Chapter II: Part 2

The clay, when cleaned, may be stored in a variety of receptacles (pottery vessels, sacks, or boxes), or, if it is the intention of the woman to use it within a few days, it is simply left in the shawl. During the fall the Indians gather great quantities of clay, and pile it on the floor in the corner of a room for use during the winter when the clay beds are frozen.

The preparation of the clay for use consists of two processes, mixing and kneading. The mixing, which as a rule immediately precedes the kneading, consists of the addition of temper (see page 21). This is done while both ingredients are dry. Different varieties of clay are not mixed together. The work is done on a piece of canvas, an opened cement-sack, or the inner side of a skin (usually that of a goat or dog).[8] Either the clay or the temper may be put on the mixing surface first; the other ingredient is then added, and the whole is sifted through the fingers until the mass is uniform in color. The Indians have no definite idea of the necessary proportions. They judge simply by the color of the resulting mixture. The proportions used by three different informants seemed to be about one-third temper and two-thirds clay. Before mixing, the clay is reddish brown; the addition of temper lightens the color several shades.

The scrapings from partly finished vessels (see page 54) and the ground-up fragments of pots which have cracked badly in the course of sun-drying are used a second time. This re-used clay, since it already has temper in it, does not need to be mixed over again. It is mingled with newly mixed clay just before kneading, or is kneaded by itself, as occasion demands.

The kneading is usually done on the same canvas or skin that was used for the mixing. If a large amount of clay is to be treated at one time, a quantity of water is poured into a hollow formed in the centre of the pile. Later, as the worked clay or paste approaches the proper consistency, water is sprinkled over it with one hand, just as clothes are sprinkled, at first copiously, later more sparingly. At the beginning, the entire mass is kneaded until the water has been thoroughly absorbed. When the paste is wet, it becomes of course considerably darker. It is then divided into masses which can easily be handled, about the size of two large loaves of white bread. The woman works the paste to a uniform consistency in exactly the same way that dough is kneaded (pl. 12, a), and piles the masses, now ready for use in moulding, on a board or canvas, covering then with a piece of cloth to keep them damp until they come under the potter’s hands. The consistency is that of putty, just dry enough to crack if pinched. The mixing and kneading can be completed in half an hour.[9]

a. Indian digging material for tempering pottery from an outcrop near the village.

b. Guaco, or Rocky Mountain Bee Plant, from the juice of which is made black paint for decorating pottery.]

_White Clay_

White clay is used interchangeably with red, but the two are never mixed. It is obtained in the bad-lands to the northeast of San Ildefonso, from the side of an arroyo at some distance from the village. The Indians dig it, bring it home, and prepare it in exactly the same manner as the red clay. The color, when dry, is greyish white; when wet, brownish grey.

_Temper_

The Indians of San Ildefonso obtain their tempering material from outcrops along the Santa Fe-Española road, in the vicinity of the landmark known as Camel Rock. Near the crest of the first high hill crossed by the road north of Camel Rock, just west of the road, in the eastern bank of the cut of the old abandoned road, is a small cave made by the digging of this temper (pl. 10, a). There is another outcrop in the ridge of which Camel Rock is a part. This mineral is a very light grey in color. When freshly exposed to the air it is soft and crumbly--fragments as large as the fist can be crushed in the hand--but after being exposed for some time it hardens. When chopped out with an axe or hatchet it takes the form of small fragments and fine powder. There are veins and nodules of a hard yellow rock in the stratum, which are chopped out and thrown away. The source of the temper is at such a distance from the pueblo that trips to it are made only at long intervals when a large quantity is secured in cement-bags, and carried home in a wagon. Two cement-bags may be filled with from fifteen to twenty minutes’ work at the quarry.

Some of the Indians, while still at the quarry, pound the temper with an axe or hatchet, or a stone, to break the larger pieces and remove the coarser impurities. Others wait to clean it until reaching the house. In the latter case the temper is spread on a cloth or skin; the skin being preferred as offering a smoother, more resistant surface. It is then broken up by trampling it with moccasined feet. Formerly the Indians ground the temper on their metates. The final step in the preparation is to pass the material through a sieve to remove the smaller impurities such as sand and crushed rock. Before the sieve was known, the Indians spread the temper in a very thin layer on a board or skin, and went over it carefully and painstakingly with their fingers, feeling for any slight irregularities or rough places. The temper when cleaned is a fine powder, which looks and feels like dry cement. It is stored in old cement-bags ready to be mixed with the clay.

