Chapter L: Rural Local Government

634. TYPES OF RURAL LOCAL GOVERNMENT.--Rural local governments in the United States vary widely as between different sections of the country, but in general they are divisible into three types. These are:

(a) the town type, so common in New England;

(b) the county type, found chiefly in the South, the Southwest, and the Far West; and

(c) the mixed type of the Middle, Central, and Northwestern states. These three general types will be discussed in the order named.

A. THE TOWN TYPE

635. NATURE OF THE TOWN.--The basis of rural local government in New England is the town. [Footnote: The county exists in New England as an aggregation of towns. The county has acquired other functions, but it is still primarily a judicial district.] In general the New England town is an irregularly shaped area, varying in size from twenty to forty-five square miles. The area comprising the typical town is primarily rural, and generally contains one or more villages. Although the town is primarily a rural unit, the villages within its bounds may be so populous as to be classed as cities. Yet these populous communities may, as in the case of Brookline, Massachusetts, retain the town government. Other New England cities, such as New Haven and Hartford, Connecticut, have continued the town organization separate from the city government.

636. ORIGIN OF THE TOWN.--Some authorities believe that the town type of rural local government can be traced back through English history to the early Teutonic tribes. Whether or not this is true, it is certain that the principle is an ancient one, and that when New England was first settled, the colonists grouped together in small compact communities, or towns, instead of scattering over larger areas.

637. WHY TOWN GOVERNMENT DEVELOPED IN NEW ENGLAND.--Several factors are responsible for the tendency of the settlers of early New England to draw together in towns. From the economic point of view, the barren nature of the soil rendered extensive farms impracticable, while, on the other hand, the opportunities for fishing and commerce encouraged small, compact settlements along the coast. The hostility of many of the New England Indians also discouraged sparse settlements and obliged the people to settle in close formation. Lastly, many of the New England colonists came to the New World as groups or communities which in their European homes had pivoted about a common church; in New England these people naturally preferred to live very near one another.

638. TOWN GOVERNMENT.--The government of the New England town is vested in a town meeting, which consists of an annual session of the voters of the town. At this meeting the voters enact laws governing such local matters as town finance, schools, police, and highways. A second important function of the town meeting is to choose the town officers, including the selectmen, [Footnote: In Rhode Island the selectmen are known as the council.] the town clerk, treasurer, constable, and others. The chief executive officers are the selectmen, varying in number from three to nine, and generally chosen for the term of one year. The selectmen have general charge of town affairs, and act under authority conferred by statute or by the town meeting. The town clerk keeps the records, the treasurer has charge of the funds of the town and sometimes audits accounts, while the constable keeps the peace of the town, serves writs, and collects local taxes. In addition there are a number of minor officials, such as tax assessors, pound-keepers, guardians of the poor, highway officials, and library trustees.

B. THE COUNTY TYPE

639. WHY COUNTY GOVERNMENT DEVELOPED IN THE SOUTH.--The system of county government became as firmly intrenched in the Southern colonies as did the concept of the town in early New England. Four factors operated to discourage town government, and to encourage county government, in the South. First, the Southern colonists did not come in small family groups, as did the New Englanders, but rather as individuals and from different classes of society. Second, the Indians of the South were either weak or peaceful, so that fear of Indian attack did not oblige the colonists to congregate in small, compact communities. Third, the climate and soil of the South encouraged a plantation system which resulted in a sparse rather than in a compact population. Fourth, the aristocratic type of society developing from the plantation and slave system prevented the rise of the democratic town meeting.

640. GOVERNMENT OF THE SOUTHERN COUNTY.--Though county government is also found in the Southwest and Far West, it is seen in its purest form in the South. Here the county was originally a judicial district, or sometimes also a financial district to facilitate the collection of taxes. The functions of the county have gradually increased until such local affairs as schools, jails, poorhouses, and the maintenance of roads and bridges are concerns of the Southern county. The chief administrative authority in the county is either the county court, or a small board of commissioners. In either case the administrative authority is chosen by popular vote. In addition there are a number of minor officers such as the treasurer, tax assessor, and recorder, all of them chosen by popular vote for terms varying from one to four years.

641. GOVERNMENT OF THE FAR WESTERN COUNTY.--In the Far West, likewise, the most important unit of rural local government is the county. The county is governed by a board, usually consisting of three commissioners. In general the officers of the Far Western county resemble those in the central states. (See Section 644.)

C. THE MIXED TYPE [Footnote: Sometimes called the township-county system.]

642. ORIGIN OF THE MIXED TYPE.--The mixed type of rural local government is a hybrid, the result of the incomplete fusion of the town type with the county type. The northern parts of the Central states were settled largely by immigrants from New England, while the southern portions of the Middle West were settled by pioneers from Pennsylvania and the states south of the Ohio River. The New England immigrants were used to town government, and endeavored to perpetuate it in their new home; the settlers from the South preferred the county form of government, and sought its adoption in their new homes. The result was a compromise, some functions of rural local government being assigned to the county and some to the township.

