Chapter XVI: Part 1: , 8vo., New Haven, 1866. Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural (1)

History, 4to., Vol. 1, Part 1, Boston, 1866. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Nos. 2 and 3, 1866, 8vo., Phil., 1866. Proceedings of the Essex Institute, vol. 5, No. 1, 8vo., Salem, 1866. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. 10, Sheets 4-23, 8vo., Boston, 1866. Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York, vol. 8, Nos. 6-12, 8vo., New York, 1865-6. Proceedings of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, vol. 1, Sheets 1-3, 8vo., Chicago, 1866. Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. 7, 8vo., Boston, 1865-6. All the above were presented by the societies or authors named; and the foreign publications were received through the Smithsonian Institution.

Mr. Stearns exhibited specimens of _Petricola carditoides_ and _Pholadidea ovoidea_, in unusually hard serpentine, collected by himself at Fort Point, San Francisco.

Professor Whitney read some extracts from letters just received from Mr. Rémond, giving an account of his geological explorations in Peru and Chile. Mr. Rémond has obtained a suite of plants from the coal-bearing formation of Northern Chile, sufficient in number to fix its age as Triassic. Two species, one a _Pecopteris_, the other a _Pterophyllum_, are apparently identical with those found with the coal near Los Bronces, in Sonora, Mexico, by Mr. Rémond. Above the coal-bearing conglomerates and sandstones, there are stratified porphyries, and above these, fossiliferous limestones of Liassic age. The fossils in this last mentioned formation are, in general, similar to those found by Domeyko and Darwin, at Las Juntas and Tres Cruces; but Mr. Rémond obtained several new species. He also collected a large number of species in the Tertiaries of Coquimbo and Caldera. Farther, he obtained fossils in sufficient numbers from the rocks in which are the famous silver mines of Chañarcillo and Tres Puntas, to fix their age as belonging to the Lower Cretaceous.

Professor Whitney commented on the importance of these investigations, especially that concerning the age of the Chile coal. It is very interesting to know that the same formation carries coal in Chile which has been found to bear that indispensable material in Northern Mexico. The vast extent over which Triassic rocks occur in Arizona, New Mexico, and Nevada, gives a peculiar interest to every discovery of this kind.

REGULAR MEETING, DECEMBER 17TH, 1866.

President in the chair.

Twelve members present.

Dr. F. Hansen was elected a Resident Member.

Donation to the Cabinet: Skeleton of a Beaver, presented by Mr. S. Hubbard.

Donation to the Library: Ninety-six volumes and pamphlets chiefly on various branches of natural history, from the library of the late William Cooper, of New York, presented by J. G. Cooper, M.D.

ANNUAL MEETING, JANUARY 7TH, 1867.

Mr. Stearns in the chair.

Twenty-nine members present.

Dr. J. B. Trask was elected Life Member, and Dr. George D. Cleveland and Mr. George O. Whitney, Resident Members.

The Treasurer made a verbal Report. The Librarian and the Chairman of the Publication Committee made written reports, which were accepted and placed on file. The Curators of the various departments reported verbally. The Academy having moved twice during the past year, and the last time within a few days, the collections are of course in great disorder. The rooms now taken are those formerly occupied by the Academy, at 622 Clay street, and from which they were obliged to remove on account of the damage done to the building, by the earthquake of October 8th, 1865.

The following officers were elected for the year 1867:

PRESIDENT.

J. D. WHITNEY.

VICE PRESIDENTS.

LEANDER RANSOM.
R. E. C. STEARNS.

TREASURER.

SAMUEL HUBBARD.

CORRESPONDING SEC’Y.

W. B. EWER.

RECORDING SEC’Y.

THEODORE BRADLEY.

LIBRARIAN.

H. KELLOGG, M.D.

CURATORS.

W. S. KEYES MINERALOGY.
H. N. BOLANDER BOTANY.
W. M. GABB PALÆONTOLOGY.
E. F. LORQUIN ZOOLOGY.
W. G. W. HARFORD CONCHOLOGY.
H. BEHR, M.D. ENTOMOLOGY.

COMMITTEE ON FINANCE.

MESSRS. WHITNEY, HUBBARD, ASHBURNER, AND STEARNS.

COMMITTEE OF PUBLICATION.

MESSRS. WHITNEY, AYRES, AND STEARNS.

COMMITTEE ON THE LIBRARY.

MESSRS. JANIN, GIBBONS, AND KELLOGG.

COMMITTEE ON PROCEEDINGS.

MESSRS. KEYES, BOLANDER, AND BOSQUI.

Dr. Behr submitted specimens of microscopic crustaceans, of a brilliant red color, found upon the surface of a lake in Marin County; he remarked that they might be of some use in the arts, if they could be obtained in sufficient quantity.

REGULAR MEETING, JANUARY 21ST, 1867.

President in the Chair.

Twenty-three members present.

Governor R. C. McCormick, of Arizona, and R. C. Jacobs, of Chihuahua, were elected Corresponding Members, and Messrs. J. W. Kidwell, A. Sutro, A. T. Mason, H. C. Bidwell and H. P. Carlton were elected Resident Members.