The purpose of the addition of tempering material is to counteract the tendency of the pure clay to crack during the shrinkage that takes place in sun-drying and in firing. If, however, there is too much temper, the clay becomes “short” and loses its adhesiveness. The Indians understand this fully, for if vessels crack badly during sun-drying, they are ground up, and more temper is added to the paste before it is used again; if, on the other hand, a pot will not retain its shape while being moulded, it is pulled down, more dry clay added to the paste, and the mass rekneaded.[10]

_Cooking-Vessel, or Apache, Clay_

This is very different from the two other kinds of clays used. It is light brown in color, with a large quantity of fine mica flakes in it[11]; it also has a distinctive odor. When wet it smells cleaner and fresher than the red or white clay, like a newly plowed field after a shower. Some of the San Ildefonso Indians obtain this clay from Las Truchas, a mountain district to the northeast of the village[12]; others get it from Santa Fe Canyon. It is dug either with the hand or with a small stick, and is brought to the pueblo in the form of small lumps. While still in this condition, it is stored in vessels or bags.

The preparation for use is very different from that of the other clays. The lumps are put in a receptacle, such as an enameled washbasin, and sufficient water is added to saturate them. If too much water has been mixed in, the mass is put in the sun to dry out for a while. After the clay has been thoroughly softened by the water, the next step is to remove the pebbles. A small handful is carefully and slowly squeezed and kneaded in the left hand, while the thumb and forefinger of the right are used to pick out the numerous small pebbles as they are encountered. After most of these have been removed, the clay is put on a canvas or skin, and a small part of it at a time is flattened out with the heel of the right hand, pressing away from the body, and against the cloth or skin so as to produce a very thin layer, in which the smaller pebbles are readily felt and from which they can easily be eliminated. Finally when this has been done with all the clay, the whole mass is kneaded together, just as the red and white clays are kneaded. When a uniform consistency has been attained--that of putty--the mass is ready for use. The removal of pebbles and the kneading consume from one-half to three-quarters of an hour. The pebbles which have been removed are placed in a small lard-pail containing water, and when the clay adhering to them has dissolved, they are thrown away and the clayey water is used in the process of moulding the paste.

The most important difference between this clay and the others is that no temper of any kind is mixed with it; the clay, after being cleaned, is used in the vessels just as it came out of the claypit. The fine mica flakes probably act as temper.

SLIPS AND PAINTS

_Native Slip_[13]

This is a white, flaky, fairly soft mineral, which is used in solution to give a white outer coating to the bodies of vessels. It is found at some distance from the pueblo, beyond the bad-lands which are visible to the northeast. When the Indians reach the place they pick up small sticks to use as digging tools, but if the deposit happens to be soft enough, the material is merely scooped out with the hand. It is carried home in shawls or bags, and placed in the sun to dry thoroughly; then stored in pottery vessels, usually ollas. It receives no further treatment at this time. When preparing it for use, the Indians simply place it in water as it is, in small lumps. The container is either a small pottery vessel or an enamelled basin. A sufficient amount is mixed with the water to give it the color of milk, but not to thicken it. Occasionally the consistency of thin cream is obtained. Undissolved lumps remain in the solution.

_Santo Domingo Slip_

This substance, known to the Indians of San Ildefonso either as “Santo Domingo white” or “Cochiti white”, is usually obtained from the Santo Domingo people; it is dug, according to some informants, in the same manner as the native slip. In color and general appearance it is exactly like the latter, but its surface feels more soapy. Santo Domingo slip has largely replaced the native product, because when applied it does not need to be polished with a stone, as does the native slip. It is prepared for use in exactly the same manner as the native slip.

_Red Slip_

This is a rather loose red earth, which is dug either with the hands or, if conditions demand it, with a small stick. The San Ildefonso Indians obtain it near Santa Fe, but not all of the women know the exact location of the beds. One informant said it was found in Santa Fe Canyon, east of the town, a short distance below the Apache clay beds, at a spot where the convicts from the Penitentiary get material for their bricks. There are three different colors of clay at this place, red, yellow, and white. The red is the clay under discussion. The white is used to color the women’s moccasins.[14]

This slip is handled in much the same manner as the other clays. It is brought home in the usual receptacles--either shawls or bags--and placed in the sun to dry thoroughly. It is then stored, usually in ollas or other earthenware vessels, without further treatment.

There are two ways of preparing red slip for use, according to the kind of vessel for which it is intended. For polished black ware, it is simply mixed to a thin solution with water. For decorated red ware, the process is slightly complicated. At some previous time, equal parts of temper and native slip have been mixed in water and allowed to dry in cakes. When desired for use on a vessel, the cakes are broken and redissolved in water. A sufficient amount is put in to give the water an opaque, milky color, but not to thicken it. To this mixture is added a thin solution of the red slip. There is, apparently, no definite rule in regard to the amount of the red solution to be added. The woman simply puts in enough to give to the slip, when applied to a pot, the proper shade of red. In some cases this mixing of the red and white is done once for all at the beginning of the application of the red slip. In other cases the woman has a bowl of each solution beside her, and from time to time, as she works, adds some of the red to the white. In each bowl lumps of the undissolved substances still remain. Occasionally the slip is stirred to the consistency of cream, but nearly always it has that of water.

