Chapter V: Value of a pound of hair-springs for watches 4 (5)

The first practical success in steam navigation was made by John Fitch, a native of Windsor, Conn., who had settled in New Jersey as a silversmith. The happy thought of propelling vessels by steam originated with him in 1784. He rapidly matured his plans, and in August, 1785, he petitioned Congress for aid in constructing his boat. The records of the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia show that “a model, accompanied by a drawing and description of a machine for working a boat against a stream by means of a steam-engine, was laid before the society by John Fitch on Sept. 27, 1785.” With the pecuniary assistance of several gentlemen, he immediately undertook to build a steamboat. In the _Columbia Magazine_ for December, 1786, he gave a description of this vessel and its machinery. A steam cylinder over three feet long and one foot in diameter was placed horizontally in the bottom of the boat; the steam was let in at each end of the cylinder alternately, and after moving a reciprocating piston was discharged into a condenser, which formed a vacuum in the cylinder behind the moving piston. The force of the piston was transmitted to cranks on each side of the boat; which by means of connecting bars, moved twelve paddles, three on each side being in the water and three out at the same time. On May 1, 1781, Fitch’s steamboat, “The Perseverance,” was put in motion on the Delaware River, and made three miles an hour. This speed did not satisfy Fitch, and various improvements were soon added. The boat, with its greatly increased power, was successfully tested in the fall of 1788. The late Dr. Thornton, long at the head of the United States Patent Office, and many other eminent men, certified that the steamer moved in dead water at the rate of eight miles an hour, or one mile in seven and a half minutes. With thirty passengers the boat left Philadelphia, and, moving against the current of the Delaware, reached Burlington, a distance of twenty miles, in three hours and ten minutes. Dr. Thornton stated that “The Perseverance” afterwards made eighty miles in one day. This speed will excite wonder when the difficulty of keeping the piston tight against the comparatively rough interior surface of the cylinder is taken into consideration. The steamboat was run for some time as a packet to Burlington, but after several mishaps it was burned in 1792. But more money was needed to introduce the invention, and the numerous stockholders could not be brought to respond to further assessments. Fitch himself was cramped for the necessaries of life. He repeatedly asserted that the passenger traffic of the great Western rivers would one day be carried on exclusively by steam, that ships of war and packet ships would navigate the Atlantic by steam, and that some one who came after him would reap fame and fortune from his invention. Fitch’s claim of invention was contested by James Rumsey, of Maryland, who, in 1786, drove a boat on the Potomac, near Sheppardstown, at the rate of four miles an hour by means of a water-jet forced out at the stern. But a careful examination of the evidence proves that the honor of bringing the invention to a successful completion belongs to Fitch. It may also be mentioned that a boat was propelled by steam on the Conestoga River in 1763 by William Henry, of Chester County, Penn., but this was only an experiment, although attended with flattering results, and had no permanent effect. It was from Fitch’s labors that Fulton first conceived the idea of steam navigation, which has made his name famous.

313. In what American city are burials made entirely above the ground?

One of the noted features of New Orleans is its cemeteries. Owing to the undrained condition of the subsoil, burials are made entirely above ground, in tombs of stuccoed brick and of granite and marble. Some of these are very elegant and costly, and many of the burial grounds, with their long alleys of these tombs of diverse designs deeply shaded by avenues of cedars and the _Magnolia grandiflora_, possess a severe but emphatic beauty.

314. Who were the “Three Kings of Cologne”?

This name is given to the three Magi who came from the East to offer gifts to the infant Jesus. Their names are commonly said to be Malchior, Gaspar, and Balthazar. Gaspar means “the white one”; Malchior, “king of light”; Balthazar, “lord of treasures.” The first offered gold, symbolic of kingship; the second, frankincense, symbolic of divinity; the third, myrrh, symbolic of death, myrrh being used in embalming the dead. Their bodies are said to have been brought by the Empress Helena from the East to Constantinople, whence they were transferred to Milan. Afterward, in 1164, on Milan being taken by the Emperor Frederick, they were presented by him to the Archbishop of Cologne, who placed them in the principal church of the city, where, says Cressy, “they are to this day celebrated with great veneration.” Another tradition gives their names as Apellius, Amerus, and Damascus; another as Magalath, Galgalath, and Sarasin; and still another as Ator, Sator, and Peratoras.