643. THE TWO SUB-TYPES.--In the fusion of the town and county types of government the county system tended to predominate over the town or township form of government when settlers from the South were in the majority. In the northern section of the country, on the other hand, the compromise form tended to include a majority of the features of the town type. The result was the formulation of two sub-types.

The first of these may be called the Pennsylvania sub-type, so named because it originated in Pennsylvania, and then spread, with modifications, to Ohio, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, and other states. In these states the town or township authority is subordinated to the county government. There is no town meeting.

The New York sub-type exists in typical form in New York, but is also found in New Jersey, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas, and other states. The town meeting is found in these states, and in five of them the townships are represented on the county board.

644. THE NEW YORK SUB-TYPE.--In states possessing the New York sub- type of rural local government, the town meeting is still important. This meeting is similar to the New England town meeting, though it exercises less authority. All the legal voters of the township are qualified to take part in this meeting, which is held annually and on special occasions. At this meeting are chosen township officers for the following year. The most important of these are the supervisor, clerk, treasurer, assessor, and a varying number of constables and justices of the peace. In addition to electing these and other officers, the town meeting enacts legislation with regard to such local matters as bridges, roads, and schools.

In some of the Central states general executive authority over township affairs is vested in a township board, while in other states administrative authority is divided between a township board of from three to eleven members, and a supervisor or trustee. Besides these officials, there are a number of minor officers, including a clerk, a treasurer, an assessor, overseers of the poor, constables, and justices of the peace.

The county board continues to exist under the New York plan, but it is far less important than under the Pennsylvania sub-type. The functions of the county board are similar in these two sub-types.

645. THE PENNSYLVANIA SUB-TYPE.--In those states in which the Pennsylvania sub-type of rural local government prevails, general control of government is vested in a county board. This board is composed of three commissioners, who are elected by the voters of the county. In all of the Central states the county board possesses numerous powers, but the powers of the board are greater under the Pennsylvania than under the New York sub-type. Under the former plan the county board exercised four groups of powers: First, the levying of taxes and the appropriation of local funds; second, the maintenance of roads; third, poor-relief; and fourth, the supervision of local elections.

Besides the members of the county board there are a number of other county officials. The chief executive officer of the county court is the sheriff. The prosecuting attorney is an elective official, whose duty it is to conduct criminal prosecutions, and to act as the legal agent of the county. The treasurer has charge of county funds, and sometimes supervises the collection of taxes. He is elected by the people, generally for a two-year term. The clerk or auditor is an important county officer, as is the surveyor, the county superintendent of schools, and the recorder or register of deeds.

646. HOME RULE FOR COUNTIES.--Generally, county authorities are narrowly limited by the state constitution and state statutes. This has always resulted in numerous appeals to the legislature for special legislation, and has lately given rise to a demand for home rule for counties. In the effort to reduce the pressure for special laws in the legislature, the Michigan constitution of 1908 provided for a measure of home rule for counties. The legislature is authorized to confer legislative powers on the county boards, which may pass laws and ordinances relative to purely local affairs, provided such enactments do not conflict with state law, and provided, further, that such enactments do not interfere with the local affairs of any township, incorporated city, or village within the limits of the county. Such laws may be vetoed by the Governor, but may be passed over his veto by a two-thirds vote of the county board. Another step toward home rule was taken when in 1911 California by constitutional amendment empowered counties to frame their own charters, and, on securing popular approval, to put the same into effect. However, the charter thus framed and approved must first be sanctioned by the state legislature.

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT

1. What are the three types of rural local government?

2. Discuss the nature of the town.

3. What is the origin of the town?

4. How is the town governed?

5. Why did county government develop in the rural South?

6. Outline the government of the southern county.

7. How did the mixed type of rural local government originate?

8. What two sub-types are included under the mixed type of rural local government?

9. Compare briefly these two sub-types.

10. Discuss the nature of the movement to permit home rule to counties.

REQUIRED READINGS

1. Beard, _American Government and Politics_, chapter xxix.

2. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter ii.

3. Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapter xxxvii.

4. Reed, _Form and Functions of American Government_, chapter xviii.

QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS

1. Summarize the relation of local institutions to state government. (Guitteau, page 15.)

2. What factors are responsible for the decline of the town meeting in the Middle West? (Beard, page 651.)

3. Describe the early English county. (Guitteau, page 18.)

4. What are the chief divisions of the county in the southern and western parts of the United States? (Reed, pages 222-223.)