_Orange-Red Slip_

This substance is a yellow clayey earth, in texture somewhat like the two white slips. It occurs in the “Valle” to the west, beyond the first Jemez range, near Ojo Caliente. It is dug with a stick, in the same manner as the native white, and is carried home in shawls and bags. Before being stored it is put out in the sun to dry thoroughly, then placed in ollas and kept until needed. Like the other slips, it is prepared for use by being mixed with water. A saturated solution is made, but the consistency remains that of water.

This material, which in solution is a brilliant yellow, is used for two purposes--as a slip to color the bases of bowls and ollas, and as a paint to supply the red elements of polychrome designs. After being fired it assumes an orange-red or burnt-sienna color.[15]

_Black Ware Paint_

This is a paint used for making matte designs on polished black ware, a new departure in decorative technique first used by Maria and Julian Martinez of San Ildefonso, in June, 1921. The substance is a hard yellow stone, said to occur in the “Valle”, west of the Jemez range, near Ojo Caliente, in the same district as the orange-red paint.

The first step in preparing the paint for use is to scrape the stone with a knife. The resulting powder is mixed with water, and there is then added about one-fourth as much dissolved “guaco” (see below) as there is paint. It is said that the purpose of the guaco is to make the paint “stick” to the polished surface. This paint, when ready for use, is kept in a small earthenware or china dish. The consistency of the mixture, like the other paints, is that of water.

_Black or Guaco Paint_

This is the only vegetable paint used by the San Ildefonso Indians for the decoration of their pottery. It is obtained from a very common weed, known as the Rocky Mountain Bee Plant, or Guaco,[16] which grows in the moister flats of this district in great profusion. It flowers late in July and early August, and the seedpods open toward the first of September. The Indians say it grows at a given place only in alternate years. In favorable spots the plants attain a height of five or six feet (pl. 10, b).

The plant is gathered during April and May, when the shoots are only six to ten inches high, and therefore tender. Great quantities of it are carried home in shawls and bags. It is placed with water in Apache-clay cooking-pots, and is boiled over an open fire, never on a stove. As guaco has a bitter taste (“hot like pepper”, the women describe it) when not cooked sufficiently, it is necessary to boil it until this unpleasant flavor has disappeared. Over a hot fire half a day is long enough, but often a whole day is required. Then the liquid is drained into wide-mouthed earthen vessels and placed in the sun to harden into a solid, black, rather sticky, mass. Some women reboil the liquid until it thickens, before placing it in the sun. Metal containers are not used, because they are said to spoil the color. The informants stated that hardened guaco was not eaten. When it has become completely solidified it is set away for future use in painting. It will keep indefinitely.

The residue in the pot, after the liquid has been poured off consists of tender stems and leaves. This is eaten by the Indians, and is not unlike spinach.

The hardened guaco juice is stored at least a year before it is used in painting; the longer it is kept the better black it produces. If it is used during the first year, the resulting color on the vessel is a streaky blue-black.

Guaco is prepared for use in painting in the same manner as the other pigments. A chunk of the hardened mass is broken off and dissolved in water. One informant makes a solution which, although black, has the consistency of water. The others use a syrupy solution almost like thin molasses. The paint has a distinctive, not unpleasant, vegetable odor, and is rather sticky. Any small, wide-mouthed Indian bowl, not too shallow, is used as a paint-cup. In this bowl there is always a stirring-stick, usually a splinter from a board.

FUEL

_Manure_

Both cow-manure and horse-manure are used for fuel in burning pottery, but sheep-dung, when obtainable, is preferred, because it is thought to make a hotter fire.

The cow-manure is collected from the corrals, and while still soft is patted into large circular cakes, sixteen to twenty inches in diameter. These, after being hardened in the sun, are stored in a dry room until needed. Such circular cakes, with the hand-prints showing, are usually employed for making the top of the oven.

The horse-manure is obtained from the corrals in the early spring, where during the winter it has been trampled down by the horses into a compact layer a foot or more thick. When the corrals are cleaned during April this deposit is cut with an axe into chunks roughly two feet square. After being removed, the squares are split with an axe into slabs several inches thick, which are then stood up against the bases of house or barn walls to dry in the sun, and later stored indoors until needed. Disused bread-ovens sometimes serve as temporary storage places. Further splitting of the slabs may be done at the time of firing. When used in the ovens the slabs are from one to two inches thick.

Sometimes the slabs of manure are placed in the sun for a day or two before being burned, but often they are taken directly from the store-room to the fire, where they are supplemented by dried manure collected from the pastures.

During the burning of polished black ware (see p. 74) the oven is smothered with loose manure, which is brought in galvanized washtubs directly from the stables and corrals, either at the time of burning, or on the preceding day.[17]

_Kindling_

For starting the fire in the oven no wood but cedar is ever used. This is cut into pieces from six to eighteen inches long and is split into fine kindling at the time of burning.

Gourd spoons, or kajepes, used to shape and smooth the walls of vessels.]

PARAPHERNALIA

PRIMARY PARAPHERNALIA

_Earthenware Moulds or “Pukis”_

These moulds are usually the bases of broken bowls or ollas. Occasionally pieces of pottery are made especially for moulds; in such cases, although they are fired, they are neither finished carefully nor decorated.