315. Which is the highest spot inhabited by human beings?

It is said to be the Buddhist cloister of Hanie, Thibet, where twenty-one priests live at an altitude of sixteen thousand feet.

316. When was the “Dark Day”?

May 19, 1780, was so called on account of a remarkable darkness on that day extending over all New England. In some places persons could not see to read common print in the open air for several hours together. Birds sang their evening song, disappeared, and became silent; fowls went to roost; cattle sought the barnyard; and candles were lighted in the houses. The obscuration began about ten o’clock in the morning, and continued till the middle of the next night, but with differences of degree and duration in different places. For several days previous the wind had been variable, but chiefly from the southwest and the northeast. The true cause of this remarkable phenomenon is not known.

317. When was the “Day of Barricades”?

May 12, 1588. On this day the Duke of Guise entered Paris, when Henry III., at his instigation, consented to take severe measures against the Huguenots, on the promise that the duke would assist him in purging Paris of strangers and obnoxious persons. No sooner, however, was an attempt made to carry out this plan, than the populace arose, erected barricades, and attacked the king’s troops with irresistible fury. Henry III., having requested the Duke of Guise to put a stop to the conflict, fled from Paris, and the moment the duke showed himself to the people, they pulled down the barricades.

This name is also given to Aug. 26, 1648; so called on account of a riot, instigated by the leaders of the Fronde, which took place in Paris on that day.

318. Why are the oceans so named?

When, on the 27th of November, 1520, Ferdinand-Magellan swept into the calm waters of that new sea on which he was the first to sail, he named it the _Mar Pacifico_, on account of its peacefully rolling waters and its freedom from violent storms.

The Atlantic is so called from the Atlas Mountains near its eastern shores, or from the fabled island of Atlantis, which was situated in its bosom.

The Indian Ocean is so called because it lies about India and the Indies.

The Arctic Ocean lies directly under the constellation of the Bear. Greek Αρκτος, a bear.

The Antarctic Ocean lies opposite to the Arctic. Greek ’αντί, against.

319. What was the “El Dorado”?

El Dorado, or the golden land, was a name given by the Spaniards to an imaginary country, supposed, in the sixteenth century, to be situated in the interior of South America, between the rivers Orinoco and Amazon, and abounding in gold and all manner of precious stones. Expeditions were fitted out for the purpose of discovering this fabulous region; and, though all such attempts proved abortive, the rumors of its existence continued to be believed down to the beginning of the eighteenth century. It is said that the name was at first applied, not to a country, but to a man, “el rey dorado.” Sir Walter Raleigh, in his “Discovery of the Large, Rich, and Beautiful Empire of Guiana,” gives a description of the rising of this gilded king, whose chamberlains, every morning after having rubbed his naked body with aromatic oils, blew powdered gold over it through long _sarbacans_. After the name came to be used as the designation of a country, it seems to have been variously applied, and the expeditions in search of the golden land had different destinations. Francisco Orellana, a companion of Pizarro, was the first to spread the account of this fabulous region in Europe.

320. What people formed the first temperance society?

The Rechabites. “But they said, We will drink no wine; for Jonadab the son of Rechab our father commanded us, saying, Ye shall drink no wine, neither ye nor your sons forever.”--JEREMIAH xxxv. 6.

321. Where is the “Bridge of Sighs”?

The “Bridge of Sighs” is a name popularly given to the covered passageway which connects the Doge’s palace in Venice with the state prisons, from the circumstance that the condemned prisoners were transported over the bridge from the hall of judgment to the place of execution. This bridge was built in 1589 by Da Ponte. Hood has used the name as the title of one of his poems.

322. In what country does grass grow upon trees?

The grass-tree is a native of Australia. It belongs to the order _Liliaceæ_. These trees are especially distinguished by their crowns of long, pendulous, grass-like leaves, from the centre of which arises a long stalk bearing at its summit a dense flower spike looking somewhat like a large cat-tail. Some species have very short stems, while others have trunks six to eighteen feet high, which, with their singular tufts of leaves, form a striking feature in the Australian landscape. The grassy leaves are gathered as food for cattle, and their tender base is often relished by man.

