implements; _a_, American Indian, A. M. N. H.
T 18542; _b_, Egypt, A. M. N. H. 75.0/820 21

” 6. Part of surface of wooden sail, Kwakiutl Indians, Vancouver
Island (A. M. N. H. 16.1/1744) 23

” 7. Painted board, Tierra del Fuego (After Wilhelm Koppers,
Unter Feuerland-Indianern, fig. 6, p. 48) 23

” 8. Bushman designs; to the left, designs from ostrich eggs
(After Felix von Luschan, Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, Vol.
55, pp. 32, 33, 37); to the right above (From Leonhard
Schultze, Aus Namaland und Kalahari, p. 672); to the right
below, bracelet made of horn (After E. von Sydow, Die Kunst
der Naturvölker und der Vorzeit, p. 158) 23

” 9. Kaffer headrests (After Henrik P. M. Muller and John F.
Snelleman, L’Industrie des Caffres, Pl. XIV, figs. 4 and 5) 23

” 10. Paddle and shield, New Ireland (A. M. N. H. S 2266,
S 1409) 25

” 11. Plan of rawhide box, Sauk and Fox Indians 26

” 12. Rawhide box, Sauk and Fox Indians 26

” 13. Design on rawhide for a box, Sauk and Fox Indians
(A. M. N. H. 50/3594) 27

” 14. Design on rawhide for a box, Sauk and Fox Indians
(A. M. N. H. 50/3596) 27

” 15. _a_, Design on rawhide for a box, Sauk and Fox Indians,
Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, 30740; _b_, Design
on rawhide for a box, Sauk and Fox Indians
(A. M. N. H. 50/2284) 28

” 16. Fringe from legging, Thompson Indians (From James Teit, The
Thompson Indians, Publications of the Jesup North Pacific
Expedition, Vol. I, fig. 313, p. 384) 29

” 17. Twilled weaving showing alternation of patterns
(A. M N. H. 16/8191) 30

” 18. Carving on bow of Bella Bella canoe, British Columbia
(A. M. N. H.) 30

” 19. Rattle used in twin ceremonial. Kwakiutl Indians,
British Columbia (A. M. N. H. 16/8282) 31

” 20. Base of flint knife, Scandinavia (After Sophus Müller,
Nordische Altertumskunde, fig. 97, p. 190) 31

” 21. Face painting, Tierra del Fuego (After Wilhelm Koppers,
Unter Feuerland-Indianern, Pl. V) 32

” 22. Australian shields (A. M. N. H. S 3957, S 421) 33

” 23. Paleolithic paintings (After Hugo Obermaier, Fossil Man
in Spain, fig. 104, p. 234) 33

” 24. Patterns from bamboo combs (After Vaughn Stevens,
Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, Vol. XXV, Pl. I) 35

” 25. Designs from bamboo spear, New Guinea (Museum für
Völkerkunde, Hamburg. After Ernst Fuhrmann, Neu Guinea,
p. 114) 35

” 26. Etruscan vase (After M. Ebert, Reallexikon der
Vorgeschichte, Vol. III, Pl. XXVIII c, p. 140) 35

” 27. Peruvian designs (After Inca, Vol. I, fig. 32, p. 230) 35

” 28. Painted rawhide bags, Shuswap, British Columbia (From James
Teit, The Shuswap, Publications of the Jesup North Pacific
Expedition, Vol. II, fig. 220, p. 498) 36

” 29. Designs of the Dayak (After Alois Raimund Hein, Die
bildenden Künste bei den Dayaks auf Borneo, Pl. IV, fig. 6;
Pl. V, fig. 1) 37

” 30. Carved board, Kaiserin Augusta Fluss, New Guinea (Museum für
Völkerkunde, Hamburg. After E. Fuhrmann, Neu Guinea, p. 112).
The two reversed spiral elements are indicated by dark and
light shading. 36

” 31. _a_, Designs from pottery of ancient Pueblos (After J. Walter
Fewkes, An Archaeological Collection from Youngs Canyon near
Flagstaff, Arizona, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collection,
Vol. 77, No. 10, Pl. 4_e_).