When a mould is to be used, a small amount of temper or wood ashes is placed in it, so that the vessel being moulded will not stick to it.[18]

_Gourd Moulding Spoons or “Kajepes”_

These spoon-like implements (pl. 11) are made from pieces of gourd-rind, usually from broken rattles or dippers. They vary greatly in size, ranging in diameter from a little over one inch to as much as four, or four and a half, inches. There are also many different shapes: round, several forms of ovals, and a few which have one concave edge. The various shapes are used for the different parts of the vessels. As a general rule the larger kajepes are used on the larger vessels. Each woman has from four to a dozen of these implements, which are distinctly individual, for one potter shows awkwardness in handling the spoons of another. It is said that potsherds were formerly used for the same purpose as these gourd spoons.[19]

_Scrapers_

Two kinds of scrapers are used at the present time. One is the top of a baking-powder can, which is popular because its shape makes it possible to apply it to any part of a vessel. The other scraper is an ordinary kitchen case-knife. The scraping of the vessels is done after they have been dried in the sun. It is said that potsherds, with edges sharpened on a piece of sandstone, were formerly used.

_Polishing Stones_

Very smooth, fine-grained pebbles of various colors are used to put the final finish on certain kinds of pottery. They vary considerably in size, from three-quarters of an inch long to three, or even three and a half, inches. It is impossible to classify them by shape, except that the larger ones are usually more flat than spherical. Most of the stones appear to be waterworn pebbles, without any acute angles or sharp edges. Usually two surfaces of the stone are highly polished, most frequently at the ends, where they come in contact with the vessel. Some specimens show signs of great wear.

Each potter has several polishing stones, the number varying from seven to sixteen; they are distinctly the personal property of the potter, and apparently have a semi-sacred significance. For the most part they are heirlooms, handed down from mother to daughter, but additional stones are picked up from ruins which the potters have visited. One informant has four stones which her mother gave her, and three which she found at the ruined pueblo of Puyé. Another informant uses a stone that belonged to her great-grandmother, although her favorite is a small one which she found herself at a nearby ruin. Stones are sometimes lent by one potter to another, but they very seldom find their way outside the family group.[20]

_Paint Brushes_

These brushes are narrow slivers of the leaves of yucca or soapweed, from five to six inches long, and from an eighth to a quarter of an inch wide. For a distance

of about an inch from one end, the fibres are chewed and thus separated. Most of the chewed fibres are then cut off, and the number remaining determines the fineness of the point (fig. 5). For very thin lines a brush of only one fibre is used. When out of service, the brushes are kept in some receptacle which will protect the shredded ends. When the implement is dry the chewed fibres become stiff and rather brittle, and must be handled with care; before using they are soaked in water for two or three minutes in order to soften them.[21]

SECONDARY PARAPHERNALIA

_Carrying and Storing Receptacles_

The receptacles used for bringing clays and other ingredients from the pits to the village vary somewhat according to the distance that the material must be carried. If the beds are close at hand, the material is placed in a shawl spread flat on the ground. The shawl is then picked up, the corners are tied, and the bundle is carried on the back. Sometimes gunny-sacks and cement-sacks are used instead. If the beds are at some distance from the pueblo, the material is placed in sacks and brought home in the body of a wagon. As a rule the ingredients brought home in shawls are transferred to sacks or boxes for storage. Paints are kept in ollas, with the exception of the guaco paint, which is allowed to remain in the bowl in which it is dried.

_Mixing Surfaces_

Whenever ingredients are to be mixed or crushed, the work is done upon some sort of extra surface laid upon the floor. This surface is about a yard square, and may be, apparently, of any suitable material--a bit of old canvas, an opened-out cement-sack, or a small skin such as that of a goat or dog. Similar surfaces also serve for mixing clay and temper, for cleaning temper, for mixing the paste with water and kneading it, and finally for holding the kneaded clay during moulding. Partly finished vessels are placed upon such a surface at various stages of construction. For winnowing clay, the women’s shawls are used.

_Boards_

No boards are placed beneath the pukis, or moulding trays, while they are being used on the hard floor of the house, but in the courtyard boards are used under them in order that holes may not be worn in the ground during the constant turning necessary in moulding vessels. When small vessels are completed they are placed in rows on a board, where they remain during the early stages of the drying process. Rectangular, flat-bottomed vessels are built directly on boards, or on low footstools made of short boards with legs at each end.

_Water Containers_

While the potter is at work, she always has beside her a small lard-pail partly filled with water, which serves to keep the kajepes damp, to moisten parts of the vessel, and from time to time to clean her hands. When the kajepes are not in use, they are usually placed in the pail. At San Ildefonso such a pail is now the only form of water-container; formerly pottery bowls were probably used.