323. What is the origin of the phrase “To row up Salt River”?

This phrase has its origin in the fact that there is a small stream of that name in Kentucky, the passage of which is made difficult and laborious as well by its tortuous course as by the abundance of shallows and bars. The real application of the phrase is to the unhappy wight who has the task of propelling the boat up the stream; but in political or slang usage it was to those who are _rowed up_.

324. Who was the “American Pathfinder”?

This title is popularly given to Major-General John Charles Fremont, who conducted four exploring expeditions across the Rocky Mountains. On one instance, when he was intercepted by a range of mountains covered with snows, which the Indians declared no man could cross, and over which no reward could induce them to attempt to guide him, Fremont undertook the passage without a guide, and accomplished it in forty days, reaching Sutter’s Fort on the Sacramento with his men reduced almost to skeletons, and with only thirty-three out of sixty-seven horses and mules remaining. He is also called the “Pathfinder of the Rocky Mountains.”

325. Which is the largest locomotive in the world?

The largest locomotive in the world is called El Gobernador, built at the Central Pacific Railroad shops in Sacramento, Cal., in 1883. The engine and tender are sixty-five feet five inches long; there are five pairs of drivers, each four feet nine inches in diameter; the cylinders are twenty-one inches in diameter, thirty-six inch stroke; there are twenty-six wheels, and the weight of the engine is seventy-three tons.

326. Whence does the cravat obtain its name?

The cravat is so called from a French regiment of light horse called “_the royal Cravate_,” because they were attired in the fashion of the Cravates or Croats, as they are now called, inhabitants of an Austrian province, who largely composed the Austrian army. In 1636 the French regiment was uniformed in imitation, as the Zouaves were at a later day; and when the neckties worn by these troops became fashionable in civil as well as military ranks, the name of the regiment was given to the tie.

327. Who wrote the first English book?

Sir John Mandeville in 1356. In it he shows a correct idea of the form of the earth, and of position in latitude ascertained by observation of the Pole Star; he knows that there are antipodes, and that if ships were sent on voyages of discovery they might sail round the world. And he tells a curious story which he heard in his youth, how a worthy man did travel ever eastward until he came to his own country again. But, on the other hand, he repeatedly asserts the old belief that Jerusalem was in the centre of the world, whilst he maintains in proof of this that at the equinox a spear planted erect in Jerusalem casts no shadow at noon; which, if true, would only show that the city was on the equator.

328. Who was the first child born of English parents in America?

Virginia Dare, who was born at Roanoke, on the 18th of August, 1587. Her mother, Eleanor Dare, was the daughter of John White, the governor of the colony.

329. What are the “Horse Latitudes”?

Seamen give this name to a bank or region of calms in the Atlantic Ocean, about the parallels of 30–35 degrees north. The name is said to be derived from the circumstance that vessels formerly bound from New England to the West Indies, with a deck-load of horses, were often delayed in this calm belt of Cancer, and, for want of water, were obliged to throw the animals overboard.

330. What city is called “Porkopolis”?

Cincinnati, one of the greatest American pork markets, is popularly so called.

331. Who was the “Iron Duke”?

Arthur Wellesley, K. G., Duke of Wellington. According to the Rev. G. R. Gleig, this sobriquet arose from the building of an iron steamboat, which plied between Liverpool and Dublin, and which its owners called the “Duke of Wellington.” The term “Iron Duke” was first applied to the vessel; and by and by, rather in jest than in earnest, it was transferred to the duke himself. It had no reference whatever, at the outset, to any peculiarities or assumed peculiarities in his disposition; though, from the popular belief that he never entertained a single generous feeling toward the masses, it is sometimes understood as a figurative allusion to his supposed hostility to the interests of the lower orders.