Donations to the Library: Oversigt over det Kongelige danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Förhandlingar i Aaret 1864, 1 Vol., 8vo., Copenhagen. The same, 1866, Nos. 2-4. 32er Jahresbericht des Mannheimer Vereins für Naturkunde, 1 Vol. 12mo., 1866, (2 copies.) Mittheilungen aus dem Osterlande, 17er Band, 3 und 4 Heft, Altenburg, 1866. Jahreshefte des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins für das Fürstenthum Lüneburg, I., 1865, 8vo. Der Zoologische Garten, vii Jahrgang, Nos. 7, 9, 11, 12, 8vo., Frankfurt, 1866. Bericht über die XIV Versammlung der Deutschen Ornithologen-Gesells., 8vo., 1862. Sitzungs-Berichte der Naturw. Gesells. Isis in Dresden, Jahrg. 1866, 8vo., Dresden. Jahrbuch der k. k. Geolog. Reichsanstalt, Jahrg. 1866, No. 3, 8vo., Wien. Abhandlungen herausgegeben vom Naturw. Vereine zu Bremen, I Bd. 1 Heft, 8vo., Bremen, 1866. Journal de Conchyliologie, 3me Série, Tome vi., Nos. 3, 4, 8vo., Paris, 1866. On the Osteology and Myology of Colymbus Torquatus, by R. Elliot Coues, (Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 1, Part ii.) 4to., Cambridge, 1866. Journal of the Royal Hortic. Society of London, Vol. 1, Part 4, 12mo., 1867. Same, Proceedings, Vol. 1, N. S., No. 6, Aug., 1866, Jan., 1867, 12mo., London. Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen Gesells. der Meteorologie, 1 Band, 1866. Sitzungsberichte der Königl. bayer. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu München, 1865, II, 3-4; 1866, I, 1-4; II, 1, 8vo., Munich. Die Bedeutung moderner Gradmessungen, von Bauernfeind, 4to., pamphlet, München, 1866. Verzeichniss von 9412, Æquatorial-Sternen, ein Sup. Band zu der Ann. der Münch. Sternwarte, 8vo., Munich, 1866. Resultate Magnetischer, etc., Beobachtungen auf einer Reise nach dem östlichen Sibirien 1828-30, von Prof. C. Hansteen and Lieut. Due, 4to., Christiania, 1863. Hansteen, Magnetismus der Erde, 1 Theil, 4to., Christiania, 1819, with plates separate. Meteorologiske Iagttagelser paa Christiania Observatorium, 1865, long 4to., Christiania, 1866. Mœrker efter en Jistid i Omegn af Hardangerfjorden, af S. A. Sexe, 4to., pamphlet, Christiania, 1866. Bidrag til Bygningskikkens Udvikling paa Landet i Norge, 1ste Hefte, 4to., pamphlet, Christiania, 1865.

Dr. Kellogg exhibited specimens of _Thaspium cordatum_, (Heart-leaf Meadow Parsnip) a plant which has become somewhat known in cases of chronic rheumatism, and which is common on this coast. He remarked that it might be mistaken for _Sanicula_, (Sanicle) or possibly for _Conium maculatum_ (Poison Hemlock).

Dr. Kellogg also presented specimens of a beautiful Alpine willow-herb collected by Mr. Blanchard, of Brooklyn, Alameda County; it was found in the mountains west of Owen’s Lake, near the Kearsarge mines, at an altitude of 8,000 feet. He considered it a variety of _Epilobium obcordatum_, Gray. This plant is described in the Proc. Am. Acad. of Arts and Sciences for May, 1865.

Dr. James Blake read the following communication:

On the Nourishment of the Fœtus in the Embiotocoid Fishes.

BY JAMES BLAKE, M.D., F.R.C.S.

I am not aware that the process by which the embryo of the
Embiotocoid fishes receive the nourishment necessary for its
growth, has ever been pointed out. It certainly differs from
the three most common forms in which the embryo of other
animals is nourished, as there is nothing like a placenta by
which they can receive nourishment from the mother; there is
no supply of nutriment surrounding the embryo, as in the case
of most oviparous animals, nor is the embryo brought into
direct contact with the water, so as to derive nourishment
by absorption from the surrounding medium, as is the case in
oviparous fishes generally and in most of the lower forms of
animal life. The young fish is contained in a uterus which,
in the undeveloped state, resembles very much the ovaries of
the common oviparous fishes, except that its walls are thicker,
and that the number of ova it contains is very much smaller.
In the interior of the uterus, projecting from its sides, are
a number of processes analogous to those to which the ova are
usually attached. These processes vary in number in different
examples, but they are so arranged that each fœtal fish is in
contact on every side with a surface of one of these processes.
They consist apparently of a membrane composed of a cellular
tissue, and scattered over their surface are a number of small
mammillary elevations with an orifice in the center, and which
are probably the organs by which the peculiar secretion of the
uterus, to be hereafter noticed, is poured out. In an example
I examined, in which impregnation had apparently just taken
place, numerous ova were found adhering to these processes,
although not at all in such numbers as in the ordinary fishes.
I counted thirty-eight in about the space of an inch; of these,
however, but few can be developed, as the number of fœtuses
seldom exceeds forty, and sometimes is only eight. In the whole
of the uterus there probably were from one hundred to one
hundred and fifty ova. Of the earlier stages of development,
however, it is not my object to treat in the present memoir,
as I did not commence my investigations sufficiently early
to be able fully to make it out. As soon, however, as the
embryo has advanced sufficiently for the fins to be formed,
these appendages are found to be terminated by a number of
digitations, which project from the free edges of the fin, and
are usually found situated, one between each ray or spine. They
are composed almost entirely of fine capillary blood-vessels,
united apparently by a very delicate and structureless
membrane. They are so delicate that unless great care is taken
in removing the specimen from the uterus, they are destroyed;
nor have I ever been able to discover them in specimens that
have been preserved in alcohol. These processes seem continuous
with the membrane extended between the rays of the fins, but
are much more delicate; they project from the free edge of the
fin, sometimes as much as the eighth of an inch, and are, in
the fully developed embryo, the fifteenth of an inch broad.
On the free margin of each digitation, a larger capillary can
be observed, which appears to be continuous all around; it is
about the .003 in. in diameter, the intermediate space being
filled with a net-work of smaller capillaries. This system
of digitations projects from the entire edge of the dorsal,
ventral and caudal fins, but not from the pectorals. They in
fact form a fringe round the entire body, with the exception of
the head and that part of the abdomen in front of the anus.

Such is the structure of the organ that evidently has some
connection with the nourishment of the fœtus, resembling
as it does so closely the early formation of the vascular
villi and the placental tufts that proceed from the chorion
of the mammiferous embryo, and through which it derives its
nourishment before the placenta is fully formed.