_Mops for Slips_

These mops are the same for all slips. Each consists of a rag, folded and refolded until it is about an inch or an inch and a half wide and from two to two and a half inches long. One end of the rag or mop is held between the thumb and the first two fingers of either hand; the other end serves as a wide paint brush. The potters state that in former times a piece of leather or skin served the same purpose as the cloth mop.[22]

_Paint Receptacles_

Various receptacles hold the slips and paints that are ready for use. The white slips are usually mixed and kept in enamelled basins and pans, because a large quantity is prepared at one time. The red and orange-red slips may be in small pottery bowls, or in china sauce-dishes. The guaco is invariably in an Indian bowl. Undoubtedly at one time native bowls were used exclusively, and there may even have been bowls of special shapes or designs for this purpose; at present, however, no trace of such a custom remains.

_Wiping Rags_

Wiping rags or, more simply, the aprons of the potters are used at various stages of the work--after scraping, after polishing, after the slip has dried, and after burning. Apparently any convenient piece of cloth is satisfactory.

_Accessories in Firing_

When the vessels are to be fired, various accessories must be at hand. Four or more half-bricks or stones are needed upon which to set the grate. The latter may be either a discarded stove-grate, or a collection of strips of iron, metal barrel-hoops, and odds and ends, placed together to form a grill.[23] Small stones and tin cans--such as small condensed milk cans and meat cans--are needed as props to keep the fuel from touching the vessels during the burning. Flat pieces of tin and the covers of large lard-pails serve at times to close spaces between the fuel cakes, and to cover the oven-top, to support which metal rods are often used. Lastly, pokers are needed to handle the fuel and to remove the hot vessels. These may be wooden or iron rods, broomsticks, old shovels, or even pitchforks. Each potter has her own collection of the above materials and implements, stored away ready for use. These collections of apparent refuse vary to a surprising extent.

MOULDING

For the purpose of this report the vessels may be divided into four large groups: bowls, ollas, cooking vessels, and unusual shapes. With respect to size there are two classes of bowls: those less than four inches in diameter, and those larger than that size. In shape bowls may be either wide-mouthed (pl. 6, b, g) or constricted-mouthed (pl. 6, a, c). The ollas all have full, globular bodies and relatively small orifices with or without flaring lips (pls. 7, 15, a). As a rule, the cooking vessels are shaped like small ollas. Under unusual shapes fall all the types and forms which are not of the first three classes, such as terraced (prayer-meal) bowls, double-mouthed vessels, double bowls or “baskets”, and vessels with handles.

The moulding of each of the above forms may be said to consist of four principal steps: the making of the base, the building of the walls, the shaping, and the finishing. Very briefly, the process is as follows: The potter first forms a pancake-shaped pat of paste from six to eight inches in diameter; this she presses into the mould, or puki, to form a base. Then the walls of the vessel are built up by the addition of successive ropes, or rolls, of paste laid one upon another. The small bowls are the only exception, for they are formed in the hands of the potter from a single lump. In some cases the building is done all at one time; in others, and always with the larger vessels, a few rolls are added, then the piece is set aside to dry a little before the addition of a few more rolls. The potter usually builds two or more vessels at once in order to permit work upon one while the other is undergoing a brief period of drying. The preliminary shaping of the vessel is done either in the course of the building or after the building has been completed. The obliteration of the junctions between the rolls and of finger-marks is accomplished with the kajepe, or gourd-spoon, and further use of this implement aids in giving the vessel its shape. The final step, the finishing, consists of going over the entire vessel carefully, first with the kajepe, then with the fingers, to remove slight irregularities to even the lip and rim. The finishing is a slow, exacting process, and the difference between the artist and the mere pot-maker comes out at this stage of the work.

The moulding, although usually done in the house, may also take place in some shady spot outdoors. If a woman begins her moulding in the morning, she will commonly devote the entire day to it. By evening she will have completed from five to thirty vessels, the number depending partly upon the size of the pieces and partly upon the rapidity with which she works.

The potter sits upon her heels on some kind of mat; it may be a sheepskin with the wool side up, a piece of canvas, or a small woven rug. Her attitude is changed only when stiffness requires it. Thereupon she sits with her feet out in front of her; or with one leg bent, the foot flat on the ground, the knee beside her shoulder, and with the other leg under her or fully flexed in front with both the knee and foot upon the floor. Toward the end of the day the potter usually sits against a wall to rest her back, for any one of the postures assumed is tiring. At the end of the day the women frequently complain of stiff backs and sore abdominal muscles, caused by the almost constant stooping posture. Some potters cover their laps with shawls, others wear aprons, and still others use no protection whatever for their clothing.