332. Where is the “Island of St. Brandan”?

This marvellous flying island, the subject of many traditions, is represented as about ninety leagues in length, lying beyond the Canaries. This island appears on most of the maps of the time of Columbus, and is laid down in a French geographical chart of as late a date as 1755, in which it is placed five degrees west of the island of Ferro, in latitude twenty-nine degrees north. The name _St. Brandan_, or _Borandan_, given to this imaginary island, is said to be derived from an Irish abbot who flourished in the sixth century, and concerning whose voyage in search of the Islands of Paradise many legends are related. Many expeditions were sent forth in quest of this mysterious island, the last being from Spain in 1721; but it always eluded the search. The Spaniards believe this lost island to be the retreat of their King Rodrigo; the Portuguese assign it to their Don Sebastian. “Its reality,” says Irving, “was for a long time a matter of firm belief. The public, after trying all kinds of sophistry, took refuge in the supernatural to defend their favorite chimera. They maintained that it was rendered inaccessible to mortals by Divine Providence, or by diabolical magic. Poetry, it is said, has owed to this popular belief one of its beautiful fictions, and the garden of Armida, where Rinaldo was detained enchanted, and which Tasso places in one of the Canary Isles, has been identified with the imaginary San Borandan.” The origin of this illusion has been ascribed to certain atmospherical deceptions, like that of the _Fata Morgana_.

333. Where is the “Island of the Seven Cities”?

This imaginary island is the subject of one of the popular traditions concerning the ocean, which were current in the time of Columbus. It is represented as abounding in gold, with magnificent houses and temples, and high towers that shone at a distance. The legend relates that at the time of the conquest of Spain and Portugal by the Moors, when the inhabitants fled in every direction to escape from slavery, seven bishops, followed by a great number of people, took shipping and abandoned themselves to their fate upon the high seas. After tossing about for a time, they landed upon an unknown island in the midst of the ocean. Here the bishops burned the ships to prevent the desertion of their followers, and founded seven cities. This mysterious island is said to have been visited at different times by navigators, who, however, were never permitted to return.

334. Why has March 25 been adopted as “Moving Day” in many parts of our country?

Until the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, in 1752, the English legal year began on the 25th of March. Consequently on that day all leases, etc., expired, lands changed hands, etc. This custom still survives in many parts of our own country, and March 25 is our “Moving Day.” Under the name of Lady Day, the 25th of March is still one of the regular quarter-days in England and Ireland for the payment of rent.

335. Who was Lalla Rookh?

This heroine of a poem of the same name by Moore is the daughter of the great Aurungzebe. She is betrothed to the young king of Bucharia, and sets forth, with a splendid train of attendants, to meet him in the delightful valley of Cashmere. To amuse the languor, or divert the impatience of the royal bride, in the noontide and night halts of her luxurious progress, a young Cashmerian poet had been sent by the gallantry of the bridegroom, and recites, on these occasions, the several tales that make up the bulk of the poem. With him she falls desperately in love, and by the time she enters the lovely vale of Cashmere, and sees the glittering palaces and towers prepared for her reception, she feels that she would joyfully forego all this pomp and splendor, and fly to the desert with the youthful bard whom she adores. He, however, has now disappeared from her side, and she is supported, with fainting heart and downcast eye, into the presence of her tyrant; when a well-known voice bids her be of good cheer, and, looking up, she sees her beloved poet in the prince himself, who had assumed this gallant disguise, and won her affections without any aid from his rank or her engagement.

336. Which is the “Land of Steady Habits”?

Connecticut is sometimes so designated, in allusion to the moral character of its inhabitants.

337. Which is the “Lumber State”?

Maine. The inhabitants of this State are largely engaged in the business of cutting and rafting lumber, or of converting it into boards, shingles, scantlings, and the like.

338. What was the “Bible of the Greeks”?

This name is sometimes applied to the works of Homer and Hesiod, as they put into writing the beliefs concerning the gods.

339. Who was the “Prince of Destruction”?

This name was conferred upon Tamerlane, or Timour (1335–1405), one of the most celebrated of Oriental conquerors, who overran Persia, Tartary, and Hindostan, his conquests extending from the Volga to the Persian Gulf, and from the Ganges to the Archipelago. He was prevented only by the want of shipping from crossing into Europe. He died just as he was making vast preparations for the invasion of China. No conquests were ever attended with greater cruelty, devastation, and waste of life.

340. What was the “Luz”?

This name was given by the old Jewish rabbins to an imaginary little bone which they believed to exist at the base of the spinal column, and to be incapable of destruction. To its ever-living power, fermented by a kind of dew from heaven, they ascribed the resurrection of the dead.

