Chapter II: Part 2

As a matter of fact, Shipley has argued that the ratio of murders in various cities of the United States is directly related to the prevalence of various alien races, the Mexicans being the chief homicidal offenders (121 murders per 100,000 of the population), followed by the Chinese (65) and the Italians (50.2) (20).

The statistics for suicide in Table VI are mostly for cities with low smoke density. It is observable, however, that the suicide rates are low in the two worst smoke-offending cities tabulated, viz., St. Louis and Pueblo.

TABLE VI.

SUICIDE RATES PER 100,000 IN AMERICAN CITIES FROM 1900-1909.

(L. L. Hoffman.)

San Francisco 52.0
San Diego 38.5
Hoboken 35.4
Sacramento 35.3
Los Angeles 30.2
Oakland, Cal. 29.7
St. Louis 29.7
Seattle 27.8
Springfield, Ill. 27.8
Pueblo 27.7

These statistics are in complete agreement with European suicide statistics. The traditional view had it there was an abnormally large percentage of suicides in England and that this was largely due to a cosmic factor--the murky, smoky gloom of Great Britain. Investigation shows, however, that the percentage of suicide in England is less than in any other European country. (See 15, and references in 2.)

For assault and battery, and drunkenness I have been unable to obtain statistics. I believe, however, that we are justified in concluding, from the rather meager facts in our possession, that the devitalizing weather conditions produced by manufacturing cities do not increase misdemeanors and crime. On the contrary, they seem to inhibit rather than incite offenses against the law. From the standpoint of the police courts depleting days seem to be a desirable asset, while bright, tonic, irritating days are an undesirable asset. Granting the truth of this contention, let us not forget the complementary and more important facts presented in the preceding pages; namely, that gloomy, humid, foggy days (such days as are produced by smoke-begrimed skies) lessen vital potential, reduce or retard activity and impair efficiency, while bright, dry, sunshiny days increase the potential reserve, liberate energy, augment working capacity and stimulate ambition. To be sure, an unbroken series of smoky days might prove too stimulating, or at least too monotonous, but the elimination of city smoke will at the most only eliminate the frequent and oppressive smoke-induced weather clouds. Nature will still furnish an ample supply of misty, cloudy and rainy days.

_NOTE ON THE INFLUENCE OF CLOUDY AND CLEAR DAYS ON THE INSANE._

Books on psychiatry and several psychopathologists whom I have consulted have very little scientifically established information to offer on the reactions of the insane to divers weather states. The following reply from Dr. Max E. Witte who, as Superintendent of large hospitals, has been in intimate contact with the insane for over a third of a century, is suggestive: “I regret that I am unable to give you anything definitely set down in black and white, and in figures, but there is no question whatsoever, and it is a matter of remark, even to the least observant of our nurses, that the insane are very sensitive to weather conditions, and are particularly disturbed and influenced in an unfavorable way by clouded, overcast weather. Those who are of an excitable, maniacal tendency are more noisy, boisterous, and restless; those who are depressed are more gloomy, and inclined to forebodings, and generally more miserable in feeling than they are during dry and clear weather.

A period of several consecutive days of clouded, overcast weather is promptly followed by reports of restlessness, greater depression, and a general disposition to be disorderly, and even violent, on the part of those who are disposed that way.

On the other hand, dry, sunshiny weather coming on after such a period, is soon followed by quieter, gentler and generally more comfortable moods.

The insane, unless materially demented, react more fully to outside influences, due in part, in some forms, to greater emotional mobility, and more particularly to a lack of restraint by the will; and also, in part, to the fact that they have their attention less occupied with the matters and affairs of every day life, than do the sane. Still, I take it, that the sane, judging by myself, are subconsciously influenced by weather conditions. I notice in myself, on observation and analysis, that the shades that haunt me during gloomy weather, fade with the coming of the sun.

I have no doubt that the climatic conditions that permanently manifest themselves, the clearness or cloudiness of the sky, have impressed the peoples, say for instance of Europe, in the course of ages, with certain national racial characteristics; and I have no doubt that the murky, smoky atmosphere of your city exerts an influence to a greater or lesser degree upon the morals and disposition of the young people who dwell habitually in your climate.

I do not recall ever having seen any study, or more extensive investigation of this interesting topic.”

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Figures placed within parenthesis refer to the corresponding references in the bibliography at the close of the paper.