When the potter is sitting upon her heels, the mould, or puki, is laid directly in front of her upon the floor. If she is sitting with her legs extended, it is either held in the lap or placed close to her right side. In the house the puki rests directly upon the hard earthen floor; outdoors, a short board is placed under it to prevent its constant turning from wearing a hole in the relatively softer ground. In the puki is sprinkled a thin layer of temper or wood-ashes to prevent the vessel from sticking to it. At the right of the potter, within arm’s reach, on a canvas or a piece of cloth, is a mass of prepared clay. Rarely this reserve paste is on the left. If the paste is in constant use, it is not covered unless exposed to the sun; when, however, the moulding is abandoned for even a few minutes, a corner of the canvas or cloth is thrown over it. A small lard-pail partly filled with water is an indispensable accessory during moulding. This is usually kept between the potter and the paste; occasionally it is on the left, sometimes near the puki beside the potter’s right knee. The gourd moulding spoons, or kajepes, are also placed within easy reach, on the floor near the puki, beside the waterpail, or in the pail itself. The potter is then ready to begin moulding.

The first step is to ascertain by a little handling whether the paste is of the proper consistency. If it was kneaded the day before, it may prove to be too dry; in such a case the hands are well moistened and perhaps a little water is sprinkled on the paste; it is then rekneaded for a few minutes. Then a handful is scooped out of the mass with the right hand. If the first handful is not sufficient, a second scoop gives the required amount. It is next worked with the hands for half a minute to five minutes; if it is of just the right consistency, it is hardly worked at all; if it is too dry, the hands are occasionally dipped in water while it is being worked; if it is too wet, kneading continues until it is sufficiently dry. There are three distinct movements in this final working of the paste. First, the handful is pinched and squeezed by opening and closing the hands; if any gritty particle is encountered, it is picked out with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand and snapped upon the floor. The second movement consists in rolling the paste between the two flattened hands. When the roll is about six inches long, it is doubled and rerolled. This may be repeated from two to half-a-dozen times. Occasionally this step is entirely omitted, especially when a pat is being made. In the third movement the paste, now a spherical lump, is slapped back and forth between the cupped hands, which are held from six to eight inches apart. Sometimes this third movement precedes the second. The handful of paste is now ready to be made into a pat.

There are two ways of forming a pat. In the first one, the spherical lump is held on the open left hand and pounded flat with the right fist; from time to time it is turned a few degrees by a slight tossing motion. It is then finished by patting

a. Kneading clay preparatory to modeling a vessel.

b. Bowl-moulding, primary stages. 1, Base formed in mould, edge crimped to receive first roll (cf. pl. 13, a); 2, Walls built to full height; 3, The same piece after shaping and smoothing.]

a

Applying the first roll of clay to the base. The roll is held in the left hand, and is flattened and pinched into place in the inside of the rim by the fingers of the right hand.

b

A bowl-base to which four rolls of clay have been added; the potter is making a new roll. Note the junctions of the roll on the interior of the vessel.]

it with the flat right hand until it is fairly smooth and of uniform thickness; in doing this the pat is turned by slapping it from the left hand to the right and back again. During this interchange, through the natural placing of the hands, the pat is turned through an angle of ninety to one hundred and twenty degrees. When the pat has been completely formed by this method, it is like a large pancake, six to eight inches in diameter and from three-eighths to half an inch thick. It is then pressed firmly into the puki, and the edge is turned up and crimped with the thumb and first two fingers of each hand to form a slight rim (pl. 12, b, 1).

In the second method, the spherical lump of paste is first pounded with the heel and then with the upper knuckles of the right hand; it is turned meanwhile by the tossing motion of the left hand. The next movement is the same as in the corresponding stage of the first method, namely, patting the paste with the flat right hand while turning it by transferring it to the right hand and back. Finally, before the pat is put into the puki, the edge is bent up and smoothed off a little, so that a shallow flat circular tray is formed instead of the slab obtained by the first method. This tray is then placed in the puki, where it is pressed down very firmly with either the heel of the hand or the balls of the fingers, in order to insure a solid uniform base and to expel any air-bubbles in the paste.

Another handful of clay is now scooped out of the mass on the canvas to the right and worked to the proper consistency as before. From the resulting spherical lump the potter very skillfully forms a roll of uniform diameter by a backward and forward motion of her two hands placed palms together (pl. 13, b).[24] There seems to be a tendency for the first part of the roll to be of slightly smaller diameter than the last part; if this occurs, the roll is reversed and partially rerolled. One end is then taken in the right hand, while the left hand holds it near the other at a point chosen to prevent too much sagging at the middle. The potter then places the end which is in her right hand against the inside of that part of the edge of the pat nearest her.[25] The roll is pressed against the edge just enough to hold it in place (see pl. 13, a). The thumb is on the exterior, the fingers on the interior of the edge. Usually only the first two fingers are used, although the third finger is occasionally brought into contact with the paste. Then, as the puki is revolved counterclockwise,[26] the rest of the roll is pressed against the edge of the pat. If the roll is not long enough completely to encircle the pat, another is made and placed on it in a similar manner. When the edge has thus been completely encircled, the unused remainder of the roll is pinched off and tossed back on the mass of paste on the canvas. The potter then pinches the roll more firmly to the edge of the pat. This is done with both hands. The thumbs, almost touching, are on the exterior, the fingers on the interior of the vessel. The puki is usually moved counterclockwise, although the same potter will sometimes revolve it clockwise. During this process of pinching, the roll is flattened until it assumes in cross-section the shape of a very much elongated ellipse (fig. 6, b). An attempt is made to keep the thickness of the side as nearly uniform as possible, and in order to accomplish this it is often necessary for the hands to be moved back over a part already flattened.