“Hadrian (whose bones may they be ground, and his name blotted out!) asked R. Joshua, Ben Hananiah, ‘How doth a man revive again in the world to come?’ He answered and said, ‘From _luz_, in the backbone.’ Saith he to him, ‘Demonstrate this to me.’ Then he took _luz_, a little bone out of the backbone, and put it in water, and it was not steeped; he put it in the fire, and it was not burned; he brought it to the mill, and that could not grind it; he laid it on the anvil, and knocked it with a hammer, but the anvil was cleft, and the hammer broken.” _Lightfoot._

341. Who was the “Queen of Hearts”?

Elizabeth, the daughter of James I., and the unfortunate queen of Bohemia, was so engaging in her behavior, that she was so called in the Low Countries. When her fortunes were at the lowest ebb, she never departed from her dignity; and poverty and distress seemed to have no other effect upon her but to render her more an object of admiration than before.

342. Why is New Jersey sometimes called “Spain”?

New Jersey receives this sobriquet from the fact that Joseph Bonaparte, the eldest brother of Napoleon, and ex-king of Spain, once occupied the extensive grounds and mansion called Point Breeze, at Bordentown, in that State. Here he lived for some years under the title of Comte de Survilliers, endeared to the inhabitants by his liberality and gracious manners, and he was elected to many philanthropical and learned associations. An act was passed in 1817 by the Legislature of New Jersey to enable him, as an alien, to hold real estate.

343. Who were the “Roundheads”?

In English history this nickname was given, in the reign of Charles I., to the Puritans or parliamentary party, who were accustomed to wear their hair cut close to the head. The term was soon extended in its application so as to include all the adherents of the Parliament, whether Puritans or not. The origin of the term is not certainly known. Some attribute it to the circumstance that staid and serious persons at the time of the civil wars were used to wear black skullcaps reaching down to the ears. Others say it was because the Puritans wore their hair short, while the opposite party, the Cavaliers, wore theirs in long ringlets. According to Haydn, the Puritans were in the habit of putting a round bowl or wooden dish upon their heads, and cutting their hair by the edge or brim. Still another account is, that Queen Henrietta Maria, at Stratford’s trial, asked “who that _round-headed_ man was,” meaning Mr. Pym, her attention having been directed to him “because he spake so strongly.”

344. What was the origin of the expression “Simon Pure”?

This expression, which means “the real man,” had its origin in the name of a Pennsylvania Quaker in Mrs. Centlivre’s comedy, “A Bold Stroke for a Wife.” Being about to visit London to attend the quarterly meeting of his sect, his friend, Aminadab Holdfast, sends a letter of recommendation and introduction to another Quaker, Obadiah Prim, a rigid and stern man, who is guardian of Anne Lovely, a young lady worth £30,000. Colonel Feignwell, another character in the same play, who is enamoured of Miss Lovely and her handsome fortune, availing himself of an accidental discovery of Holdfast’s letter and of its contents, succeeds in passing himself off on Prim as his expected visitor. The real Simon Pure, calling at Prim’s house, is treated as an impostor, and is obliged to depart in order to hunt up witnesses who can testify to his identity. Meantime Feignwell succeeds in getting from Prim a written and unconditional consent to his marriage with Anne. No sooner has he obtained possession of the document, than Simon Pure reappears with his witnesses, and Prim discovers the trick that has been put upon him.

345. What was the origin of the phrase “To catch a Tartar”?

An Irish soldier, in a battle against the Turks, shouted to his commanding officer that he had caught a Tartar. “Bring him along, then,” said the general. “But he won’t come.” “Then come along yourself.” “Arrah! an’ so I would, but he won’t let me,” answered Paddy. Hence arose the saying “To catch a Tartar,” meaning to be outdone.

346. Which is the oldest street in New England?

Leyden Street, in Plymouth, Mass. It is so called in memory of the Dutch city where the Pilgrim Fathers had stopped for a season.

347. What was the origin of the phrase “To haul over the coals”?

One method of extorting money from the Jews, by the kings or barons, was at one time to haul them over the coals of a slow fire, until they yielded to their demands; hence this phrase, meaning to scold, to take to task.

348. Which is the “Maiden Town”?

Edinburgh is so styled from a monkish fable or tradition that it was once the residence of the daughters of Pictish kings, who were sent to this stronghold for protection in times of war and trouble.