_b_, Designs from pottery of ancient Pueblos (After J. Walter
Fewkes, Designs on Prehistoric Pottery from Mimbres Valley,
New Mexico, _Ibid._ Vol. 74, No. 6, fig. 36, p. 33) 37

” 32. Bronze ornament, Sweden, 7th Century A. D. (After E. von
Sydow, Die Kunst der Naturvölker und der Vorzeit,
p. 480) 38

” 33. Design from Peruvian textile (After Walter Lehmann,
Kunstgeschichte des alten Peru, Pl. 4, p. 20) 38

” 34. Designs from Peruvian textile (_Ibid._ Pl. 3, p. 16) 39

” 35. Pot of coiled pottery, prehistoric Pueblo Indians
(A. M. N. H.) 40

” 36. Necklace of Thompson Indians (After Gladys A. Reichard,
American Anthropologist, Vol. XXIV, 1922, p. 188) 41

” 37. _a_, Koryak embroidery (From W. Jochelson, The Koryak,
Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Vol. VI, fig. 206,
p. 690). _b_,Koryak embroidery (_Ibid._ fig. 210, p. 693) 43

” 38. _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, Koryak embroideries (_Ibid._ figs.
211-215, p. 693-696) 45

” 39. Peruvian embroidery from Ica (A. M. N. H.) 47

” 40. Peruvian fabric (The Necropolis of Ancon, W. Reiss and A.
Stübel, Vol. II, Pl. 67 _b_, fig. 3) 49

” 41. Peruvian fabric (_Ibid._ Pl. 67, fig. 6) 49

” 42. Peruvian fabric (_Ibid._ Pl. 48, fig. 2) 50

” 43. Peruvian fabric (_Ibid._ Pl. 61) 50

” 44. Peruvian fabric (_Ibid._ Pl. 66 _a_, fig. 1) 51

” 45. Peruvian fabric (_Ibid._ Pl. 68 _a_, fig. 3) 51

” 46. Peruvian fabric (_Ibid._ Pl. 66, fig. 3) 51

” 47. Patterns from Mexican Codex (Codex Nuttall) 53

” 48. _a_, Pottery vessel from Finland (After M. Ebert,
Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte, Vol. III, Pl. 125 _k_).
_b_, Pottery vessel, Ica, Peru, A. M. N. H. 55

” 49. _a_, _b_, Birchbark vessels from the Amur River (From
Berthold Laufer, The Decorative Art of the Amur Tribes, Jesup
North Pacific Expedition, Vol. IV, Pl. 20). _c_, Birchbark
basket, Shuswap, British Columbia. _d_, _e_, Bark buckets,
Alaska (_c_, _d_, _e_, from James Teit, The Shuswap, Jesup
North Pacific Expedition, Vol. II, figs. 205, 207). 56

” 50. _a_, _b_, Pottery vessels, Chiriqui, Costa Rica (After G. G.
MacCurdy, A Study of Chiriquian Antiquities, Memoirs of the
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. III [1911],
figs. 92, 85). _c_, Fort Colburne, Ontario (After 31st. Ann.
Archaeological Report, Ontario, 1919, p. 83). 57

” 51. _a_, Part of soapstone kettle; _b_, _c_, _d_, Ivory combs,
Eskimo (From F. Boas, The Eskimo of Baffinland and Hudson
Bay, Bull. A. M. N. H. Vol. XV, 1907, figs. 215, 254) 58

” 52. Wood carving, Bambala, Congo (After Torday and Joyce, Notes
ethnographiques sur les peuples communément appelés Bakuba,
etc. Les Bushongo, Documents ethnographiques concernant les
populations du Congo Belge, Vol. II, Pl. 25, fig. 7) 59

” 53. Pottery vessel, Molkenberg type, Megalithic period (After M.
Ebert, Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte, Vol. III, Pl. 11, p.
84) 60

” 54. Pouch, Arapaho (From A. L. Kroeber, The Arapaho, Bull. A. M.
N. H. Vol. XVIII, fig. 23 _c_, p. 89) 60