The question now presents itself as to how nourishment is
conveyed from the parent to the fœtus through these tufts? As
before stated, the lining membrane of the uterus sends off
processes which surround each fœtus, without however forming
sheet sacks; but although these processes are very freely
supplied with blood-vessels, yet the finest injection failed
to show any more vascular spots where the fœtal digitations
might have been brought into more immediate contact with the
blood of the parent. I however was fortunate enough to obtain
a fish, in the uterus of which I discovered a considerable
quantity of fluid, and on collecting it, and submitting
it to chemical tests, I found that this fluid contained a
considerable quantity of an animal substance, resembling, to
a certain extent, some of the compounds that are formed from
albumen during the process of digestion. The fluid was of
yellowish color, translucent, deposited on standing some small
globules which under the microscope strongly refracted the
light, were not altered by acetic acid, but dissolved in ether;
probably fat globules; when heated, there was no coagulation,
although the fluid was not quite so clear; solution of Hg Cl₂
caused no precipitate; tannin in solution caused a yellowish
precipitate. In adding ether to a portion of the fluid, there
was a free disengagement of gas, a white flocculent precipitate
was formed, and on allowing the vessel to stand, the fluid
separated itself into three portions: the upper portion
consisting of pure ether apparently, then a layer containing
white flocculi, which occupied about the fourth part of the
fluid, and below this the remains of the original fluid, but
little altered in appearance. There can, I think, be little
doubt but that it is through the medium of this fluid that the
fœtus obtains its nourishment. The considerable portion of
animal matter it contains, and that too in a state particularly
fitted for absorption and for conversion into tissue, fits it
for furnishing the fœtus with the elements necessary for its
growth by absorption through the large surface of capillary
vessels which are found in the vascular digitations that
surround the fœtus, and which are constantly bathed in the
fluid. The difficulty that up to the present time has attended
every attempt to trace the connection between the parent and
fœtus in these embiotocoid fishes, is owing, in the first
place, to the extreme delicacy of the vascular digitations of
the fœtus, which prevents their being observed in preserved
specimens, and also to the fact that in almost every case
the fluid secreted by the uterus is entirely expelled by the
violent struggles of the fish when removed from the water,
so that it was almost by a rare accident that I succeeded in
obtaining any. I hope, however, during the coming season, to be
able more fully to carry out these researches.

SAN FRANCISCO, January 21st, 1867.

Mr. Bolander exhibited the cones of many species of pines growing in this State, and stated what was known concerning the peculiarities of the different species, and their geographical distribution.

He stated that the pines of California comprise sixteen true
species, which he described briefly. There are twenty synonyms
for these species, which have created some confusion as to
their real name and number. The correct names of all, with
the popular characteristics of the most striking, and their
distribution, are given herewith. The names marked thus * are
those of trees having persistent cones, which they retain from
ten to twenty years in some instances. Those marked thus †
retain their cones but two years. Those marked thus ‡ retain
them but one year:

_Pinus insignis._*—Well known as the ornamental Monterey pine,
which is much cultivated in San Francisco.

_P. muricata._*—Not remarkable.

_P. contorta._*—Small and bushy, but valuable as shelter
against wind. Grows abundantly near Fort Bragg, in the
Mendocino country, where it makes the stoutest wind-proof hedge
known. Ought to be tried in San Francisco.

_P. tuberculata._*—Always small, seldom higher than 15 to 30
feet.

_P. ponderosa._‡—The well known yellow pine. Attains a height
of 225 feet and more, and a circumference of 23 or 24 feet.

_P. Lambertiana._*—The equally well known, larger and handsome
“sugar pine,” or “long-cone pine” of Frémont. Usually grows at
great altitudes; exceedingly valuable for timber, and affords
the principal supplies.

_P. Coulteri._†—Found in the lower eastern slope of the Coast
Range. Not very large; sometimes attains a height of 75 feet;
knotty, but ornamental. It is remarkable for having the largest
cone of all the pines, and specimens of its cone, when first
known, brought five guineas in England.

_P. Sabiniana._†—This is the nut pine of the foothills,
sometimes called the “scrub pine,” or “silver pine.” The Digger
Indians gather the nuts from its cone as a favorite article of
food. It is found on the foothills of both Coast Ranges and
Sierra Nevada.

Mr. Bolander mentioned several species in the group of coast
pines which he had not seen, viz: _P. Llaveana_, east of San
Diego; _P. deflexa_, on the summit of the California Mountains;
_P. Torreyana_,* near San Diego.

_P. monticola._‡—A tall tree and affording fine timber; said to
be hardier than the sugar pine, and might be preferred if its
position near the summit did not make it difficult of access.

_P. flexilis._‡—This grows on windy heights in the form of a
low shrub, so stout and thick that a man can stand on its top.
In low altitudes it reaches a height of a hundred feet. It is
useful only for firewood.

_P. monophylla._—This is a stunted, twisted tree, which grows
on the eastern slope of the Sierra, where it corresponds to the
nut-pine on the western slope. At a distance it resembles in
shape the live oak. Its cone is ill shapen and has an offensive
odor, but yields a sweet nut.

_P. Balfouriana._—This species is found near Scott’s Valley, in
Northern California.

Five species in the above list—_insignis_, _muricata_,
_Llaveana_, _deflexa_ and _Torreyana_—are peculiar to the sea
coast. Five species—the _contorta_, _ponderosa_, _Lambertiana_,
_Sabiniana_, _tuberculata_—are found both in the Coast Ranges
and Sierra Nevada. The _Coulteri_ is found only in the Coast
Range, eastern slope; the _monticola_ only high in the Sierra;
the _flexilis_ only on the upper Sierra and western slope of
the same; and the _monophylla_ only on the eastern slope.

REGULAR MEETING, FEBRUARY 4TH, 1867.

President in the Chair.

Twenty-eight members present.

Messrs. Joseph P. LeCount, C. Von Liebenau, Amory F. Bell, W. C. Walker, George H. Powers, Thomas Bennett, M.D., L. Gilson, Delos J. Howe, R. S. Williamson, U. S. Engineers, R. D’Heureuse, Rev. John F. Harrington, H. C. Hyde, G. B. Hitchcock and Jacob Bacon were elected Resident Members.