5. What are the sources of county government? (Reed, page 210.)

6. What is a "town chairman"? (Reed, page 222.)

7. What are the two types of county boards? (Beard, pages 640-641.)

8. What is a parish? (Guitteau, page 21.)

9. Why is there a growing demand that local institutions be placed under the supervision of the state government? (Beard, pages 654-655.)

10. What are the merits and defects of autonomy for rural local governments? (Munro, pages 544-545.)

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT

I

1. Origin of local government in your section.

2. Development of rural local government in your community, or in some adjacent community.

3. The work of the tax assessor in rural local government.

4. Investigate the powers and duties of any other county, town, or township officer.

II

5. Origin and development of rural local government in the United States. (James, _Local Government in the United States_, chapter ii; Kimball, _State and Municipal Government in the United States_, chapter xvi.)

6. The New England town. (Fairlie, _Local Government in Counties, Towns and Villages_, pages 141-146.)

7. Township government. (Fairlie, _Local Government in Counties, Towns and Villages_, pages 164-185.)

8. General nature of county government. (Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapter xxxviii.)

9. The organization of county government. (James, _Local Government in the United States_, chapter iii; Maxey, _County Administration_.)

10. Functions of county government. (James, _Local Government in the United States_, chapter iv; Maxey, _County Administration_.)

11. Financial administration in counties. (Maxey, _County Administration_.)

12. The administration of highways in counties. (Maxey, _County Administration_.)

13. Charitable and correctional institutions in the county. (Maxey, _County Administration_.)

14. Politics in rural local government. (Beard, _American Government and Politics_, chapter XXX.)

15. County home rule. (Gilbertson, _The County_, chapter xv.)

16. City and county consolidation. (Maxey, _County Administration_.)

17. New developments in county government. (James,_Local Government in the United States_, chapter viii.)

18. Rural local government in England. (Reed, _Form and Functions of American Government_, chapter xvii.)

19. Rural local government in France. (James, _Local Government in the United States_, chapter i.)

FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION

20. The relative merits of the town, county, and mixed type of rural local government.

21. The problem of efficiency in rural local government in your state.

22. The problem of responsibility in rural local government in your state.

23. Should rural local governments in your state be allowed a greater measure of home rule?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following list contains all of the references that are mentioned in the text, either as required reading, or as the basis for suggested topic work. Special mention may be made here of Williamson's _Readings in American Democracy_, prepared as a companion volume to the text, and published in 1922 by D. C. Heath & Co.

In harmony with the general arrangement of the text material, the references in this list have been grouped under the folio wing heads: Historical, Economic, Social, and Political.

An asterisk has been placed before references that should prove of value to those who desire to build up a small working library on problems in American democracy. Works of special importance are preceded by a double asterisk.

HISTORICAL

Adams, Ephraim D. _The Power of Ideals in American History_. Yale University Press, New Haven. 1913.

** _Annals_ of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Philadelphia.

Becker, Carl Lotus. _Beginnings of the American People_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1915.

* Cheyney, Edward P. _An Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England_. Macmillan, New York. 1901.

Crawford, Mary Caroline. _Social Life in Old New England_. Little, Brown Co., Boston. 1914.

* Fiske, John. _The Critical Period of American History_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1888.

Hart, Albert Bushnell. _Social and Economic Forces in American History_.

Huntington, Ellsworth. _Civilization and Climate_. Yale University Press, New Haven. 1915.

Huntington, Ellsworth, and S. W. Gushing. _Principles of Human Geography_. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 1921.

** _International Encyclopedia_. Second edition. Dodd Mead & Co., New York. 1916.

** _Lessons in Community and National Life_, Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. Series A, B, and C, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1918.

McLaughlin, Andrew C. _Steps in the Development of American Democracy_. The Abingdon Press, New York. 1920.

------. _The Confederation and the Constitution_. Harper and Bros, New York. 1905.

Osgood, Herbert L. _The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century_, 3 vols. Macmillan, New York. 1904.

Semple, Ellen C. _American History and its Geographic Conditions_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1903.

Speare, Morris E., and W. B. Norris. _World War Issues and Ideals_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1918.

** Turner, Frederick J. _The Frontier in American History_. Henry Holt and Co., New York. 1920.

West, Willis M. _The War and the New Age_. Allyn and Bacon, Boston. 1919.

White, Albert Beebe. _The Making of the English Constitution_. Putnam, New York. 1908.

ECONOMIC

Adams, Henry C. _Description of Industry_. Henry Holt & Co., New York. 1918.

Ashley, Percy. _Modern Tariff History_. Button and Co., New York. 1911.

*Bishop, Avard L., and A. G. Keller. _Industry and Trade_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1918.

Bloomfield, Daniel. _Selected Articles on Modern Industrial Movements_ H. W. Wilson Co., New York. 1919.