” 55. Embroidered Moccasin, Apache, A. M. N. H. 50/8622 _b_ 60

” 56. _a_, _b_, _c_, Birchbark vessels, eastern Indians (From
James Teit, The Shuswap, Vol. II, fig. 214). _d_, Birchbark
vessels, Koryak (From W. Jochelson, The Koryak, Jesup North
Pacific Expedition, Vol. VI, fig. 192 _c_, p. 675). 61

” 57. Pottery vessel, Arkansas (After W. H. Holmes, Aboriginal
Pottery of the eastern United States, 20th Annual Report
Bureau of American Ethnology, Pl. XXV) 61

” 58. Imbricated basket, Chilcotin, British Columbia (After James
Teit, The Shuswap, Vol. II, fig. 268, p. 772) 62

” 59. _a_, Embroidery, Huichol Indians, Mexico (From Carl Lumholtz,
Decorative Art of the Huichol Indians, Memoirs A. M. N. H.,
Vol. III, Part 3, fig. 430, p. 303) 65

_b_, Symbolism of the Huichol Indian, _Ibid._ Part. 1, fig.
92, p. 92 66

” 60. Decorated fishskin garment, Amur River (After Berthold
Laufer, The Decorative Art of the Amur Tribes, Jesup North
Pacific Expedition, Vol. IV, Pl. 30) 66

” 61. Upper row, pictographs of Ojibwa Indians; lower row,
pictographs of Dakota Indians (From Garrick Mallery, Picture
Writing of American Indians, 10th Annual Report Bureau of
American Ethnology, figs. 168 and 184 et seq.) 67

” 62. Mexican painting from Codex Borbonicus (After Eduard Seler,
Gesammelte Abhandlungen, Vol. IV, p. 139) 68

” 63. _a_, Carved figure, Philippine Islands (After E. von Sydow,
Die Kunst der Naturvölker und der Vorzeit, p. 273). _b_,
Marble figure representing harpist (After Helmuth Th.
Bossert, Altkreta, fig. 17 _b_.) 69

” 64. Wooden mask, Urua, Congo (After Herbert Kühn, Die Kunst der
Primitiven, Pl. XXIX) 70

” 65. Carved board, Papua Gulf, New Guinea (After Herbert Kühn, Die
Kunst der Primitiven, Pl. LIV) 70

” 66. Egyptian painting (After Heinrich Schäfer, Von Ägyptischer
Kunst fig. 200, p. 257) 71

” 67. Haida drawing representing eagle carrying away a woman;
original by Charles Edensaw 71

” 68. Egyptian drawings, _a_, Bowl and pitcher; _b_, Sleeping
person covered by blanket (After Heinrich Schäfer, Von
Ägyptischer Kunst, p. 111) 75

” 69. Eskimo etching on walrus tusk, Alaska
(A. M. N. H. 60/239) 76

” 70. Bushman rock paintings (After Moszeik, Die Malereien der
Buschmänner in Südafrika, Pl. I, fig. 236) 76

” 71. Paleolithic painting representing bison (After Hugo
Obermaier, Fossil Man in Spain, Pl. I) 77

” 72. Hat of the Nootka Indians (After Handbook of the Ethnographic
collections, British Museum, fig. 235, p. 256) 78

” 73. Koryak carvings (From W. Jochelson, The Koryak, Jesup North
Pacific Expedition, Vol. 6, figs. 170, 172, 175) 79

” 74. Bronze casting, Benin (After Felix von Luschan, Alterthümer
von Benin, Pl. LI) 81

” 75. Headmask, Cross River, Cameroon (After Ernst Vatter,
Religiöse Plastik der Naturvölker, 1926, fig. 57) 82

” 76. Terra cotta head from Ife, Yoruba country (After Herbert
Kühn, Die Kunst der Primitiven, p. 92) 82

” 77. Pottery head from Arkansas (After W. H. Holmes, Aboriginal
Pottery of the eastern United States, 20th Annual Report
Bureau of American Ethnology, Pl. XXX) 85