The diameter of the rolls, except for cooking-pots, varies from half an inch to slightly over an inch, according to the size of the vessel being built, and the individual doing the building. When a roll is pressed against the interior of the rim of the growing vessel,[27] from a half to three-quarters of it lies below the level of the rim (see fig. 6, a). Then, when the roll is flattened, the junction-plane between it and the preceding roll will not be horizontal, but will slope downward sharply

a. Base made and first roll applied to inner side of rim. b. First roll flattened and welded on. c. Second roll applied. d. Second roll flattened and welded on.]

from the exterior (see fig. 6, b, d), thus producing a broad holding surface and minimizing the risk of the vessel’s cracking along the junction-plane. In other words, the junction-line between any two rolls on the outside wall of the vessel is considerably higher than the corresponding line on the inside. The flattened rolls, in all but cooking-pots, are from an inch and a half to two inches wide, but because of the overlapping just described the distance between the junction-lines is considerably less (see pl. 13, b, and pl. 15, a).

During the process of flattening the roll, some potters obliterate the junction-line on the exterior by rubbing it with the first and second finger of the right hand, and by the addition of small pellets of paste in the more conspicuous indentations. Others consider it unnecessary to obliterate this line during the building of the vessel, in spite of the fact that the roll may break away because of not being firmly welded. Certain women smooth the temporary rim after flattening each roll, others do not. When the flattening has been finished, the puki has made a second complete revolution, and the junction of the two ends of the roll is again directly in front of the potter; but if a few additional touches are required she may again shift the puki in one direction or another. No potter pays any attention whatever to the location of the junction points of the ends of the rolls; in successive rolls, therefore, they may lie directly above one another, or they may be distributed about the circumference of the vessel (pl. 13, b). When one roll has been completely welded on, flattened out, and incorporated into the vessel, another roll is formed, and is applied in exactly the same manner. Thus the building proceeds to the height at which the shaping is begun. The steps so far enumerated are the same for both bowls and ollas. The further treatment of the vessel varies slightly, according to the shape desired.

Stevenson, describing the moulding of vessels at Zuñi, in 1879, wrote: “When the clayey dough is ready to be used, a sufficient quantity is rolled into a ball. The dough, if worked by a careful artist, is first tested as to its fitness for molding by putting a piece of the paste to the tongue, the sensitiveness of which is such as to detect any gritty substance or particles, when the fingers fail to do so. The ball is hollowed out with the fingers into the shape of a bowl (see pl. 29, a), this form constituting the foundation for all varieties of earthenware, and assumes the desired form by the addition of strips of clay; all traces of the addition of each strip are removed before another is added,[28] by the use of a small trowel fashioned from a piece of gourd or fragment of pottery, the only tool employed in the manufacture of pottery. The bottoms of old water jars and bowls form stands for the articles while being worked by the potter” (see pl. 29).[29]

Mrs. Stevenson, writing later, also of the Zuñis, said: “In beginning the work a sufficient quantity is first made into a ball and then hollowed out with the fingers until is assumes a conventional bowl shape, which serves as the foundation to be afterward built up and elaborated into any desired shape. The vessel is then formed by the successive additions of strips of the paste long enough to encircle the bowl, each layer being pressed on the brim with the fingers and accurately fitted, the trowel being then skillfully used to finish the joining and to remove all traces of the original separation of the strips. Most of the work of remodelling the vessel into its final shape is done on the inside with a trowel, this implement being used on the outside chiefly to smooth the surface. The clay, if it has been properly worked, possesses sufficient tenacity and plasticity to admit of being pressed and scraped without cracking.”[30]

The following quotation is of interest as showing how closely modern studio-practice, undoubtedly evolved experimentally, resembles Pueblo Indian methods: “The clay for building should be rather soft as it is apt to dry quickly on handling. A plaster bat (mould) should be made. It is first necessary to roll out the clay into cords which should be a little thicker than the proposed walls are to be. These cords should be as uniform as possible and should be rolled quickly to avoid undue hardening. It is best to roll them as required. A roll of clay is taken, one end laid in the center of the bat and the rest is coiled around it in a spiral line. When the disc so formed has reached the proper size, the coils are gently rubbed over with the fingers until they have thoroughly united and the lines of the spiral have disappeared. The clay disc may now be turned over and the rubbing continued on the other side. The circle is cut true and a new coil is laid on the outer edge, thus making a shallow circular tray. In raising the walls it is best to pinch off the roll of clay when one circle has been completed, and the new roll should be begun at another point so that all the joints will not be at the same place. This plan is better than coiling a long roll in a spiral, for in this case one side of the piece will be higher than the other.