------. _Selected Articles on Problems of Labor_. H. W. Wilson Co., New York. 1920.

** Bogart, Ernest Ludlow. _The Economic History of the United States_. Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1912.

Bogart, Ernest Ludlow, and C. M. Thompson. _Readings in the Economic History of the United States_. Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1917.

Brasol, Boris L. _Socialism Versus Civilization_. Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York. 1920.

Brooks, John Graham. _American Syndicalism: the I. W. W._ Macmillan, New York. 1913.

Bruce, Philip A. _Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century_. 2 Vols. Macmillan, New York. 1907.

Bullock, Charles J. _Selected Readings in Economics_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1907.

------. _Selected Readings in Public Finance_. 2d edition. Ginn and Co, Boston. 1920.

------. _The Elements of Economics_. Silver, Burdett and Co., Boston. 1919.

Burritt, Arthur W., assisted by Dennison, Gay and others. _Profit Sharing, its Principles and Practice_. Harper and Bros., New York. 1918.

Callender, Guy S. _Selections from the Economic History of the United States_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1909.

* Carlton, Frank T. _History and Problems of Organized Labor_. D. C. Heath and Co., Boston. 1911.

------. _Organized Labor in American History_. Appleton, New York. 1920.

** Carver, Thomas Nixon. _Elementary Economics_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1920.

------. _Essays in Social Justice_. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1915.

------. _Principles of Rural Economics_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1911.

Clark, John Bates. _Social Justice Without Socialism_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1914.

** Coman, Katharine. _The Industrial History of the United States_. Macmillan, New York. 1917. Commons, John R. _Trade Unionism and Labor Problems_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1905.

Coulter, John L. _Co÷peration Among Farmers_. Sturgis and Walton, New York. 1919.

_Current History Magazine_, September, 1920. New York _Times_, New York.

Dewey, Davis R. _Financial History of the United States_. Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1915.

Dixon, Frank H., and J. H. Parmelee. _War Administration of the Railways in the United States and Great Britain_. Oxford University Press. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.

**Dryer, Charles R. _Elementary Economic Geography_. American Book Co., New York. 1916.

Dunbar, Charles F. _The Theory and History of Banking_. 3d edition. Putnam, New York. 1917.

Durand, Edward D. _The Trust Problem_. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. 1915.

Edie, Lionel D. _Current Social and Industrial Forces_. Boni and Liveright, New York. 1920.

** Ely, Richard T. _Outlines of Economics_. Macmillan, New York. 1918.

------. _Socialism, an Examination of its Nature, its Strength and its Weakness_. Crowell, Boston. 1895.

Fanning, C. E. _Selected Articles on the Conservation of Natural Resources_. Debaters' Handbook Series. H. W. Wilson Co., Minneapolis. 1913.

Fay, C. R. _Co÷peration at Home and Abroad_. Macmillan, New York. 1910.

** Fetter, Frank A. _Modern Economic Problems_. Century Co., New York. 1917.

Fiske, Amos K. _The Modern Bank_. Appleton, New York. 1914. Ford, James. _Co÷peration in New England_. New York. 1913. * George, Henry. _Progress and Poverty_. Doubleday, Page and Co, New York. 1916.

Groat, George G. _An Introduction the Study of Organized Labor in America_. Macmillan, New York. 1919.

Hamilton, Walton H. _Current Economic Problems_. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 1915.

Hammond, John Hays, and J. W. Jenks. _Great American Issues_, Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York. 1921.

Harris, Emerson P. _Co÷peration, the Hope of the Consumer_. Macmillan, New York. 1918.

Hayward, William R. _Money, What it is, and How to Use It_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1917.

_Hearings before a sub-committee of the Committee on the Judiciary_. U.S. Senate. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

Hinds, William A. _American Communities_. 2d revision. Kerr and Co., Chicago. 1908.

Hobson, John A. _The Evolution of Modern Capitalism_. New and revised edition. London. 1912.

Hoxie, Robert F. _Scientific Management and Labor_. Appleton, New York. 1915.

------. _Trade Unionism in the United States_. Appleton, New York. 1920.

* _I. W. W. Constitution_. Chicago. 1905.

* Johnson, Emory R. _American Railway Transportation_. Appleton, New York. 1912.

Kemmerer, Edwin W. _The A B C of the Federal Reserve System_. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J. 1920.

King, Clyde L. _Lower Living Costs in Cities_. Appleton, New York. 1915.

* ------. _The Regulation of Municipal Utilities_. Appleton, New York. 1914.

* King, Willford Isbell. _The Wealth and Income of the People of the United States_. Macmillan, New York. 1919.

** LeRossignol, James Edward. _Orthodox Socialism_. Crowell, New York. 1907.

* Malthus, Thomas Robert. _Essay on Population_.