Donations to Library: Review of the Mining, Agricultural and Commercial Interests of the Pacific States, from J. H. Carmany. Essai Politique sur la Nouvelle Espagne, by A. de Humboldt, 2 Vols., 4to., and atlas folio, Paris, 1811, presented by A. Sutro.

Professor Whitney read the following communication:

On the Fresh Water Infusorial Deposits of the Pacific Coast, and their Connection with the Volcanic Rocks.

BY J. D. WHITNEY.

The microscopic discoveries of the last few years have
immensely extended the range and importance of the minute,
and, to the naked eye, invisible organisms, which, under the
general designation of “Infusoria,” are recognized as a part of
the kingdom of nature. It is especially to Ehrenberg that we
are indebted for a demonstration of the geological importance
of the Diatoms, those microscopic organisms which so long
puzzled naturalists to decide whether they were animal or
vegetable in their nature, but which are now, by the majority
of zoölogists, referred to as plants. In Ehrenberg’s great
work, the “Mikrogeologie,” or geology in little, this eminent
naturalist has given the results of the examination, by
himself, of specimens of infusorial rocks, soils, ashes, dust,
and other accumulations or masses of matter from every quarter
of the globe: these investigations show most conclusively
that deposits of vast extent—of such magnitude, indeed, as to
form no inconsiderable portion of the earth’s crust—are the
result of organic agencies, and that what seems to the eye an
unorganized mass, may in reality be made up of the delicately
wrought and almost infinitely minute remains of plant or animal
life.

That animals, or plants, so minute that a hundred millions of
distinct individuals will scarcely weigh a single grain, should
form accumulations hundreds of feet in thickness and extending
over thousands of square miles, seems a hardly credible
statement; but a fact still more difficult to believe and
comprehend is one which is thoroughly established by abundant
evidence, namely: that immense deposits of volcanic materials,
or, at least, of materials closely connected in their origin
and nature with volcanic action, and spread over vast tracts of
country in different parts of the world, are also, to a large
extent, made up of these microscopic organisms, the existence
of which seems dependent on the presence of water, and so
utterly at variance with a condition of volcanic activity.

Throughout this volcanic region of California, Oregon, Nevada,
and probably as far north as the igneous masses extend, which
are well known to cover a vast area on the western side of our
continent, there are found deposits, which are usually called
“fire-clay,” “kaolin,” “pipe-clay,” or simply “clay;”[30] these
masses are, however, not at all of the nature of kaolin, nor
are they proper clay, although they may, in places, pass into
clay or shale.

The material of which this deposit is made up is exceedingly
fine-grained, seemingly an impalpable powder, usually perfectly
white and more or less distinctly stratified. It is extremely
light, and resembles commercial magnesia more than anything
else. In its geological position, it is found underlying the
basaltic masses, or the products of the last great eruptive
action of the Sierra Nevada. It is often associated with, or
intercalated among beds of gravel, fine or coarse-grained
sandstone and shales, and bears the evident marks of being a
sedimentary deposit made along the sides of a gently-descending
broad valley, or lake-like expansion of a valley. This is
its character in the Sierra Nevada; but as we go north and
northeast, and come on to the great volcanic table lands
of Northern California and Southern and Eastern Oregon, we
find the thickness of the deposits of this kind of material
increasing, and the area occupied by them more considerable.
The following localities are especially worthy of notice: North
of Virginia City, Nevada; Surprise Valley; Pit River, near
mouth of Canoe Creek; Klamath Basin, or in the vicinity of
Wright, Rhett and Klamath Lakes; the Des Chutes Basin.

Of all the localities, the last mentioned would seem to be the
most remarkable for the extent and thickness of the deposits in
question. It was from here that the first specimens examined by
Ehrenberg, in 1849, were brought by Frémont, who represented
the deposit as 500 feet thick. This region has since been
examined by Dr. Newberry, who describes the cañons of the
tributaries of the Des Chutes as in places 2,000 feet deep, the
plateaux between which cañons are covered by basaltic lava,
and this is seen, in the magnificent sections thus presented,
to rest on a thickness of hundreds of feet of tufaceous
strata interstratified with a variety of beds of volcanic
conglomerates, pumice sand, ashes, etc. Dr. Newberry speaks of
tufaceous strata 1,200 feet in thickness, in the cañon near the
mouth of the Mptolyas River.

The white material, of which some of the more prominent
localities have been indicated above, and which is well known
to explorers under so many names, as already mentioned, is
in reality chiefly of a silicious character, and made up, to
a large extent, of organic bodies of microscopic dimensions,
infusoria, or _Diatomaceæ_. This fact was first recognized
in the case of the specimens collected by Frémont on the Des
Chutes River, and examined by Bailey and Ehrenberg. Specimens
collected by Dr. Newberry, on the Pacific Railroad Survey, were
also examined by Professor Bailey, but I am not aware that any
detailed description of the results was ever published.

Among the collection of the Geological Survey are a large
number of specimens of the white infusorial deposit, underlying
the lava at various localities. Of these a preliminary
examination has been made by Professor Brewer, and a large
supply of material is now in the hands of Mr. A. M. Edwards,
of New York, for a detailed examination and report. The fact
has been already well demonstrated that all or nearly all these
fine, white, light masses are made up, to a large extent, of
the silicious remains of the _diatomaceæ_, and in all cases of
forms peculiar to fresh water. The geological position of these
beds is extremely recent. They extend from the latter portion
of the Pliocene into the Post-pliocene epoch, and seem to have
continued their existence nearly, if not quite, down to the
present day.

So far the facts are very simple, and the principal results
of our detailed microscopic examination of these infusorial
deposits will be, the knowledge of the range of the different
species which occur in them, and the relations of the various
forms to those now living, either in this region or in other
parts of the world. This the extent of our collections will
give us better opportunities to do than others have yet had.

There is a point, however, of great interest connected with
these deposits, in regard to which I desire to make some
remarks at this present time, and on which I consider that our
explorations are capable of throwing some light.