[2] The writer has confirmed this statement in inquiries made among a number of recent professional arrivals in Pittsburgh, who say they are more fatigued by their work here than in other cities where they have labored.

II. The Aesthetic Aspects of Smoke Pollution

“The smoke nuisance is the greatest hindrance to the highest development of civic beauty and refinement” (Holdsworth, 33). Historically the first anti-smoke propagandas were waged against the nuisance on aesthetic grounds. In London the use of “Sea cole” was legally prohibited during a portion of the middle ages because the smoke palls marred the beauty of buildings, which were at that time painted in whitewash, with colored decorations in front (34). Violations of the smoke statute were considered so serious that a citizen of London was executed in 1306 for burning “Sea cole” (22). With the lapse of the anti-smoke ordinance in the middle of the sixteenth century the use of lime white and colored effects on the exterior of buildings was abandoned, and in their place appeared an unsightly, discolored, mottled, greasy coat of tarry soot on the outside of buildings.

A smoke-contaminated atmosphere imposes very severe restrictions on the efforts of the architect, sculptor, painter, decorator and landscape gardener to beautify our cities. This limitation applies to the character of the paints and colors, the nature of the materials, the style of architecture, interior decoration, and the possibilities of artistic horticultural effects.

Exterior painting in the form of mosaic or polychromic ornamentation cannot be successfully employed to any extent in smoky cities (32). Colored effects on stones, metals, ordinary or glazed bricks or faience will not for long retain their purity in a murky atmosphere. A grimy, blotchy, streaky, inartistic, abject appearance of the exterior chromatic decoration of buildings in smoky cities is a matter of common observation. Even glazed white bricks when used inside the building may become dirty and discolored. Observation shows that placards in red lead become gradually decolored in cities, even when protected against the sun and rain, but not in the country air (35). The pernicious influence of the smoke on color effects is probably due to the fact that the colors become mechanically covered over by a coat of tarry soot and dirt. This tarry mass may effectually obliterate all color effects. It tends to adhere so firmly that it can only be removed, if at all, with great difficulty and with the aid of special solvents, and in the process of removal the colored paints often tend to scale off with the dirt. The defiling effect of the actual dirt is the most objectionable influence of smoke on stained glass. But smoke may also cause the disintegration of paint films, owing to the corrosive agents which smoke often contains. It is thus evident that smoke largely restricts exterior coloration to a play of light and shade. In fact, it tends to restrict paint effects to the darker shades.

Smoke also causes decay of interior paintings and tends to restrict the furniture and furnishings to the more somber hues. In smoky atmospheres the interiors of buildings are usually more or less dark, hence special efforts must be made to keep the paintings free from dust and soot films. But constant mechanical or chemical cleaning or washing lessen the brilliancy of the color effects. A smooth, varnish-like or glazed coating on mural decorations is favorable for purposes of cleaning, but inimical to the best artistic effects. The matt enables the colored designs to show off to the best advantage, but matt is absorbent and attracts smoke and dirt products and resists successful cleaning. In the case of paint on plaster the corrosive products in smoke (particularly sulphuric acid) penetrate through the paint so that it tends to scale off; while in the case of fresco the porous surface of the carbonate of lime provides opportunity for the tenacious lodgment of dirt and for the destructive action of the acids. The carbonate is transformed into gypsum. It is so expanded that it loses its binding power, while the painting-ground is also often destroyed (30). It should be remarked incidentally that housewives in smoky cities are much inclined to keep doors and windows shut in order to exclude soot and dirt. While this may be aesthetically commendable, it is none the less hygienically objectionable. Moreover, the great amount of extra labor required to keep houses clean in smoky cities consumes the vital reserve of many women and robs them of the leisure moments which are theirs by right and which are essential for bodily rest and mental recreation and improvement.

Not only is smoke inimical to the highest aesthetic utilization of artificial coloration--particularly exterior coloration--but it obliterates the most richly colored panorama of nature, namely, the iridescent clouds of the sky. The situation in cities is bad enough without the smoke, for in large cities the tall buildings prevent many people from ever getting a glimpse of the beautiful cloudscapes of the sunset or the splendor of the sunrise. But when you add the smoke palls to the buildings you often effectually close all visual approach to the richly illumined and picturesquely silhouetted clouds of the day and the resplendent stars of the night. That this frequent obscuration of the sky limits the aesthetic resources of any community has been shown by the writer in the article to which reference has already been made (9).