* Marshall, Leon C., and L. S. Lyon. _Our Economic Organization_. Macmillan, New York. 1921.

* Marx, Karl, and Frederick Engels. _The Communist Manifesto_.

_Memorandum on Certain Aspects of the Bolshevist Movement in Russia_. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1919.

Myers, William Starr. _Socialism and American Ideals_. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1919.

* Plehn, Carl C. _Introduction to Public Finance_. 4th edition. Macmillan, New York. 1920.

Porter, Robert P. _The Dangers of Municipal Ownership_. Century Co., New York. 1907.

Powell, George H. _Co÷peration in Agriculture_. Macmillan, New York. 1913.

* Price, Overton W. _The Land We Live In_. Small, Maynard Co., Boston. 1919.

Ripley, William Z. _Trusts, Pools and Corporations_. Revised Edition. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1916.

** Seager, Henry Rogers. _Principles of Economics_. Henry Holt and Co., New York. 1917.

Seligman, Edwin R. _Essays in Taxation_. 8th edition. Macmillan, New York. 1917.

------. _Principles of Economics_. 6th edition. Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1914.

* Skelton, O. D. _Socialism, a Critical Analysis_. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. 1911.

* Smith, Adam. _An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations_.

** Smith, J. Russell. _Commerce and Industry_. Henry Holt and Co., New York. 1916.

------. _The Story of Iron and Steel_. Appleton, New York. 1908.

Sonnichsen, Albert. _Consumers' Co÷peration_. Macmillan, New York. 1919.

Tarbell, Ida M. _The Tariff in Our Times_. Macmillan, New York. 1911.

** Taussig, Frank W. _Principles of Economics_. 2 vols. Macmillan, New York. 1919.

------. _The Tariff History of the United States_. Putnam, New York. 1916.

Thompson, Charles M. _Elementary Economics_. B. H. Sanborn and Co., New York. 1920.

Thompson, Carl D. _Municipal Ownership_. B. W. Huebsch, New York 1917.

Van Hise, Charles R. _Concentration and Control: a Solution of the Trust Problem in the United States_. Macmillan, New York. 1912.

** ------. _The Conservation of Natural Resources in the United States_. Macmillan, New York. 1918.

Weld, Louis D. H. _The Marketing of Farm Products_. Macmillan, New York. 1916.

White, Horace. _Money and Banking_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1911.

Wood, Thomas B. _The Story of a Loaf of Bread_. Putnam, New York. 1913.

Young, Arthur N. _The Single Tax Movement in the United States_. Princeton University Press, Princeton. 1916.

SOCIAL

Abbott, Edith. _Women in Industry_. Appleton, New York. 1910. Abbott, Grace. _The Immigrant and the Community_. Century Co., New York. 1917.

Addams, Jane. _The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets_. Macmillan, New York. 1909.

Anderson, Wilbert Lee. _The Country Town_. Baker and Taylor Co., New York. 1906.

Antin, Mary. _The Promised Land_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1912. ------. _They Who Knock at Our Gates_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston 1914.

* _Atlanta University Publications_. Atlanta University Press, Atlanta, Georgia.

Bailey, Liberty Hyde. _The Training of Farmers_. Century Co., New York. 1909.

Baldwin, Simeon E. _The Relation of Education to Citizenship_. Yale University Press, New Haven. 1912.

Bloomfield, Meyer. _The Vocational Guidance of Youth_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1911.

Bogardus, Emory S. _Essentials of Americanization_. University of Southern California, Press, Los Angeles. 1919.

Booth, Maud Ballington. _After Prison--What?_ F. H. Revell Co., New York 1903.

* Bryce, James. _The Hindrances to Good Citizenship_. Yale University Press, New Haven. 1919.

** Burch, Henry Reed, and S. W. Patterson. _American Social Problems_. Macmillan, New York. 1919.

Butler, Elizabeth B. _Women and the Trades_. New York, 1909.

Butler, Nicholas Murray. _The Meaning of Education, and Other Essays_. Macmillan, New York. 1905.

Butterfield, Kenyon L. _The Country Church and the Rural Problem_. Chicago University Press, Chicago. 1911.

* ------. _The Farmer and the New Day_. Macmillan, New York. 1919.

Cabot, Richard C. _Social Work: Essays on the Meeting Ground of Doctor and Social Worker_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1919.

Carney, Mabel. _Country Life and the Country School_. Row, Peterson and Co., Chicago. 1912.

** Carver, Thomas Nixon. _Sociology and Social Progress_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1905.

Cleveland, Frederick A., and Joseph Schafer. _Democracy in Reconstruction._ Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. 1919.

