Chapter II: , § 2

106 The opinion mentioned above in the text is that of the believers in
over-production, of whom the most distinguished are Mr. Malthus, Dr.
Chalmers, and Sismondi.

107 Page 371, English translation, N. Y. (1871).

108 Edward Atkinson, “Labor and Capital, Allies not Enemies,” p. 60.

109 Cf. Bowen, “American Political Economy,” p. 399.

110 The functions of money are discussed later in the volume, and it is
not proposed to unfold them here.

111 See, for the argument that machinery necessarily injures labor,
“Land and Labor,” William Godwin Moody (1883); and for the answer,
“North American Review,” May, 1884, p. 510.

112 Edward Atkinson, “Labor and Capital, Allies not Enemies,” p. 33.

113 See book iv, chap. iv.

114 See Mr. Babbage’s “Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.”

115 Book i, chap. iv, § 6.

116 Constant use of the same muscles, as by gold-beaters or writers,
very often produces paralysis.

117 Hearn’s “Plutology,” p. 279.

118 Cairnes, “Leading Principles,” pp. 299, 300.

119 “American Political Economy,” p. 134. See also an article,
“Malthusianism, Darwinism, and Pessimism,” “North American Review,”
November, 1879.

120 See Cairnes, “Logical Method,” pp. 170-177.

121 See also Walker’s “Wages Question,” chap. vi, and Roscher,
“Political Economy,” book v, chaps. i, ii, iii.

122 See Galton’s “Hereditary Genius,” p. 131-135.

123 See also Edward Jarvis, “Atlantic Monthly,” 1872, and F. A. Walker,
“Social Science Journal,” vol. v, 1873, p. 71. For other literature,
see “Sketch of the History of Political Economy,” p. 16.

124 This is the “preventive check” of Mr. Malthus, while the limitation
through war, starvation, etc., is the “positive check.”

125 This is fully confirmed by the inaugural address of Mr. Giffen as
President of the London Statistical Society, November 20, 1883,
_infra_, book iv, chap. v, § 1. (See the London “Statistical
Journal,” 1883.)

126 See Lavergne’s “Agriculture et Population,” pp. 305-316.

127 For tables of relative births and deaths, see “Statesman’s
Year-Book,” p. 253.

128 This and the subsequent quotations are taken by Mr. Mill from Rae’s
“New Principles of Political Economy.”

129 “International Review,” article “Colonization,” 1881, p. 88. See H.
V. Redfield, “Homicide North and South,” 1880.

130 “Letters from America,” by John Robert Godley, vol. i. p. 42. See
also Lyell’s “Travels in America,” vol. ii, p. 83.—Mill.

131 Cf. “American Agriculture,” “Princeton Review,” May, 1882, by F. A.
Walker.

132 “Social Science,” vol. iii, p. 19.

133 “Notes on North America,” 1851, vol. ii, pp. 116, 117.

134 See also Cairnes, “Logical Method,” p. 35.

135 I am indebted to Mr. Atkinson for advanced proofs of the annexed
charts. See his paper in the “Journal of the American Agricultural
Association,” vol. i, Nos. 3 and 4, p. 154, and a later discussion
in the supplement of the Boston “Manufacturers’ Gazette,” August 9,
1884, entitled “The Railway, the Farmer, and the Public.” His
figures are drawn mainly from Poor’s “Railway Manual.”

136 Cf. Book IV, Chap. I.

137 “Economy of Manufactures,” pp. 163, 164.

138 Cf. Book IV, Chap. I, § 4.

139 “The Coal Question” (1866).

140 Henry George, as well as the Socialists, thinks poverty arises from
the injustice of society, and here takes issue with the present
teaching. But the question can be better discussed under
Distribution.

141 Henry Gannet, “International Review,” 1882, p. 503.

142 Volume on Population, p. 481.

143 Estimated.

144 See article “Colonization,” “International Review,” 1881, p. 88.

145 See F. A. Walker’s “Statistical Atlas.”

146 For a further discussion of the difference between the motive powers
under private property and under Communism, see Mr. Mill’s
posthumous “Chapters on Socialism,” “Fortnightly Review,” 1879 (vol.
xxxi).

147 For an exposition of the varying forms of modern state socialism,
and that form of it which advocates the nationalization of land (in
H. George’s “Progress and Poverty,” and Alfred Russel Wallace’s
“Land Nationalization, its Necessity and its Aims”) see a chapter in
Henry Fawcett’s last (sixth) edition of his “Manual” (1884). For a
general and valuable treatise on Socialism, but one which does not
describe schemes much later than Owen’s, see Louis Reybaud’s “Études
sur les reformateurs, ou socialistes modernes” (seventh edition,
1864). An excellent bibliography is given, vol. ii, pp. 453-470.

148 Pierre Joseph Proudhon (born 1809) made a well-known attack on
private property in his “Qu’est-ce que la Propriété,” “What is
Property?” (1840). His answer was, “It is robbery.” See also Ely,
“French and German Socialism” (1883), p. 140.