349. What was the “War of the Roses”?

This name is given to the civil war which raged in England from the reign of Henry VI. to that of Henry VII. (1452–1486), on account of the badges or emblems of the parties to the strife,--that of the house of York being a white rose, and that of the house of Lancaster a red rose.

350. Which was the first American bird taken to England?

The turkey. When John Cabot returned from his discovery of the American continent, he took two of these birds and three savages as his booty.

351. What was the origin of “$”?

There are several theories for the origin of the sign of the American dollar:--

1. That it is a combination of U. S., the initials of the United States.

2. That it is a modification of the figure 8, the dollar being formerly called a “_piece of eight_,” and designated by the symbol 8/8.

3. That it is derived from a representation of the “Pillars of Hercules,” consisting of two pillars connected with a scroll. The old Spanish coins containing this were called “_pillar dollars_.”

4. That it is a combination of H. S., the mark of the Roman money unit.

5. That it is a combination of P. and S. from the Spanish _peso duro_, signifying _hard dollar_. In Spanish accounts _peso_ is contracted by writing the S over the P, and placing it after the sum.

352. By whom was the Northeast Passage discovered?

By Prof. Adolph Eric Nordenskjold, a Swedish explorer, who left Gothenburg, Sweden, July 4, 1878, in command of the _Vega_, and arrived in Japan in July, 1879, after lying locked up in the ice about nine months. There were peculiarly favorable conditions which enabled him to do what others have so often failed to do, but it is something of a triumph to have in any case achieved a work so hazardous and remarkable, and Prof. Nordenskjold can enjoy a distinction which he has fairly and honorably won.

353. What kind of goblets were formerly considered as preservatives against poison?

Goblets made of rhinoceros horns were formerly held in high estimation as preservatives against poison. The kings of India were accustomed to have their wine served up in these goblets, as they imagined that if any poison were introduced into the cup, the liquid would boil over and betray its presence.

354. What was the origin of the phrase “To have a bone to pick with one”?

A Sicilian father, at the marriage of his daughter, after the feast gave the bridegroom a bone, saying, “Pick this bone, for you have undertaken a much harder task.” Hence arose, it is said, the above phrase, meaning to have an unpleasant affair to settle.

355. What was the origin of the phrase “To throw dust in one’s eyes”?

“To throw dust in one’s eyes” is to mislead. The phrase arose from a Mohammedan practice of casting dust into the air for the sake of “confounding” the enemies of the faith.

356. What is the meaning of the phrase “By hook or by crook”?

It probably means “foully like a thief or holily like a bishop,” the _hook_ being used by footpads, and the _crook_ being the bishop’s crosier.

357. Who was the “Scourge of God”?

This title is often given to Attila, or Etzel, the famous king of the Huns, and one of the most formidable invaders of the Roman Empire. His father, Mundzuk, was succeeded by his brothers Octar and Rhuas; and on the death of Rhuas, in 434, Attila and his brother Bleda together ascended the throne. Their dominions are said to have extended from the Rhine to the frontiers of China. Attila was superstitiously reverenced by his countrymen; he was said to possess the miraculous iron sword of the Scythian god of war, and he proclaimed himself to be the man-child born at Engaddi, who was destined to rule over the whole world. At the head of an army of 700,000 men he gradually concentrated on himself the awe and fear of the whole ancient world, which ultimately expressed itself by affixing to his name the well-known epithet of the “Scourge of God.” This name was first given him, it is said, by a hermit in Gaul. In the year 453, on the night of his marriage to a beautiful Gothic maiden, called Ildiko, or Hilda, he burst a blood-vessel, and expired, to the unspeakable relief of both Europe and Asia. His body was put in a coffin of iron, over which was one of silver and a third of gold. He was buried secretly at night together with a mass of treasure and arms, and the captives who dug his grave were slaughtered by the Huns in order to conceal his tomb.

358. Who bought the first United States postage stamps ever sold?

The first postage stamps in this country were issued in accordance with an act of Congress, approved March 3, 1847. They were of five and ten cent denominations, and the date of issue was appointed as July 1, but there was a delay in the work and the time ran over a month. On the 5th of August, the Hon. Henry Shaw, of Lanesborough, Mass., the father of the late well-known Henry Shaw, Jr. (“Josh Billings”), called to see Postmaster-General Johnson on business. While there the printer came in with several sheets of the stamps. Mr. Johnson handed them to his visitor to inspect, and Mr. Shaw bought two of the stamps,--the first two ever issued. The five-cent stamp he kept as a curiosity, and the ten-cent stamp he presented to Gov. Briggs, of Massachusetts.