Clouds are capable of calling out the strongest emotions of the soul--fear, depression, gloom, awe, reverence, joy, cheer and hope. Children take great delight in watching cloudscapes and in discovering objects in the constantly changing forms. Over one hundred different kinds of objects were recorded in the replies which were tabulated in this investigation. Richly illumined, iridescent and constantly changing cloudscapes afford a most fertile field for the exercise of imaginative creativeness. The masters who have charmed the race by their imaginative descriptions often have derived their most exquisite conceptions from the flying cloudscapes rather than from beautiful flowers, mountains, parks or buildings. No work of art can elevate the feelings to such lofty adoration of the marvels of nature as the colored glories of the sunset and sunrise (Biglow). The scenes of the Scandinavian gods and goddesses were staged in cloudland. The clouds have impressed themselves upon the cosmogony, mythology, religion, morals, beliefs and superstitions of primitive races as well as of modern children. The modern child’s emotional reactions are vestiges of ancestral attitudes towards clouds, while the modern painter and poet still find inspiration in cloudland. City smoke not only cheats us of our birthright, by depriving us of an important means for developing the powers of observation and imagination as well as of a source of aesthetic culture (because it covers the heavens with an opaque blanket); but it also displaces the cathedrals of nature with an uninteresting, nasty, black, opaque pall of soot which stimulates tendencies toward discontent and frequently arouses morbid emotions. Mankind has always taken a delight in color. Under primitive conditions man bedecks his body with colored habiliments for purely decorative rather than protective purposes. Deprived of the enjoyment of the natural terrestrial color effects by high buildings, man resorts to the artificial coloration of his buildings. But the smoke palls tend to subvert his every effort to satisfy the demands of his color sense. The abatement of smoke will do much to restore hue and chroma to their rightful places in the aesthetic development of manufacturing cities.

Smoke defaces, disfigures or destroys buildings and restricts the styles of architecture. The sulphuric acid particularly corrodes or disintegrates practically all kinds of building materials (slate and granite possibly excepted). Marble tends first to turn green and then black; limestone deteriorates very rapidly, turning to gypsum owing to its great affinity for sulphur. The absorption of sulphur causes the stone to expand, thus rendering it soluble and powdery so that particles are constantly washed or blown away. The very best stone obtainable was used in the new additions to the House of Parliament in London, and every care suggested by modern science was taken to preserve the materials, yet the buildings were much eroded after a few years. One of the worst aspects of the smoke nuisance is the insidiously destructive influence of smoke on ancient buildings, relics or monuments.

Smoke thus not only shortens the life of building materials, but it destroys the force of expression of the architecture so that buildings are reduced to a shabby mass of begrimed masonry. The sharp outstanding moldings, designs, friezes, cornices, ornaments and carvings--the essentially artistic in architectural construction--are not only rapidly eroded but they are obliterated by the dense deposit of tarry soot, or rendered invisible because of the diminished illumination caused by the murky palls of smoke that hang over our cities. In the city of London 650 tons of soot have been deposited per square mile of ground surface, and soot deposits 3/4 inch thick have been scraped from cornice projections. The beauty of the architectural views consists in the distinctness of the outlines. Soot deposits conceal the artistic effects not only on stone and brick but also on wood. The difficulty cannot be entirely overcome by cleaning, because cleaning tends to remove the sharp edges and outlines. Moreover, preservatives for water proofing often leave an unpleasant color and frequently are not effective unless 18 or 20 coats are applied (for example of baryta-water).

The ornamentation of city buildings is thus seriously restricted, while the preservation of historical landmarks is jeopardized by smoke pollution. Smoke and architectural embellishment are irreconcilable enemies.

The influence of smoke on metal work is equally pernicious. The sulphuretted hydrogen in smoke blackens, disfigures or tarnishes nearly all metals. Copper and bronze rapidly darken, iron rapidly corrodes, aluminum is affected by vapors and acids, many metals become pitted from electro-chemical action, and even gold or gilded articles become dull. Gilt titles on books will fade in the city while retaining their luster in the country. Bright and uneven metallic surfaces may also become coated with a mottled, sooty smear. To keep sign plates on any metal work bright and shiny requires constant work in smoky cities. The protective coatings used are not entirely satisfactory because they tend to crack or to peel off, or to leave pin holes. Constant cleaning entails large expense both because of the labor required and because of the wear on the metal. Rather than assume this added burden of expense merchants in smoky cities tend to minimize the use of brilliant metallic ornaments. In consequence such cities often lack that polished metallic splendor which is one of the charms of the tourist cities of the earth.