149 Louis Blanc (born 1813, died 1882). His chief book, the
“Organization of Labor,” appeared in 1840, in the columns of the
“Revue du Progrès.”

150 Karl Marx (born 1818, died 1883) published “The Criticism of
Political Economy” (1859); and an extension of the same book under
the new title of “Capital” (1867), of which only the first volume
has appeared, on “The Process of the Production of Capital.” This
was again enlarged in 1872 to 822 pages. A large part of the work is
filled with extracts from parliamentary reports on the condition of
English workmen. Before the Revolution of 1848 he edited a
communistic journal, and was obliged to leave the country afterward,
by which he was led to London. He was an able writer on history and
politics. Marx was assisted by Friedrich Engels, who wrote “The
Condition of the Working Classes in England” (1845). See Ely, ibid.,
chap. x.

151 Born 1825, the son of a rich Jewish merchant. In philosophy and
jurisprudence he won the praise of Humboldt and Boeckh. But vanity
and wild ambition checked the success due to great abilities and
energy of character. He was finally shot in a duel in 1864. He
appears as the antagonist of Schultze (of Delitzsch), advocating
state-help against the self-help of the originator of the People’s
Banks.

152 For an account of this society see Theodore D. Woolsey’s “Communism
and Socialism” (1880); “Nineteenth Century,” July, 1878; and Ely,
ibid., chap. xi.

153 See New York “Nation,” Nos. 684, 686.

154 From his posthumous “Chapters on Socialism,” “Fortnightly Review,”
1879, p. 513 (vol. xxxi), and written in 1869.

155 The Count de Saint-Simon served in our Revolutionary War in the
French army, while very young, and ended a life of misfortune and
poverty in 1825, a month after the publication of his “Nouveau
Christianisme” (Woolsey’s “Communism and Socialism,” p. 107). For a
fuller account, see R. T. Ely’s “French and German Socialism,” p.
53; A. J. Booth’s “Saint-Simon and Saint-Simonism” (London, 1871);
and Reybaud, ibid.

156 This experiment when put on trial in France first brought up the
question of the legal justice of giving an absolute right to
inherited property, and numbered among its disciples the economists,
Michel Chevalier and Adolphe Blanqui, and the philosopher, Auguste
Comte.

157 Fourier was born at Besançon in 1772. He wrote the “Theory of the
Four Movements” (1808); “A Treatise on Domestic and Agricultural
Association” (1822); “The Theory of Universal Unity” (1841). Died
1837. See Ely, ibid., p. 81; Victor Considérant’s “La Destinée
Sociale” (fourth edition, 1851); and Reybaud, ibid.

158 Robert Owen (father of Robert Dale Owen), born 1771, in 1799 was
engaged in the famous New Lanark Mills, of which Jeremy Bentham was
one of the partners. In 1825 he purchased Harmony, in Indiana, from
Mr. Rapp. He believed in a full community of property; that the
Government should employ the surplus of labor for which there was no
demand; and that, until the members became fully trained, affairs
should be managed by one head (as in Saint-Simonism).

159 For Brook Farm, see Noyes’s “History of American Socialism,” chapter
xi, and the life of “George Ripley,” by O. B. Frothingham (1882). In
general, also, for American experiments see Charles Nordhoff’s “The
Communistic Societies of the United States”; W. A. Hinds’s “American
Communists” (1878); Woolsey’s “Communism and Socialism” (1880); and
Noyes’s “American Socialism” (1870).

160 The extracts in large type in this section are taken from Mr. Mill’s
“Chapters on Socialism” (“Fortnightly Review,” 1879), being only the
beginning of a larger work begun in 1869, and given to the public
since his death. They are of interest because they give his
conclusions twenty years after his “Political Economy” was written.

161 “Logical Method,” pp. 34, 36.

162 Cf. Cairnes, “Leading Principles,” pp. 180-188.

163 In the “Fortnightly Review,” May 1, 1869.

164 “Leading Principles,” pp. 149-189.

165 Counting six days to a week and four weeks to a month.

166 “Leading Principles,” p. 185.

167 Mr. Thornton replied to Mr. Cairnes (“Nineteenth Century,” August,
1879). A succinct statement of the condition of the wages-fund
controversy has been made by Henry Sidgwick, “Fortnightly Review,”
September 1, 1879. See also W. G. Sumner, “Princeton Review,”
“Wages,” November, 1882.

168 He advanced the same view in the “North American Review,” vol. cxx,
January, 1875. In his “Political Economy” (1883) he advances a more
extensive theory of distribution. See “Atlantic Monthly,” July,
1883, p. 129.

169 See Cairnes, “Leading Principles,” p. 209.

170 This proposition needs to be kept in mind for the future discussion
of the cost of production of food and its relation to cost of labor.