Ehrenberg has recently[31] examined a specimen collected
many years ago, in the Toluca Valley, Mexico, by the
well-known mining engineer Burkart, of what he denominates
a “Phytolitharien Tuff” or phytolithic tufa, and which came
to him labeled “Trachytic Tufa, from Toluca Valley, _quere_,
whether pumice-like or infusorial.” Of this, Ehrenberg says:
“It is a silver-gray, easily crumbled, gritty tufa, which does
not effervesce with acids, and which, when heated, becomes
darker, but not black, and then assumes a light-brownish
color.” The microscopic analysis of it showed that it was made
up to a large extent of phytolitharia, which probably belong
chiefly to the grasses, and between them lie scattered a
comparatively small number of bacillaria. All are fresh-water
forms.

In his remarks on this material, Ehrenberg recalls the other
specimens of infusorial tufas, which have been examined by
him, at various times, since 1839. He mentions particularly
the rock from the Des Chutes River, collected by Frémont; also
trachytic tufa, with organic remains, from Honduras; trachytic
tufa from the volcano Maibu, in Chile; the mud-ejections (?)
of the volcanoes near Quito; the ejections (?) of the volcano
Imbabaru, as well as those from the island of Guadaloupe.

In regard to the Des Chutes River deposit, it may be
incidentally remarked that the eminent microscopist seems to
assign to it a much greater geological age than it really
deserves; it is, unquestionably, as recent as the latter part
of the Pliocene.

It would appear from what Ehrenberg has published, that he
considers this occurrence of organic forms, in connection with
reputed volcanic masses, to be something extremely difficult
to explain, as indeed it is, if we adopt the view taken by
him, namely, that these so-called tufaceous materials are the
direct products of volcanic action; that is to say, that they
have been ejected from craters, either in the form of showers
of ashes or of mud out-flows. It would be, indeed, to my
comprehension, something entirely inexplicable, that such vast
masses of matter, made up to a large extent of organic forms,
should be poured forth from the interior of the earth. This
would be the case, as it appears to me, no matter what theory
of volcanic action one might choose to adopt; since, whatever
may be the cause, no one will deny that a high temperature is,
at least, one of the results. That Ehrenberg really considers
these infusorial deposits to be of eruptive origin, is evident
from a remark in his last communication, (that in reference
to the specimen from the Toluca Valley) to the effect that
the occurrence of fresh-water forms, exclusively, in these
infusorial masses is evidence that volcanic phenomena are not
dependent on, or connected with, the presence of sea-water,
as is generally supposed, from the fact that volcanoes are
situated, in most cases, near the sea coast.

Not having the necessary works of reference at hand to be able
to see, in all the cases cited by Ehrenberg, exactly what
the evidence is, on which his theory of the origin of these
infusorial deposits is founded, I will not attempt to give an
authoritative statement in regard to any others than those
which belong to this coast; but I cannot avoid drawing the
inference, that the same conditions which are so easily traced
here will, on future examination, be found existing in all the
other localities cited by him.

The mode of occurrence of these fresh-water infusorial deposits
in California, and on the Pacific coast in general, is very
simple. They are accumulations of organisms which have been
collected at the bottom of the lakes, or in the lake-like
shallow expansions of rivers, in which they grew. This growth
took place at a time when volcanic agencies were busily at
work, giving rise to accumulations of ashes, pumice, and
other materials. The rapidity with which these infusorial
deposits form, at the present time even, the vast extent over
which they are distributed, and the general importance in the
geological history of the earth, are now matters which are well
understood, of the masses thus accumulated and in regard to
which the store of facts has been rapidly growing in magnitude
during the past few years. The mud deposits and deltas of
rivers, the bottoms of lakes and swamps, and the bed of the
ocean itself, are the repositories of these forms. Heat and
stagnant water seem to be what is required for their rapid
reproduction and the consequent rapid accumulation of their
remains.

The infusorial deposits of Central California—I refer now
to those of fresh water origin, and connected with volcanic
masses—are all situated in such positions as to show, that
they were formed and deposited in shallow water; that, through
the various alternations of calm and convulsion in the Sierra,
they were at one time allowed to accumulate in quiet, then
swept over by masses of gravel and sand, indicating a furious
rush of water, then covered with a shower of ashes and pumice
from the neighboring volcanoes of the Sierra then in active
operation; and finally, at the grand finale of the basaltic
lava overflow of the chain, capped with this indestructible
material, which has effectually prevented the washing away of
the otherwise easily removed infusorial deposits. This is the
connection between the volcanic and the infusorial masses; by
their absolute indestructibility the former have protected the
latter from denudation, and consequently we see them always
accompanying each other: for where the cover did not exist,
there the denuding forces have swept away every vestige of
the soft and easily yielding material, or else it remains
concealed under the water. To form an idea of the extent of
the erosion which has taken place since these infusorial beds
were deposited, and the consequent change in the configuration
of the country, we must bear in mind that the whole of the
present river cañons on the west slope of the Sierra have been
excavated since that time, and that, in many places, the
strata have been removed to a vertical depth of between two and
three thousand feet.

Everything shows that the surface covered by fresh water in
the region east of the crest of the Sierra was, at a not very
distant epoch, much greater in extent than it now is. There
existed, probably during or immediately after the glacial
epoch, a chain of great lakes occupying a large portion of the
country from Walker’s Lake to the Des Chutes River, a distance
of about four hundred miles, and extending over a breadth of
not less than one hundred. A large portion of this region is
now a volcanic plateau; and, where cut into by the force of
running water, the deposits of infusorial strata may be seen,
sometimes thin and unimportant, but often of great thickness.
Observations and measurements of terraces and determination of
the altitude of all these old lake deposits will enable us at
some future time to indicate on the map the area once occupied
by this great chain of inland seas. The vast extent of the
lacustrine infusorial formations on the east side of the Sierra
is thus accounted for, as well as the comparatively small area
which they cover on the western slope.