” 78. Ivory and bone carvings, and tattooing of eastern Eskimo
(From F. Boas, Eskimo of Baffinland and Hudson Bay, Bulletin
A. M. N. H. Vol, XV. figs. 257, 258, 268). 86

” 79. Ornaments of the Auetö, Brazil (After Karl von den Steinen,
Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral Brasiliens, Pl. XXII). 89

” 80. Ornaments of the Karayá (After Paul Ehrenreich, Die
Karayástämme am Rio Araguaya (Goyaz); Veröffentlichungen aus
dem Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. Vol. II, fig. 11, p. 25).
89

” 81. Basketry patterns from British Guyana, _a_, snake pursuing
frog; _b_, man; _c._, dog; _d-f_, wild nutmeg (From Walter
Edmond Roth, An Introductory Study of the arts, crafts, and
customs of the Guyana Indians, 38th Annual Report Bureau of
American Ethnology, figs. 168, 178). 90

” 82. Basketry patterns from British Guyana; _a_, centiped; _b_,
savannah grass; _c-f_, periwinkles; _g_, butterflies; _h-j_,
snakes, _Ibid._ fig. 169. 91

” 83. Designs of the Cheyenne Indians (After Paul Ehrenreich,
Ethnologisches Notizblatt, Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 27-29, 1899).
92

” 84. Moccasin, Arapaho (After A. L. Kroeber, The Arapaho, Bulletin
A. M. N. H. Vol. XVIII, fig. 5_b_, p. 39). 94

” 85. Knife case, Arapaho (_Ibid._ fig. 22, p. 88). 94

” 86. Legging, Sioux Indians (After Clark Wissler, Decorative Art
of the Sioux Indians, Bulletin A. M. N. H. Vol. XVIII, Pl.
LI, fig. 5). 95

” 87. Drum of the Assiniboine (From Robert H. Lowie, The
Assiniboine, Vol. IV, Anthropological Papers A. M. N. H. fig.
11, p. 27). 96

” 88. Rawhide bag, Arapaho (After A. L. Kroeber, The Arapaho,
Bulletin A. M. N. H. Vol. XVIII, fig. 33, p. 115). 97

” 89. Design from parfleche, Shoshone (A. M. N. H. 50/2299). 97

” 90. Bamboo case from Friedrich-Wilhelm Hafen, New Guinea, (After
Emil Stephan, Südseekunst, p. 101). 98

” 91. Zuni bowl, broken and edges ground down, (private
property). 98

” 92. Ceremonial object, Huichol Indians, Mexico (From Karl
Lumholtz, Symbolism of the Huichol Indians, Memoirs A. M. N.
H. Vol III, fig. 133, p. 125) 99

” 93. Woven ceremonial object, Huichol Indians, Mexico (From Karl
Lumholtz, Symbolism of the Huichol Indians, _Ibid._ fig. 173,
p. 146). 101

” 94. Design from a pouch, Huichol Indians (From Karl Lumholtz,
Decorative art of the Huichol Indians, Memoirs A. M. N. H.
Vol. III, Pt. 3, fig. 527, p. 325). 101

” 95. Tattooed designs, Marquesas (After Karl von den Steinen, Die
Marquesaner und ihre Kunst, _a_, fig. 103, p. 155; _b_, fig.
101, p. 154; _c_, fig. 99, p. 152; _d_, fig. 100, p. 153;
_e_, fig. 112, p. 163). 101

” 96. Patterns representing the star, Arapaho (After A. L. Kroeber,
Decorative art of the Arapaho, Bulletin A. M. N. H. Vol.
XVIII). 103

” 97. Patterns representing persons (_Ibid._). 104

” 98. Patterns representing butterfly (_Ibid._). 104

” 99. Designs from Neu-Mecklenburg, _a_, Carved bamboo; _b_,
embroidered mat (After Emil Stephan and Fritz Gräbner,
Neu-Mecklenburg, _a_, fig. 120, p. 114; _b._ Pl. I, fig. 3).
104