Outdoor statuary in metal or stone in smoky cities suffers from all the disadvantages affecting buildings and metal work. The bituminous deposits cannot be removed by washing, and statues can only be protected by layers of water proofing. But even then ugly layers of grime will cover the exterior and render unsightly some of our best treasures of municipal art.

The possibilities of landscape or decorative gardening are also artificially restricted in a smoky atmosphere. Cloudiness as such is one of the most important items in agricultural climatology. But in addition to this there are many shrubs and trees which do not thrive in smoke--rhododendrons, conifers, evergreens--while the beauty of all trees, shrubs and flowers is marred by deposits of smoky opacity.

In consequence of the above artistic limitations, the artistic education available not only for the masses but particularly for students of art in smoky cities, is necessarily restricted. Their first, and sometimes only, artistic impressions are derived from an artistically limited and ultra-utilitarian environment, and from besmirched and sordid surroundings instead of from a clear, clean atmosphere of artistic excellence.

Not only do grimy, physical surroundings debase the aesthetic ideals of the dweller in smoke, but they also probably tend to foster personal habits of carelessness. The children playing in the streets in grimy cities become so accustomed to soot and smut that they learn to revel in grime and to glory in grease. To say that we have become a “well washed” race (as say Sir Thomas Oliver and Dr. Woods Hutchinson) because we are being constantly defiled by atmospheric smut is tantamount to saying that we have become moral, healthy and vigorous because of contamination by the social plague or infection by virulent bacteria. It is not so. Even if we do resort to more frequent external cleansing this does not render us any cleaner, because we may forthwith become begrimed by the omnipresent smut of the air. Moreover, our lungs and alimentary canal can not so readily be “washed out,” so that smoke at least keeps us interiorally begrimed. So far as the young child is concerned, the labor of cleaning is usually thrown upon the mother. Mothers evidently grow weary of washing the faces and hands and changing the clothes of their youthful progeny several times a day. Hence the child is left to wallow in dirt. Adults may tend to continue the habits which they formed as children. They, too, at any rate, grow weary of constant ablutions and changes of garments, and will tend to adopt the more somber shades of apparel which are less readily soiled by soot. The lighter raiment which often is more pleasing to the eye, and in the summer time is more conducive to comfort, must often be tabooed in smoky cities. The wearing apparel in such cities in consequence will offer less variety than in cities of low-smoke content. Women in white fabrics must not venture to sit down on an unprotected park seat in smoky cities less they carry away a conspicuous ribbon of grime across their backs.

* * * * *

It is possible that habits of carelessness, indifference, or ready satisfaction which the dwellers in smoky cities may tend to acquire, in respect to personal cleanliness and dress and in respect to the artistic and cleanly appearance of the external city surroundings, may transfer to other aspects of their psychic existence, because, while the doctrine of formal discipline has been exploded in its crass form, psychological experiments show that habits which have been acquired in one phase of mental action will transfer more or less to other phases of mental action which have similar or identical elements (36).

Finally it should be emphasized that cities befouled with murky smoke are at a decided disadvantage as tourist or residential places. Wealthy tourists and globe trotters go to the brilliant, resplendent, ornate, clean cities--the show places--and not to the nasty, pungent smoke producers. Even if the tourist perchance does come to a dirty town he will rarely tarry there for any length of time. Few towns which tolerate the smoke nuisance can hope to compete for tourist trade. The loss in tourist trade caused by preventable smoke in manufacturing cities represents an enormous economic loss to the trades and professions of those cities. Not only so, people looking for a city residence will not seek centers reeking with smoke. Retired people of wealth will prefer the smoke-free cities of culture and art where they can inhale the uncontaminated, invigorating ozone of sun-kissed skies.

Summary of Conclusions

I. The injurious organic effects exerted by smoke on human beings are both direct and indirect. The direct effects are due to the injury caused by the smoke contents themselves, while the indirect effects arise from meteorological changes produced by atmospheric smoke.

II. The mental effects of smoke and smoke-produced weather states are likewise both direct and indirect. The indirect effects issue from bodily changes produced by smoke or smoke-produced weather states, while the direct effects are due to the influences of the mind’s own states upon its subsequent thoughts, disposition and conduct.