In addition to the stratigraphical reason given above why
the infusorial strata should occur connected with eruptive
masses, there may be a chemical one which shall, in part,
account for the apparent great development of the _diatomaceæ_
in volcanic regions. These organisms require an amount of
silica, infinitesimally small for each individual, but in
reality enormous for the number of organisms required to
develop themselves over the vast area and with the thickness
which they occupy. That a volcanic region should supply a
larger amount of silica in the state in which it can be
appropriated by the _diatomaceæ_, is extremely probable. We
know that silicification of all organic matters occurring in
these volcanic regions of our coast proceeds with the greatest
rapidity, and has taken place on an extensive scale. The
thermal springs contain a great amount of free silica, and
it is in the vicinity of such springs that large infusorial
deposits are frequently found. It seems that it could only
be in regions particularly favorable for the secretion of
their silicious coverings, that these infusoria could be
accumulated with such rapidity as to form what may be called,
without exaggeration, mountain masses. It is also possible
that temperature may have something to do with this rapid
development, and that volcanic regions may on this account be
favorable to it.

To my apprehension, the phenomena of infusorial deposits in
connection with volcanic masses admit of an easy explanation
on this coast, at least; and I can hardly believe that any of
the localities of _diatomaceæ_, if closely examined, would
present any such difficulties as to make the assumption
necessary that they have been ejected from the interior of the
earth. In cases where infusoria seem to have been actually
ejected from craters, as is said to have been the case in
some of the South American volcanoes, it is not difficult to
understand that an ancient crater may have become filled up and
temporarily converted into a lake; and that, after the growth
and deposition of an infusorial deposit at the bottom, a new
eruption may have broken out in the same place as a previous
one, or in its immediate neighborhood. In such a case, among
the ejected material, a large quantity of the infusoria would
be found mingled with the ashes, which must pass through the
material collected in the bottom of the crater as they rise
from the interior of the earth. The bursting of lakes at the
bases of volcanic cones, caused by the rapid melting of the
snows above them, have often given rise to torrents of volcanic
mud, called “Moya” in South America, in which both animal and
vegetable remains are often inclosed in great quantity; but the
connection between the organic and inorganic phenomena, in such
cases, is perfectly evident.

In fact, I see no reason for suspecting any connection between
the infusorial deposits and the volcanic masses of this coast,
or of any other part of the world, which should influence the
geologist in forming an opinion with regard to the cause or the
locality of volcanic action.

In conclusion, it may be remarked that the marine infusorial
rocks of the Pacific coast, and especially of California,
are of great extent and importance. They occur in the Coast
Ranges, from Clear Lake to Los Angeles. They are of no little
economical, as well as scientific, interest; since, as I
conceive, the existence of bituminous materials in this State,
in all their forms, from the most liquid to the most dense, is
due to the presence of infusoria—the proofs of which statement
I will, at some future time, endeavor to set before the Academy.

[30] They are also frequently called “magnesia,” and have been
repeatedly stated by “assayers” in San Francisco to be made up
of that earth.

[31] See Monatsbericht der Kön. Preuss. Akad. zu Berlin, 1866,
page 158.

Dr. Kellogg read a paper on “Fungi,” in which he gave a full account of their nature, distribution, and uses.

Mr. Lorquin exhibited two ducks, and made some remarks in regard to them. One of them he considered a hybrid between the Pintail and the Mallard, and the other between the Pintail and the Teal.

Mr. Falkenau gave an account of the chemical reactions of the red matter exhibited by Dr. Behr to the Academy, at the meeting of January 7th. The quantity was too small for a satisfactory result.

Dr. Stivers made some remarks on the _Nereocystes Lütkeana_, one of the Algæ, and remarkable for its absorptive power.

REGULAR MEETING, FEBRUARY 18TH, 1867.

President in the Chair.

Twenty-five members present.

Messrs. I. W. Raymond, Rodmond Gibbons, Thomas H. Selby, Daniel Knight, F. A. Holman, M. D., Edmund Scott, Henry Edwards, John Melville, George Daly, Robinson Gibbons, Gregory Yale, James Howden, George H. Fillmore, Marshall Hastings, John L. Eckley and Lee J. Ransom were elected Resident Members, and J. G. Cooper, M.D., a Life Member.

Donation to the Cabinet: A skull of a California Indian, taken from a burial place in Alameda County, near Centreville, by Mr. L. G. Yates.

Donation to the Library: The Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal for 1865 and 1866, by Dr. H. Gibbons.

Prof. W. P. Blake read the following communication:

Notice of Fossil Elephants’ Teeth from the Northwest Coast.

BY W. P. BLAKE.

The two molar teeth of the extinct elephant which I
exhibit this evening were presented to me by Col. Bulkley,
Superintendent of the American and Russian Telegraph. One is
from the mouth of the Yukon River, and the other from St.
Paul’s Island, near the middle of Behring’s Sea. The remains
of elephants are abundant in both places. Tusks are sometimes
found, and one has been sent by Col. Bulkley to the Smithsonian
Institution. These new localities may be regarded as forming
a connecting link between those of Siberia and America, and
indicate the former continuous distribution of the ancient
elephant upon the two continents.

The following list of localities, known to me, of similar
fossils in California, will show that the elephant must have
been frequently seen here in very early times: At Mare Island;
in Placer County, near Forest Hill; in Tuolumne County, at
Columbia, Shaw’s Flat, Texas Flat and near Sonora; in Calaveras
County, at Knight’s Ferry; in Los Angeles County, at San Pedro.
The last is, I believe, the most southern point at which such
remains have been found in this State.

Mr. Falkenau read a paper on Peat, in which he gave an account of the origin, distribution and uses of this material. In the discussion which followed the reading of this communication, it was stated by Mr. Bolander that no valuable beds of peat had yet been discovered on this coast. Messrs. Keyes and Behr also commented on supposed discoveries of this material in California. The peculiar climate of this region was noticed as unfavorable to the development of this material.

Dr. H. Gibbon made some remarks on the simultaneity of storms on both sides of this continent.

Prof. Whitney made some remarks supplementary to his communication to the Academy in 1862, on the question—“Which is the highest mountain in the United States, and which in North America?”