” 100. Embroidered knife sheath, Arapaho (From A. L. Kroeber,
Decorative art of the Arapaho, Bulletin A. M. N. H. Vol.
XVIII, Pl. 13, fig. 5). 107

” 101. Painted board, Neu-Mecklenburg (After Emil Stephan and Fritz
Gräbner, Neu-Mecklenburg, Pl. IX, fig. 8). 107

” 102. Decorated paddle, Neu-Mecklenburg (_Ibid._ Pl. VI,
fig. 3 b). 107

” 103. Blanket of mountain-goat wool, Tlingit, Alaska (From G. T.
Emmons, The Chilkat Blanket, Memoirs A. M. N. H. Vol. III,
fig. 567, p. 377). 108

” 104. Basketry patterns of the Pomo Indians, California (After
S. A. Barrett, Pomo Indian Basketry, Univ. California
Publications, Vol. 7, No. 3. pp. 180, 182, 187, 190, 204,
232). 109

” 105. Drawn work, Mexico (From Journal of American Folk-lore,
Vol. 33, 1920, p. 73). 110

” 106. Designs of the Ruanda (After Jan Czekanowski,
Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Deutschen Zentral-Afrika
Expedition, 1907-1908, Vol. VI, Part 1, p. 330). 111

” 107. Designs of the Pangwe (After Günther Tessmann, Die Pangwe,
Berlin 1913, Vol. I, fig. 211, p. 254). 112

” 108. Designs of the Bushongo (After E. Torday and T. A. Joyce,
Les Bushongo, Documents ethnographiques concernant les
populations du Congo Belge, figs. 322, 323, 219, 330). 113

” 109. Feet of flat pottery dishes, Chiriqui, Costa Rica (After
G. G. MacCurdy, A Study of Chiriquian Antiquities, Mem.
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. III [1911],
figs. 140, 141, 139, 135). 114

” 110. Polynesian ornaments (After Charles H. Read, Journal of
the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland,
Vol. 21 [1892] Pl. 12). 115

” 111. Crocodile arrows, New Guinea (After A. C. Haddon, The
Decorative Art of British New Guinea, Cunningham Memoir,
Royal Irish Academy, X [1894] fig. 19). 115

” 112. Designs representing frigate bird and crocodile (_Ibid._
Pl. XII). 116

” 113. Facial urns (After M. Ebert, Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte,
Vol. IV, Pl. 116). 117

” 114. Armadillo designs, Chiriqui (After G. G. MacCurdy, _l. c._
figs. 77, 78) 117

” 115. Designs of the Bushongo representing the head of the
antelope and the beetle (From E. Torday and T. A. Joyce,
Notes ethnographiques sur les peuples communément appelés
Bakuba etc. Les Bushongo, Documents ethnographiques
concernant les populations du Congo Belge, p. 211). 117

” 116. Design representing the buffalo, Arapaho (From A. L.
Kroeber, Decorative Art of the Arapaho, Bulletin
A. M. N. H. Vol. XIII, p. 85). 119

” 117. Designs of North American Indians; the first nine, Arapaho
(After A. L. Kroeber, Decorative Art of the Arapaho,
Bulletin A. M. N. H. Vol. XVIII); the next six, Eastern
Algonquin (After Frank G. Speck, The Double Curve Motive
of Northeastern Algonkian Art, Geological Survey of Canada,
Anthropological Series No. 1); the last line; first,
Hopi; then archaeological specimens, Pueblo region. 120

” 118. Triangular design, prehistoric Pueblo (After J. W. Fewkes,
Preliminary Account of an Expedition to the Pueblo Ruins
near Winslow, Arizona, Smithsonian Report for 1896, Pl. 34).
121

” 119. Alaskan needle cases (After F. Boas, Decorative Designs
of Alaskan Needle Cases, Proceedings United States
National Museum, Vol. 34, p. 321 et seq., 1908). 125

” 120. Reels of Alaskan Eskimo (United States National Museum,
numbers from above downwards, 44 994, 33 095, 38 276, 33 267,
45 110). 126