359. Who have been the acting Vice-Presidents of the United States during the several vacancies in that office?

William Harris Crawford, of Georgia, became Vice-President on the death of George Clinton, April 20, 1812; and after the death of Elbridge Gerry, Nov. 23, 1814, John Gaillard, of South Carolina, served as Vice-President until March 4, 1817. After the resignation of John C. Calhoun from that office on Dec. 28, 1832, it was held by Hugh Lawson White, of Tennessee, until the 4th of March, 1833. Samuel Lewis Southard, of New Jersey, and Willie Person Mangum, of North Carolina, served as Vice-Presidents during the administration of Tyler; and William Rufus King, of Alabama, served in like capacity during Fillmore’s term. During the administration of Franklin Pierce, David R. Atchison, of Missouri, and Jesse D. Bright, of Indiana, were acting Vice-Presidents. During President Johnson’s term, Lafayette Sabine Foster, of Connecticut, and Benjamin Franklin Wade, of Ohio, held the Vice-Presidency. The successor of Henry Wilson, upon his death, Nov. 22, 1875, was Thomas W. Ferry, of Michigan. When Vice-President Arthur became President, his successor was David Davis, of Illinois, who was succeeded, in turn, by George F. Edmunds, of Vermont. After the death of Vice-President Hendricks, the Senate chose John Sherman, of Ohio, as his successor.

360. Why are the “Hoosiers” so called?

The term “Hoosiers,” as applied to the citizens of Indiana, is derived either from _husher_, a term synonymous throughout the West with bully or rough, as many of the early settlers were bullies and men of great physical strength, or from the rough exclamation of these people when one knocked at a door, “Who’s yere?”

361. Why is the passion flower so called?

It was named by the early Spanish settlers, who fancied it to be a representation of our Lord’s passion.

The _leaf_ is symbolic of the spear that pierced his side.

The five _anthers_, the marks of the wounds.

The _tendrils_, the cords or whips.

The column of the _ovary_, the upright of the cross.

The _stamens_, the hammers.

The three _styles_, the nails.

The _filamentous processes_, the crown of thorns.

The _calyx_, the glory or halo.

The _white_ tint, purity.

The _blue_ tint, heaven.

It remains open for three days and typifies his three years’ ministry.

362. Which is the “Petrified City”?

Ishmonie, in Upper Egypt, is so called on account of a great number of statues of men, women, children, and animals, which are said to be seen there at this day, and which, according to a popular superstition, were once animated beings, but were miraculously changed into stone in all the various postures and attitudes which were assumed by them at the instant of their supposed transubstantiation.

363. What was the origin of the phrase “That’s a feather in your cap”?

“A feather in your cap” is a mark of distinction. It originates with the wild tribes of Asia and America, who add a new feather to their head-dress for every enemy slain. A Caufir of Cabul adorns himself with new feathers for every Mussulman killed by him. The custom was a common one among the Lycians and other nations of antiquity, and, in fact, in one form or another seems to be almost universal at the present time.

364. Why is the Baldwin apple so called?

The famous Baldwin apple was discovered by Col. Loammi Baldwin (1745–1807), a distinguished citizen of Woburn, Mass. While surveying land in Wilmington (in the same State), he observed a tree on the land of James Butters, much frequented by woodpeckers. Curiosity led him to examine the tree, and he found thereon apples of excellent flavor. The next spring he took from it scions to engraft into stocks of his own. Others in his neighborhood did the same till the apple was extensively cultivated. Some named the apple Butters’ apple, from the locality of the original tree; others called it Woodpecker’s apple, from the birds which caused the discovery; but one day, at an entertainment of friends at the house of Col. Baldwin, it was suggested that the name “Baldwin apple,” in honor of the discoverer, was the most appropriate, and it has since been known by his name. The original tree was destroyed by the famous September gale in 1815.