He remarked that but little had been done, outside of
California, during the last five years, towards improving
our knowledge of the topography of the western part of our
continent. Some valuable contributions to the physical
geography of the central portion of the eastern edge of the
Rocky Mountains, have been published by Drs. C. C. Parry
and Engelmann in the Transactions of the St. Louis Academy,
(1863 and 1866) and several peaks were measured by Dr.
Parry; but of these only two are located on any map, namely:
Long’s and Pike’s. Of these Long’s Peak is 13,456 feet, and
Pike’s, 14,215; this latter being the highest summit in the
Rocky Mountain range, at least within the borders of our own
territory. Of the continuation of the Rocky Mountains north
into British Columbia, but little is known. Some peaks are
said to be 16,000 feet and over in height; but it is believed
that no accurate measurements have been made in that region;
and, further, it is not at all in accordance with what we
have learned of the relation of peaks to passes in other
mountain chains, to suppose that when the passes are as low
as 5,000 feet, the mountains on either hand should rise to an
altitude of 16,000 feet. This would be more probable were the
high points volcanic cones; but this they are not supposed to
be. Lord Milton and Dr. Cheadle’s book, recently published,
gives no information as to the height of the peaks near the
pass traversed by their party, (the Leather Head Pass) except
a statement that one point, far exceeding all others in
elevation, was “from 10,000 to 15,000 feet high.”

Professor Whitney referred again to the fact that the height
of Mt. St. Elias, as given on the British Admiralty charts,
and probably from Sir Edward Belcher’s measurement, namely,
14,970 feet, was still ignored by all compilers of gazetteers
and geographies, even down to Ansted’s latest work, published
in 1867. The old figures, 17,854 feet, obtained from an old
Spanish document found in Mexico by Humboldt, have been shown
to be grossly exaggerated by two separate measurements of more
modern times.

The recent measurement of Mt. Hood by Mr. A. Wood, was
mentioned, and several reasons given why little weight should
be attached to it. If Mr. Wood’s measurement were correct, the
height of Mt. Hood must be nearly 4,000 feet greater than that
of Mt. Shasta, and so notable a fact would have been clearly
recognized by explorers, as it always has been that Mt. Shasta
itself is nearly that much higher than Lassen’s Peak. But, on
the other hand, experienced observers have stated that Mt.
Hood was not as high as Mt. Shasta, nor as Mt. Adams, or Mt.
Rainier, this last-named peak being, according to Wilkes,
only 12,300 feet. Again, Mt. Hood was roughly measured by Dr.
Vansant, and his result (11,934 feet) gives the height of that
mountain as less than that of Mt. Adams, also measured by him
with the same instrument, and this instrument could hardly have
been so rough and liable to error as the one employed by Mr.
Wood. Further, this last-named gentleman gives the limit of
forest vegetation on Mt. Hood as 9,000 feet, while our careful
observations on Mt. Shasta place it on that mountain, at 8,000
feet. It is certainly contrary to what we have everywhere
on this coast observed, to suppose that the limit to which
arboreal growth reaches, should not fall considerably in going
north three hundred miles, rather than rise 1,000 feet, as
would be the case if Mr. Wood’s measurements were correct.
Finally, that Mr. Wood’s figures are not very reliable is
shown by the fact, that on plotting his estimates of distances
traveled and the angles of the slopes as given by him, it was
found that, to correspond with his statements, the mountain
must be no less than 33,400 feet high.

Finally, Professor Whitney concluded that we have as yet no
satisfactory evidence to invalidate the statement previously
made by him, that we have in California the highest mountains
in the United States, and the grandest and largest mountain
mass in North America, although one or two of the volcanic
cones of Mexico rise to higher altitudes than any of our peaks.

Prof. Whitney also exhibited one of the short barometers made for the Geological Survey, by James Green, of New York. Having had occasion to work at high elevations—the party being sometimes, for weeks together, camped at from 8,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea—it has been found that the vacuum in the ordinary barometer tubes soon becomes deteriorated, and the mercury dirty from the constant lowering and raising of the column, which is required when a large number of observations are taken at so great an elevation. By having the barometer tube made only long enough to commence the reading at about twenty-four inches, or at an elevation of 6,000 or 7,000 feet, the difficulty above specified is to a great degree avoided, and the instrument made much more portable and convenient to carry, especially on peaks so steep that both hands are needed to aid in climbing. Two of these short barometers have been used in the high mountain work of the California Survey, and found extremely convenient. Of course the short barometer must be compared with a long one at some station camp of sufficiently great elevation to allow this to be done.

Dr. Gibbons made some remarks on the inferior quality of the macadamizing material employed in this city. He inquired if any person knew of the existence of any better stone for this purpose, in the vicinity of San Francisco. Prof. Whitney replied that an excellent basaltic rock was to be had in great abundance near Petaluma, at a point convenient for shipment, and that there was no really valuable rock for macadamizing to be had nearer than this point.

REGULAR MEETING, MARCH 4TH, 1867.

President in the Chair.

Twenty-nine members present.

Messrs. J. M. Sibley, William Norris, Henry Pickel, John W. Nystrom, Ross E. Brown, Cornelius B. Miller and Theodore P. Painter were elected Resident Members.

Donations to the Cabinet: “Electro-Silicon,” (Infusorial Silica) from Six-Mile Cañon, near Virginia City, Nevada, from Dr. Lanszweert; Fossil Fruit, from Long Valley, Mendocino County, from C. Beottie; Fossil Shells, from the line of the Erie (Steuben County, N. Y.) Railroad, by A. T. Beardsley; Magnesium Wire, by C. Z. Wilson; Fragment from the “Pyramid of Cheops,” by Mr. Elliott; Two Specimens of Petrified Wood, from Sonoma County, Package of Coffee Seed and Specimen of Nest of Trap-Door Spider, from Dr. Kellogg.

Prof. Whitney announced the death of Alexander Dallas Bache, and read a notice of his life and eminent scientific services.

Mr. Stearns read the following communication, prefacing it with some remarks on the hibernation and æstivation of land shells:

Remarkable Instance of Vitality in a Snail.

In that invaluable work to the conchological student, entitled
“Recent and Fossil Shells,” by S. P. Woodward, pp. 18 and 19,
reference is made to certain genera and species of land shells,
and several instances are cited proving the remarkable vitality
of these comparatively insignificant animals, and their ability
to exist for great lengths of time without food.