” 121. Eye shades and vessel, Ammassalik (After W. Thalbitzer,
The Ammassalik Eskimo, Meddelelser om Grønland, Vol. XXXIX,
fig. 278, and after Hjalmar Stolpe, On Evolution in the
Ornamental Art of Savage Peoples, figs. 22, 24, p. 80). 127

” 122. Designs from vessels made of tree calabashes, Oaxaca,
(Private collection). 131

” 123. Fragments of pottery vessels, Texcoco, D. F., Mexico. 132

” 124. Designs from pottery vessels, Culhuacan, D. F., Mexico. 132

” 125. Designs from pottery vessels, Culhuacan, D. F., Mexico. 133

” 126. Designs from pottery vessels, Culhuacan, D. F., Mexico. 135

” 127. Designs from pottery vessels, Culhuacan, D. F., Mexico. 135

” 128. Designs from pottery vessels, Culhuacan, D. F., Mexico. 135

” 129. Alligator designs from Chiriqui pottery (A. M. N. H.
30.0/1881; 7608; 5760; 1098; 5727). 137

” 130. Chinese embroidery representing bats (After A. H. Balfour,
The Evolution of Decorative Art, fig. 18, p. 50). 141

” 131. Shell with representation of rattle snake (After W. H.
Holmes, Art in Shell, 2nd Annual Rep. Bureau of Ethnology,
Pl. 62, 2; Pl. 65, 2, 4, 6; Pl. 66, 2). 142

” 132. Throwing sticks of the Eskimo (_a_, Greenland, _b_,
Ungava Bay, _c_, Cumberland Sound, _d_, Point Barrow, _e_,
Alaska (exact location doubtful), _f_, Cape Nome) (After
Otis T. Mason, Throwing Sticks in the United States National
Museum, Annual Report U. S. Nat. Mus., 1884, p. 279 et
seq.) 145

” 133. Pile cloth, Congo (From Torday and Joyce, Notes
ethnographiques sur les peuples communément appelés Bakuba
etc. Les Bushongo, Documents ethnographiques concernant
les populations du Congo Belge, Vol. II, Pl. XVI, figs. 2
and 4) 154

” 134. Haida painting representing a sea-monster in the form of
a wolf, carrying two whales 159

” 135. Haida drawing representing the story of a young man who
caught a sea-monster 159

” 136. Haida drawing representing part of the raven story 160

” 137. Types of New Zealand spirals 161

” 138. Types of spirals from eastern New Guinea (From E. Fuhrmann,
New Guinea, p. 108) 163

” 139. Spirals from the Amur River (From Berthold Laufer, The
Decorative Art of the Amur Tribes, Jesup North Pacific
Expedition, Vol. IV, Pl. 20, figs. 3 and 4) 163

” 140. Pictographs representing human beings, _a_, Wahpeton Sioux
(After Skinner, Indian Notes and Monographs, Museum of the
American Indian, Heye Foundation, Vol. 4, Pl. 23); _b_,
Menomenee (After Skinner, Anthropological Papers, A. M. N. H.
Vol. 13, fig. 30, p. 159); _c_, Blackfoot (After Clark
Wissler, _ibid._ Vol. 7, fig. 3. p. 40); _d_, Dakota (After
Garrick Mallery, Pictographs of North American Indians);
_e_, Alaskan Eskimo (After W. J. Hoffmann, Graphic Art of
the Eskimo, Report of the United States National Museum,
1895, Pl. 63); _f_, Pencil sketches by Eskimo from the west
coast of Hudson Bay 164

” 141. _a_, _b_, _c_, Pictographs from the Cueva de los Caballos,
_d_, Pictograph of Bushmen (After Obermaier and Wernert)
165

” 142. Zuni pot (After C. F. Lummis, Mesa, Canyon and Pueblo,
p. 369) 167

” 143. Haussa embroideries; (_a_, After Lepage, La décoration
primitive; _b_, _c_, _d_. After Felix von Luschan, Beiträge
zur Völkerkunde der deutschen Kolonien, p. 50) 168