Colcord, Joanna C. _Broken Homes: a Study of Family Desertion and its Social Treatment_. Russell Sage Foundation, New York. 1919.

* Commons, John R. _Races and Immigrants in America_. Macmillan, New York. 1911.

Conyngton, Mary. _How to Help._ The Ronald Press, New York. 1906.

Coolidge, Mary. _Chinese Immigration_. Henry Holt and Co., New York. 1909.

Cubberley, Ellwood P. _Changing Conceptions in Education_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1909.

* ------. _Public Education in the United States_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1919.

Curtis, Henry S. _Education Through Play_. Macmillan, New York. 1915.

Davenport, Eugene. _Education for Efficiency_. D. C. Heath Co., Boston. 1909.

Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. _Bulletin 1919_, No. 77. _State Americanization_. Washington, D. C. 1920.

* Devine, Edward T. _Misery and its Causes_. Macmillan, New York. 1909.

* ------. _The Practice of Charity_. Dodd Mead and Co., New York. 1904.

* ------. _The Principles of Relief_. Macmillan, New York. 1904.

* ------. _The Spirit of Social Work_. Charities Publication Committee, New York. 1912.

Dewey, John. _Schools of To-morrow_. Dutton, New York. 1915.

Dugdale, Richard L. _The Jukes, a Study in Crime, Pauperism, Disease and Heredity_. Putnam, New York. 1891.

Eliot, Charles W. _Education for Efficiency_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1909.

** Ellwood, Charles A. _Sociology and Modern Social Problems_. American Book Co., New York. 1919.

Fisher, Irving. _Bulletin of the Committee of One Hundred on National Health, being a Report on National Vitality, its Wastes and Conservation._ Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1909.

Galpin, Charles J. _Rural Life. Century Co., New York. 1918.

* George, William R. _The Junior Republic, its History and Ideals_. Appleton, New York. 1910.

Gill, Charles O., and Gifford Pinchot. _The Country Church_. Macmillan, New York. 1913.

** Gillette, John Morris. _Constructive Rural Sociology_. Sturgis and Walton, New York. 1913.

Goddard, Henry H. _The Kallikak Family_. Macmillan, New York. 1912.

* Goodsell, Willystine. _The Family as a Social and Educational Institution_. Macmillan, New York. 1915.

Gulick, Charlotte E. _Emergencies_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1909.

Gulick, Sidney L. _American Democracy and Asiatic Citizenship_. Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York. 1919.

Hadley, Arthur T. _The Education of the American Citizen._ Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York. 1902.

* ------. _The Relation between Freedom and Responsibility in the Evolution of Democratic Government_. Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York. 1903.

Hall, Herbert J., and M. M. C. Buck. _Handicrafts for the Handicapped_. Moffat, Yard and Co., New York. 1916.

** Hall, Prescott F. _Immigration, and its Effects on the United States._ Henry Holt and Co., New York. 1906.

Henderson, Charles Hanford. _What is it to be Educated_? Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1914.

* Henderson, Charles Richmond. _An Introduction to the Study of the Dependent, Defective and Delinquent Classes_. D. C. Heath and Co., Boston. 1908.

------. _Modern Methods of Charity_. Macmillan, New York. 1904.

* ------. _Modern Prison Systems_. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1903.

Hutchinson, Woods. _Preventable Diseases._ Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1909.

* Jenks, Jeremiah, and W. Jett Lauck. _The Immigration Problem_. 4th edition. Funk and Wagnalls, New York. 1917.

* Keller, Helen. _The Story of My Life._ Doubleday, Page and Co., New York. 1903.

Kelley, Florence. _Some Ethical Gains through Legislation_. New York. 1905.

King, Irving. _Education for Social Efficiency_. Appleton, New York. 1913. Leake, Albert H. _Industrial Education, Its Problems, Methods and Danger_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1913.

* Lee, Frederick S. _The Human Machine and Industrial Efficiency_. Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1918.

** Lewis, Burdette G. _The Offender and His Relations to Law and Society._ Harper and Bros., New York. 1917.

Lichtenberger, James P. _Divorce, a Study in Social Causation._ New York. 1909.

MacLean, Annie M. _Women Workers and Society_. McClurg, Chicago, 1916.

* McMurry, Frank M. _How to Study and Teaching How to Study_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1909.

** Mangold, George B. _Problems of Child Welfare_. Macmillan, New York. 1914.

Ogden, Henry Neely. _Rural Hygiene_. Macmillan, New York. 1911.

Oliver, Thomas. _Diseases of Occupation, from the Legislative, Social and Medical Points of View_. London. 1908.

Osborne, Thomas Mott. _Society and Prisons._ Yale University Press, New Haven. 1916.

* Parsons, Frank. _Choosing a Vocation_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1909.