Particular mention is made of a specimen of the snail _Helix
desertorum_, which was affixed to a tablet in the British
Museum, March 25th, 1846, and upon the 7th of March, 1850, it
was observed that the animal must have come out of the shell,
as the paper was discolored in the attempt to get away, but
finding escape impossible, it had withdrawn inside of the shell
and closed the aperture with the usual glistening film, which
led to its immersion in tepid water and marvelous recovery. It
will be noticed that this period embraced nearly four years.

A more remarkable case has come under my observation, which is
worthy of mention.

Dr. Veatch, a member of this Academy, visited Cerros or Cedros
Island, opposite the west coast of Lower California, and upon
his return, in the year 1859, brought home, among other
shells, a species of Helix, supposed to be new, described by
Dr. Newcomb, of Oakland, and to which the latter gave the
name of _Helix Veatchii_; many specimens of this species were
obtained, and some of them were given by Dr. Veatch to the late
Thomas Bridges. Mr. Bridges died in September, 1865, and in
December of the same year a portion of his collection passed
into my hands, including the same specimens of _Helix Veatchii_
to which I have before alluded. Judge of my surprise, when one
day, upon a careful examination, I detected a living specimen,
which, after being placed in a box of moist earth, in a short
time commenced crawling about, apparently as well as ever.
Fearing from its activity that by some accident it might crawl
away, and I might thus lose it, after a fortnight’s furlough
from its long imprisonment, I placed it in a pill-box, marking
the date of its reimprisonment upon the cover, in order that
at some future time I may examine it, and ascertain possibly,
if it does not outlive _me_, how long a snail can live without
rations.

Here is an instance of a snail living at least six years—in
Californian parlance, without a single “square meal.”

Mr. Bolander made some remarks in regard to the botanical collections of Mr. Alphonso Wood, in California and Oregon, in 1866.

Mr. Wood claims to have collected in five months, in
California, 1,490 species of flowering plants, as appears by a
letter over his own signature in the San Francisco Bulletin;
furthermore, he also asserts, that during his whole journey
in California and Oregon he collected 15,000 specimens,
representing 2,794 species of plants. This journey occupied
about eleven months, including the time spent in coming from
and returning to the East. The route of Mr. Wood was from
San Diego north, through the regions which have been most
thoroughly collected over and studied by botanists, namely,
along the stage road to Los Angeles and San Bernardino, then to
San Louis Obispo, Santa Cruz, and north through the Sacramento
Valley, past the base of Mount Shasta, and along the stage road
to the Columbia River. Mr. Bolander considered it probable that
there were not over 500 species of flowering plants actually
existing in that part of California explored by Mr. Wood,
and in which he professes to have collected 1,490 species.
According to Professor Brewer’s careful investigations, it
appears that over fifty botanists have collected in California
and Oregon, during a period extending back for more than
seventy years. Some of these collectors were engaged for years
in the business, and had far greater facilities at their
command than those enjoyed by Mr. Wood, and they have jointly
thoroughly explored a far greater area than that even hastily
passed over by him. Yet, the sum total of all the species
obtained, up to the time of Mr. Wood’s visit, is only about
1,800 species, while he claims to have found 2,794; that is to
say, nearly 1,000 species more than had been brought to light
by fifty persons in seventy years. The absurdity of Mr. Wood’s
claims is self-evident. But, a comparison of his figures with
those of Eastern botanists will throw still further light
on this subject. Professor Gray enumerates, in his manual,
only 2,426 species of plants as occurring in the eighteen
Northern United States and Canada East, embracing an area of
no less than 600,000 square miles. The whole of California and
Oregon includes only about 250,000 square miles, only a very
small portion of which could have been thoroughly explored by
Mr. Wood; how unlikely, then, that he should have actually
obtained, in nine months, 368 species more on 250,000 square
miles, than all the botanists of the East have found on more
than double that area. Mr. Bolander also brought forward
ample evidence to show that Mr. Wood was not competent to
determine how many new species he had collected, proving by the
written statements of Dr. Kellogg, and others, that he was not
acquainted with some of the most common and easily recognized
genera of this coast.

Dr. Gibbons made some remarks on the rain-fall of this region during the last seventeen years.

Mr. Gutzkow exhibited a sheet of metallic silver of three feet in diameter, and about three ounces Troy weight, which had the appearance and consistency of white writing paper. It was taken from the surface of a lead-lined tank, in which a solution of protoxide of iron was saturated, near the boiling point, with sulphate of silver. If the temperature of the solution is maintained at a certain height, sheet after sheet can be stripped off from the surface. The silver thus obtained, is, after washing with muriatic acid to free it from the iron solution, chemically pure, and by its peculiar shape and purity, well adapted to serve as proof silver for assaying purposes. The experiment will work only when operating on a rather large scale, so as to prevent the too sudden cooling of the solution. The chemical action to which it is due is the oxydation of the protoxide of iron into sesquioxide at the expense of the oxygen combined with the silver. This oxydation, which is known to precipitate the silver as a whitish powder, begins to take place only at a certain temperature below the boiling point, and is made, in the above experiment, to act on the crystals of sulphate of silver separating on the surface of the slowly cooling solution.

REGULAR MEETING, MARCH 18TH, 1867.

President in the Chair.

Twenty-six members present.

Messrs. Elisha Brooks, Ellis H. Holmes, L. C. Lane, M.D., John C. Pelton, J. M. Sharkey, M.D., J. A. Bauer, and Robert Hagen, were elected Resident Members, and W. H. Dall a Corresponding Member.

Donations to the Cabinet: Crystal of Borax, from Borax Lake, by Mr. Lightner; a Bald Eagle, by Dr. Ayres; a specimen of Wallapi Food, by Frank S. Alling, El Dorado Cañon; gold-bearing Quartz, from South Carolina, by Gregory Yale; Wolf Fish, from Frank Johnson; specimen of _Bdellostoma_, from Dr. Canfield.

Dr. Cooper presented the following paper:

The West Coast Helicoid Land Shells.

BY J. G. COOPER, M.D.