” 144. Painted rawhides, Sauk and Fox (A M. N. H., _a_, 50/3597;
_b_, 50/2285) 170

” 145. Painted rawhides, Sauk and Fox (A. M. N. H. _a_, 50/5212;
_b_, 50/3595) 171

” 146. Painted rawhides, Sauk and Fox (A. M. N. H. _a_, 50/2282;
_b_, 50/3630) 172

” 147. Painted rawhide, Ioway (Public Museum City of Milwaukee,
30607) 173

” 148. _a_, Painted rawhide, Ioway (Public Museum City of
Milwaukee, 30609); _b_, Painted rawhide, Otoe (Public Museum
City of Milwaukee, 30677) 174

” 149. Design from pouch, Ojibwa, (A. M. N. H. 50/4596) 175

” 150. Design from two sides of pouch, Potawatomi, (A. M. N. H.
50.1/7092). 175

” 151. Types of parfleche and pouch painting, _a_, Arapaho
(A. M. N. H.), 176
_b_, _c_, Shoshone (A. M. N. H. 50/2294, 2432). 177

” 152. Arapaho designs (From A. L. Kroeber, The Arapaho, Bull.
A. M. N. H. vol. 18.) _a_, Moccasin, Pl. 2, fig. 5; _b_,
Toilet bag, fig. 28; _c_, Small pouch, Pl. 4, fig. 2;
_d_, Small pouch, Pl. 4, fig. 11; _e_, Knife scabbard,
Pl. 2, fig. 13; _f_, Knife scabbard, fig. 22; _g_,
Woman’s leggings, Pl. 3, fig. 5; _h_, Woman’s leggings,
fig. 6; _i_, Small pouch, fig. 23; _j_, Small pouch, Pl.
7, fig. 14; _k_, Moccasin, Pl. 3, fig. 2; _l_, Woman’s
leggings, Pl. 4, fig. 5; _m_, Toilet bag, fig. 25; _n_,
Toilet bag, fig. 27; _o_, Woman’s leggings, Pl. 2, fig.
5; _p_, Pouch, Pl. 3, fig. 12; _q_, Pouch, Pl. 4, fig.
12; _r_, Moccasin, Pl. 2, fig. 2; _s_, Woman’s work bag,
Pl. 2, fig. 15; _t_, Scabbard, Pl. 5, fig. 13. 178

” 153. Sioux designs (From Clark Wissler, Decorative Art of the
Sioux Indians, Bull. A. M. N. H., Vol. 18.) _a_, Moccasin,
fig. 98; _b_, Knife scabbard, Pl. 4, fig. 49; _c_, Small
pouch, Pl. 3, fig. 41; _d_, Pipe bag, Pl. 2, fig. 47; _e_,
Pipe bag, Pl. 2, fig. 42; _f_, Pipe bag, Pl. 3, fig. 42;
_g_, Cradle, fig. 42; _h_, Pipe bag, Pl. 1, fig. 42; _i_,
Small pouch, Pl. 4, fig. 41; _j_, Pipe bag, Pl. 1, fig.
47; _k_, Pipe bag, Pl. 3, fig. 43; _l_, Pipe bag, fig.
99; _m_, Woman’s leggings, fig. 74; _n_, Cradle, fig.
73; _o_, Small pouch, Pl. 1, fig. 41; _p_, Woman’s leggings,
Pl. 2, fig. 51; _q_, Woman’s leggings, Pl. 5, fig. 51;
_r_, Small pouch, Pl. 2, fig. 41; _s_, Pipe bag, Pl. 1,
fig. 43; _t_, Pipe bag, Pl. 4, fig. 47; _u_, Scabbard,
Pl. 2, fig. 49; _v_, Small pouch, Pl. 3, fig. 50; _w_,
Knife scabbard, Pl. 6, fig. 49; _x_, Pipe bag, Pl. 3,
fig. 47; _y_, Small pouch, Pl. 5, fig. 40; _z_, Pipe bag,
fig. 100; _z^1_, Pipe bag, Pl. 2, fig. 43. 179