** Perry, Clarence A. _Wider Use of the School Plant_. Charities Publication Committee, New York. 1910.

Queen, Stuart. _The Passing of the County Jail_. George Banta Publishing Co., Menasha, Wis. 1920.

* Riis, Jacob A. _The Battle with the Slum_. Macmillan, New York. 1902.

Riis, Jacob A. _The Peril and the Preservation of the Home_. G. W. Jacobs Co., Philadelphia. 1903.

* Roberts, Peter. _The Problem of Americanization_. Macmillan, New York. 1920.

* Rubinow, Isaac M. _Standards of Health Insurance_. Henry Holt & Co., New York. 1916.

Sargent, Dudley A. _Physical Education_. Ginn and Co., Boston, 1906.

** Smith, Reginald Heber. _Justice and the Poor_. Carnegie Foundation for the advancement of teaching, Bulletin No. 13, New York. 1919.

* Smith, Richard Mayo. _Emigration and Immigration_. Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York. 1904.

* Steiner, Edward A. _From Alien to Citizen_. F. H. Revell Co., New York. 1914.

* ------. _On the Trail of the Immigrant_. F. H. Revell Co., New York. 1906.

Steiner, Jessie F. _The Japanese Invasion_. Chicago, 1917.

Storey, Moorfield. _Problems of To-day_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1920.

Taylor, Joseph S. _A Handbook of Vocational Education_. Macmillan, New York. 1914.

Tillinghast, Joseph A. _The Negro in Africa and America_. American Economic Association, New York. 1902.

Tolman, Wm. H. _Hygiene for the Worker_. American Book Co., New York. 1912.

Tufts, James H. _The Real Business of Living_. Henry Holt and Co., New York. 1918.

** Vogt, Paul L. _Introduction to Rural Sociology_. Appleton, New York. 1917.

** Warner, Amos G. _American Charities_. 3d edition. Crowell, New York. 1919.

Washington, Booker T. _The Future of the American Negro_. Small, Maynard Co., Boston. 1902.

------. _The Story of the Negro_. Doubleday, Page and Co., New York. 1909.

** ------. _Tuskegee and its People, their Ideals and Achievements_. Doubleday, Page and Co., New York. 1905.

** ------. _Up from Slavery_. Doubleday, Page and Co., New York. 1901.

Waugh, Frank A. _Rural Improvement_, etc. Orange Judd Co., New York. 1914.

Willcox, Walter F. _The Divorce Problem: a Study in Statistics_. New York. 1897.

* Williamson, Thames Ross. i>Sociology of the American Negro_.

** Wines, Frederick H. _Punishment and Reformation_. Latest edition.

* Wolfe, Albert. _Readings in Social Problems_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1916.

Wood, Edith. _The Housing of the Unskilled Wage Earner_. Macmillan, New York. 1919.

Woods, Arthur. _Crime Prevention_. Princeton University Press, Princeton. 1918.

* Woods, Robert A. _Americans in Process_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1902.

POLITICAL

Beard, Charles A. _American Citizenship_. Macmillan, New York. 1917

------. _American City Government_. Century Co., New York. 1912.

** ------. _American Government and Politics_. Macmillan, New York. 1920.

------. _An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States_. Macmillan, New York. 1913.

------. _Readings in American Government and Politics_. Macmillan, New York. 1912.

------. _The Supreme Court and the Constitution_. Macmillan, New York. 1912.

Beard, Charles A., and Birl Schultz. _Documents on the State-wide Initiative, Referendum and Recall_. Macmillan, New York. 1912.

Borgeaud, Charles. _Adoption and Amendment of Constitutions in Europe and America_. Macmillan, New York. 1895.

* Brewer, David J. _American Citizenship_. Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York. 1907.

Brooks, Robert C. _Corruption in American Politics and Life_. Dodd, Mead and Co., New York. 1910.

** Bryce, James. _Modern Democracies_. 2 vols. Macmillan, New York. 1921.

** ------. _The American Commonwealth_. 2 vols. Macmillan, New York. 1914.

Childs, Richard S. _Short Ballot Principles_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1911.

** Cleveland, Frederick H., _Organized Democracy_. Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1913.

* Cleveland, Frederick H., and A. E. Buck. _The Budget and Responsible Government_. Macmillan, New York. 1920.

Commons, John R. _Proportional Representation_. Macmillan, New York. 1907.

Croly, Herbert. _The Promise of American Life_. Macmillan, New York. 1912.

** _Cyclopedia of American Government_. Edited by A. C. McLaughlin and A. B. Hart. 3 Vols. Appleton, New York. 1914.

Dealey, James Q. _Growth of American State Constitutions from 1776 to the End of the Year 1914_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1915 ** Dunn, Arthur William. _The Community and the Citizen_. D. C. Heath and Co., Boston. 1919.