III. Smoke fills the atmosphere with acrid, poisonous compounds and soot particles which may serve as carriers of the obnoxious products of human fatigue, which irritate the sensitive membranes of the eyes, nose, throat, lungs and gastro-intestinal tract, increase the susceptibility of gastro-intestinal, pulmonary and naso-pharyngeal disorders, diminish the potential reserve, working capacity and well being of the individual, increase fatigue, irritability and malcontent, and may tend to hasten premature decay.

IV. Smoke lessens the duration and intensity of sunshine, reduces the intensity of daylight, the limit of visibility and the diurnal winter temperature; increases humidity, mists, the frequency and duration of fogs and possibly alters the electrical potential.

V. Sunshine is an important bio-dynamic agent. It promotes anabolism, transpiration and perspiration, and increases the percentage of hemoglobin. The blue and ultra-violet rays of sunshine exert a bactericidal effect on pathogenic bacteria, and a tonic, vitalizing influence upon the human organism. Sunshine exerts an exuberant influence on the feelings. Moreover, colorless daylight is superior for visual efficiency, optical health and affective quality.

VI. Dark clouds have a depressing, devitalizing effect. They may cause fear in children, reduce working efficiency, and labor returns; give rise to eye strain and dioptric disorders; give rise to disquietude, restlessness and forebodings in the insane; and may increase drunkenness because of the reduction of the diurnal temperature in the winter time.

VII. Humidity increases the solid, poisonous, bactericidal contents of the air, aggravates various pathological conditions of the body, reduces the sensitivity of some sense organs and depletes the vital potential. Fogs, in addition, increase the inaccuracy of mental work (bank errors), increase the prevalence of diseases, and augment the death rate.

VIII. Clear, dry days are anabolic in character and thus produce a superabundance of energy. While this may lead, as statistics seem to show, to an increase of school misdemeanors, assaults, suicides and arrests for drunkenness in emotionally and nervously unstable individuals, it also tends to energize the human organism, augment its functional efficiency and enhance its achievement capacity. Negatively the data seem to indicate that smoky weather states (just because they deplete energy and thereby inhibit action) lessen rather than increase crimes of violence.

IX. Smoke clouds are inimical to the highest aesthetic development of urban communities. They seriously limit not only the possibilities of municipal art, in respect to architecture, statuary, painting, and ornamental gardening, but also limit the possibilities of art education in the community in question. They begrime, deface, decolor, destroy and corrode interior and exterior artistic effects in color, brick, stone, marble or metal. They befoul the persons as well as the dress of the inhabitants, limit the range of wearing apparel, and may foster habits of indifference. They obliterate the natural terrestrial panorama of art, the iridescent clouds of the sky. Because of the murky, abject inartistic appearance of these cities, they are avoided by the wealthy tourist and the retired person of wealth who is in search of a desirable place for residence.

X. Our knowledge of the mental influences of atmospheric smoke pollution should be rendered more complete by systematic psychological research. Two methods are available for this investigation, namely, the questionnaire method and the experimental method. By means of the questionnaire a mass of interesting and valuable experiential, observational and impressionistic data can be collected from children and adults bearing on smoke psychology. By the experimental method it is possible to measure in quantitative terms under controlled conditions of smoke density, the influence of smoke upon the functional efficiency of various sensory, motor and intellectual processes. To prosecute such a research one requires controlled subjects, controlled apparatus and controlled smoke rooms.

My thanks for courtesies extended to me in connection with this research are due to Dr. R. C. Benner, Mr. J. J. O’Connor, Jr., Dr. W. W. Strong and Mr. E. H. McClelland.

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On the aesthetics of smoke

30. =Church=, _Sir_ Arthur.

Notes on the action of coal smoke on building stones and mural paintings. 1912. (In Papers read at the Smoke Abatement Conferences, March ... 1912, p. 1-4.)

31. =Heaton=, Noel.

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35. =Rideal=, S.

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See discussion and references in Heck, W. H., Mental discipline and educational values. 1911.

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Transcriber’s Notes

Page 6: “entry of soluable” changed to “entry of soluble”

Page 22: “inbalance or dioptric distortions” changed to “imbalance or dioptric distortions”

Page 25: “mucuous membrane” changed to “mucous membrane”

Page 30: “worst smoke-effending” changed to “worst smoke-offending”

Page 35: “gods and godesses” changed to “gods and goddesses”

Page 36 & 42: “natural terrestial” changed to “natural terrestrial”

Page 44: “sur la végetation et les propriétés pathogènes” changed to “sur la végétation et les propriétés pathogènes” “séances de L’Academie” changed to “séances de L’Académie”