“After three rolls have been laid in position, the wall, both inside and out, should be worked like the bottom so that the rolls will disappear and the clay be welded uniformly together. This should be done without water or with as little as possible. The use of water is very tempting. It makes the clay so smooth and seems to help, but it will inevitably make the work sloppy and will tend to soften the walls.

“After three or four rolls have been worked in, the piece should be laid aside for some hours to stiffen. If this be not done the weight of the second building will cause the work to sag and fall out of shape. For this reason it is well to have two or three pieces in hand at once so that there need be no waiting. When the cylinder is of sufficient height it should be allowed to become quite stiff and then the irregularities should be corrected with a little soft clay which is worked into the joints. The whole surface may now be gone over with tools and brought to the required finish.”[31]

Before describing in detail the moulding of the various sorts of vessels, the accidents which are associated with this process should be discussed. These may result from one of two causes, the presence of foreign matter in the paste or imperfect moulding.

If the clay has been carefully sifted, as it usually is, there should be very little foreign matter in the paste. It is, however, impossible to remove entirely all gravel or stones fragment. If gravel is allowed to remain, it will cause the vessel-walls to scale during firing because of the difference in the rates of expansion under heat of stone and paste. In order to prevent this, the potter while moulding is constantly on the lookout for these small particles, which may be discovered at any stage of the work. They are at once picked out of the vessel, even if it is all but finished. The irregular hollow formed is then filled with a small pellet of fresh paste and smoothed over. The women say that a bit of hard clay does not cause flaking as does a piece of gravel or a stone splinter. Another kind of foreign matter is an air-bubble, which if left in the vessel will cause the same form of accident, because of the difference in the rates of expansion of air and clay. In order to eliminate these small air-bubbles, the pat is pressed down hard upon the puki

a

Levelling and smoothing the rim of a bowl after it has been scraped with the kajepe, or gourd spoon. The left hand serves to keep the piece turning and to support the plastic wall.

b

Use of the kajepe in shaping a vessel; the left hand supports the wall within, while the kajepe, held in the right hand, thins the top of the wall and gently presses it inward.]

and the rolls are carefully pinched at every point about the vessel. A skillful potter is able to feel an air-bubble even if it is covered with a layer of clay: such a bubble is pricked and the resulting hollow is filled as before.

If the moulding is imperfect, that is, if the rolls are not carefully welded, a weak spot occurs at the junction, which probably contains a thin layer of air. When the vessel is fired, it cracks along this line and is ruined. Such accidents seem to occur most commonly at the bases of large vessels, either because the first roll was not sufficiently welded to the base, or because the pat itself was not pressed into the puki with sufficient force. Since flaws between the rolls cannot be discovered until the firing, they cannot be corrected as in the case of foreign bodies in the clay.

BOWLS

From two to eight rolls may be used to form a bowl, according to its destined size and shape. When the building has been completed, the piece is in the form of a cylinder, with sides either vertical or very slightly flaring (pl. 12, b, 2, and pl. 13, b). As a rule the fingerprints and the irregular horizontal junction-lines may be seen both on the interior and exterior. The next step is the finishing of the temporary rim. This is done with the right hand, the fingers of which assume much the same position that they would for holding a pencil (pl. 14, a). The thumb is on the interior of the rim, the forefinger on the top, and the middle finger on the outer edge. The thumb and middle finger are used as guides to help keep the rim uniform in thickness. The forefinger removes the paste from the higher parts of the rim and transfers it to the hollows. The fingers do not move with respect to each other except to exert slight pressure. The play of the right hand during this process is a gliding backward-forward motion repeated many times, while at the same time the puki is usually kept revolving counterclockwise by the left hand, which also is generally but not always, used to steady the side of the vessel. Occasionally the same potter will turn the puki clockwise. In the former case the right hand is kept in the twelve-to-two-o’clock sector; in the latter in the six-to-eight-o’clock sector. If the rim is smoothed hastily, as it sometimes is at this stage, the puki may not be turned at all. This completes the building of the bowl, which is then set aside for a few minutes, while another is begun.

The next step is the shaping. This is done with a kajepe, or gourd spoon. The kajepe should always be damp when used, and for that reason is often kept in the water-pail. It is somewhat difficult to describe in detail the use of the kajepe, for no two potters work with it in exactly the same way. Often the same potter will show variations in her method of handling the tool.

Each woman has from four to a dozen kajepes beside her while she is moulding. These implements vary much both in size and shape (pl. 11). Most of them are circular or elliptical with all edges convex, although every potter has at least one with a concave edge. Generally the smaller, circular kajepes are used on the interior of bowls, the oval ones on the exterior, and the one with a concave edge on the exterior at the shoulder, where it would be difficult to use the other types. As a rule the larger kajepes serve for the larger vessels. A potter occasionally changes kajepes in the midst of her work, usually because of the edge, which may be rougher on one than on another. The kajepes are held at an angle of from thirty to sixty degrees to the tangent of the bowl at the point of contact, according to the curvature of the part of the vessel being worked upon.