Fairlie, John A. _Local Government in Counties, Towns and Villages_. Century Co., New York. 1906.

------. _Municipal Administration_. Macmillan, New York. 1906.

** ------. _The National Administration of the United States of America_. Macmillan, New York. 1905.

Follett, Mary Parker. _The Speaker of the House of Representatives_. Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1904.

Foltz, E. B. K. _The Federal Civil Service as a Career_. Putnam, New York. 1909.

Ford, Henry Jones. _The Cost of Our National Government_. Columbia University Press. New York. 1910.

** ------. _The Rise and Growth of American Politics_. Macmillan, New York. 1900.

Forman, S. E. _The American Democracy_. Century Co., New York. 1920.

Gettell, Raymond G. _Introduction to Political Science_. Ginn and Co., Boston.

------. _Problems in Political Evolution_. Ginn and Co., Boston.

* ------. _Readings in Political Science_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1911.

Gilbertson, H. S. _The County_. National Short Ballot Organization. New York. 1917.

Goodnow, Frank J. _Social Reform and the Constitution_. Macmillan, New York. 1911.

** Guitteau, William Backus. _Government and Politics in the United States_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1920.

Haines, Charles G. _The American Doctrine of Judicial Supremacy_. Macmillan, New York. 1914.

Hart, Albert Bushnell. _Practical Essays in American Government_. Longmans, Green & Co., New York.

Hinsdale, Mary L. _A History of the President's Cabinet_. Ann Arbor. 1911.

Hoar, Roger S. _Constitutional Conventions_. Little, Brown & Co., Boston. 1917.

** Holcombe, Arthur N. _State Government in the United States_. Macmillan, New York. 1916.

Hughes, Charles Evans. _Conditions of Progress in Democratic Government_. Yale University Press, New Haven. 1910.

* _Illinois Constitutional Convention Bulletins_. Springfield, Illinois. 1920.

** _Illinois Efficiency and Economy Report_. Springfield, Illinois. 1915

** James, Herman G. _Local Government in the Unites States_. Appleton, New York. 1921.

* Jones, Chester L. _Readings on Parties and Elections in the United States_. Macmillan, New York. 1912.

Kaye, Percy Lewis. _Readings in Civil Government_. Century Co., New York. 1910.

* Kimball, Everett. _State and Municipal Government in the United States_ Ginn and Co., Boston. 1921.

* ------. _The National Government of the United States._ Ginn and Co., Boston. 1919.

Leacock, Stephen A. _Elements of Political Science_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1913.

** Lowell, A. Lawrence. _Public Opinion and Popular Government_. Longmans, Green & Co., New York. 1913.

McCall, Samuel Walker. _The Business of Congress_, Columbia University Press, New York. 1911.

McKinley, Albert E. _The Suffrage Franchise in the Thirteen English Colonies in America_. Philadelphia. 1905.

** _Massachusetts Constitutional Convention Bulletins_. Boston, 1917.

** Mathews, John M. _Principles of State Administration_. Appleton, New York. 1917.

Maxey, C. C. _County Administration_. Macmillan, New York. 1919.

Merriam, Charles Edward. _American Political Ideas_. Macmillan, New York. 1920.

** Munro, William Bennett. _The Government of American Cities_. Macmillan, New York. 1920.

------. _The Government of European Cities_. Macmillan, New York. 1909

** ------. _The Government of the United States_. Macmillan, New York 1919.

* ------. _The Initiative, Referendum and Recall_. Appleton, New York 1913.

Porter, Kirk. _A History of Suffrage in the United States_. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 1918.

** Ray, P. Orman. _An Introduction to Political Parties and Practical Politics_ Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York. 1913.

** Reed, Thomas Harrison. _Form and Functions of American Government_ World Book Co., New York. 1917.

* Reinsch, Paul S. _American Legislatures and Legislative Methods_. Century Co., New York. 1913.

------. _Readings on American Federal Government_. Ginn and Co., Boston, 1909.

------. _Readings on American State Government_. Ginn and Co., Boston, 1911.

Root, Elihu. _Addresses on Government and Citizenship_. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. 1916.

* Seymour, Charles. _How the World Votes_. 2 Vols. C. A. Nichols Co., Springfield. 1918.

Taft, William Howard. _Our Chief Magistrate and His Powers_. Columbia University Press New York. 1916.

Taft, William Howard. _Popular Government_. Yale University Press, New Haven. 1914.

* Woodburn, James Albert. _Political Parties and Party Problems in the United States_. Putnam, New York. 1914.

Woodburn, James Albert, and T. F. Moran. _The Citizen and the Republic_. Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1920.

Young, James T. _The New American Government and its Work_. Macmillan, New York. 1915.

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this CONSTITUTION for the United States of America,

ARTICLE I