” 154. Tlingit helmet (A. M. N. H. E/3453). 184

” 155. Mask representing dying warrior, Tlingit (A. M. N. H.
E/2501). 184

” 156. Carved head used in ceremonial, Kwakiutl Indians, Museum für
Völkerkunde, Berlin. 185

” 157. Carvings representing the beaver from models of Haida
totem poles carved in slate (A. M. N. H. 16/556, 16/551).
186

” 158. Carving from handle of spoon representing beaver, Tlingit
(A. M. N. H. 19/1129). 186

” 159. Headdress representing beaver; a dragon-fly is shown on
the chest of the beaver, Haida (A. M. N. H. 16/245). 186

” 160. Painting for a house-front placed over the door,
representing the beaver, Kwakiutl Indians. 188

” 161. Halibut hook with design representing a sculpin
swallowing a fish, Tlingit (A. M. N. H. E/1251). 188

” 162. Part of a totem pole with a design representing a
sculpin, Tsimshian (A. M. N. H. 16/567) 188

” 163. Woolen legging with appliqué designs representing
sculpin, Haida (A. M. N. H. 16/328) 189

” 164. Facial painting representing the sculpin 191

” 165. Headdress representing a hawk, Tsimshian (A. M. N. H.
16/252) 191

” 166. Handle of a spoon made of mountain-goat horn; lowest
figure representing a hawk; upper figure representing a
man holding a dragon-fly, probably Tsimshian (A. M. N. H.
16/105) 191

” 167. Rattle with design of a hawk, Tlingit (A. M. N. H.
E/1371) 191

” 168. Dish made of horn of big-horn-sheep, Tlingit. (A. M. N. H.
19/696) 191

” 169. Facial painting representing hawk 191

” 170. Headdress representing an eagle bearing a frog on its
chest, Tsimshian (A. M. N. H. 16/249) 191

” 171. Housepost representing eagle above, cormorant below,
Haida (A. M. N. H. 16/3686) 192

” 172. Painting on paddle representing hawk, Kwakiutl 193

” 173. Painting on back and one end of a settee representing man
and hawk, Kwakiutl 193

” 174. Handle of spoon of mountain-goat horn representing
dragon-fly, Tlingit (A. M. N. H. E/280) 193

” 175. Berry spoon with engraving representing dragon-fly (from
J. R. Swanton, The Haida Indians, Jesup North Pacific
Expedition, Vol. V, fig. 24 _b_, p. 148) 193

” 176. _a_—_e_, Carvings from handles of spoons of
mountain-goat horn representing killer-whale, Tlingit
(A. M. N. H.) 195

” 177. Rattle representing killer-whale, Haida (A. M. N. H.
16/304) 195

” 178. Wooden float representing killer-whale, Haida (A. M. N. H.
16/8471) 195

” 179. Masks and dishes representing the killer-whale, Kwakiutl,
A. M. N. H. (from F. Boas, The Kwakiutl Indians, Jesup
North Pacific Expedition, Vol. V) 196

” 180. Helmet representing the killer-whale, Tlingit, Museum of
Academy of Sciences, Leningrad 196

” 181. Carvings from the handles of spoons of mountain-goat horn
representing the bear (A. M. N. H.) 196

” 182. Berry spoons representing bear (U. S. National Museum);
_a_, Tsimshian, 16253; _b_, Tsimshian, 16254; _c_,
Tlingit, 20820; _d_, berry spoon (U. S. Nat. Mus.,
20825) 197

” 183. Carving representing a sea-monster, Tlingit (A. M. N. H.
19/377) 199

” 184. Carvings from handles of spoons made of mountain-goat
horn representing a sea-monster (A. M. N. H.) 199

” 185. Part of totem pole carved in slate representing shark
surmounted by an eagle, Haida (A. M. N. H. 16/1161) 199

” 186. Handle of a dagger representing the head of a shark,
Tlingit (A. M. N. H. E/2037) 199