365. Why was the White House so called?

The home of the Presidents was named in honor of the White House, the Virginia home of Martha Washington, in New Kent County, in which her wedding occurred. Washington had many pleasant memories of that residence, and it was he who suggested the building of a “White House” for the Presidents. The house is constructed of Virginia freestone, which is excessively porous, and consequently would be very damp in the interior, were it not for a thick coat of white lead, which is applied about once in ten years at a great expense.

366. Who was the first woman hung in the United States?

Mary Dyer, a Quakeress. On the 27th of October, 1659, a gallows stood on Boston Common, and three condemned Quakers, William Robinson, Marmaduke Stevenson, and Mary Dyer, were led out to execution. They were accompanied by the trainband, and drums were beat to drown their testimony. The town was put under guard of thirty-six soldiers against apprehended trouble. The woman walked between her two companions, holding each of them by a hand. The marshal asked her, “If she was not ashamed to walk, hand in hand, between two young men?” She replied, “It is an hour of the greatest joy I can enjoy in this world. No eye can see, no ear can hear, no tongue can speak, no heart can understand, the sweet incomes and refreshings of the Spirit of the Lord which I now enjoy.” The two men were hung and buried beneath the gallows; but Mary Dyer, after having the noose put round her neck, was pardoned and sent to Rhode Island. The next spring she returned. On the gallows the second time, June 1, 1660, she was offered her life if she would promise to keep out of Massachusetts. Her reply was, “In obedience to the will of the Lord I came; and in his will I abide faithful to the death.” She did so.

367. Who are the “Blue-Noses”?

This name is popularly given to the inhabitants of Nova Scotia or New Brunswick. It is supposed to have been originally applied from the effect upon the more prominent parts of the face of the raw easterly winds and long-continued fogs which prevail in these provinces. Others say that it was first applied to a particular kind of potatoes which were extensively produced by the inhabitants, and that it was afterwards transferred to the inhabitants themselves. Others trace its origin to the custom among certain tribes of the aborigines of painting the nose blue as a punishment for a crime against chastity.

368. Who was the “Handsome Englishman”?

This name was given by Turenne to the celebrated John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough (1650–1722), who was no less distinguished for the singular graces of his person, than for his brilliant courage, and his consummate ability both as a soldier and a statesman.

369. What great general was fired at fifteen times and yet escaped unhurt?

In the battle of Monongahela, July 9, 1755, an Indian chief with his braves especially singled Washington out. Four balls passed through his clothes and two horses were shot under him, yet he was not harmed. Fifteen years later, Washington made an expedition to the Western country with Dr. Craik, an intimate friend, and a party of woodsmen, for the purpose of exploring wild lands. While near the junction of the Great Kanawha and Ohio Rivers, the old Indian chief came a “long way” to see the man at whom he had fired a rifle fifteen times without hitting him, adding that “he was then persuaded that the youthful hero was under the special guardianship of the Great Spirit, and immediately ceased to fire at him.” He was now come “to pay homage to the man, who was the particular favorite of Heaven, and who could never die in battle.”

370. What was the origin of “bigot”?

This word is of uncertain and disputed etymology. There are several theories of its origin.

1. That it was first applied to the Normans from the oath uttered by Rollo, the first Duke of Normandy, who was obliged to kiss the foot of his father-in-law, Charles the Foolish, in return for the province of Neustria. When told by his companions what he must do, he exclaimed, “_Ne se, Bigot_” (Not so, by God): the king and the court mockingly called him _Bigoth_, whence the Normans were called _Bigothi_.

2. That it is from bigot, an old Norman word, signifying as much as _De par dieu_, or our _for God’s sake_, and signifying a hypocrite, or one that seemeth much more holy than he is.

3. That it is a corruption of Visigotha, in which the fierce and intolerant Arianism of the Visigoth conqueror of Spain is handed down to infamy. The word _bigos_ occurs in an old French romance, cited by Roquefort, in the sense of a barbarous people.

4. That it is from the Low Latin _Begutta_, one of the appellations of the nuns called _Beguines_, who, without having taken monastic vows, were united for purposes of devotion and charity, and lived together in houses called _beguinages_.

5. That it is derived from the Italian _bigotto_, or _bighiotto_, a devotee, a hypocrite.

6. That it is from the Spanish _bigote_, a whisker, _hombre de bigote_ being a man of spirit.

371. Who was the “Beautiful Rope-maker”?

This sobriquet was given to Louise Labè (1526–1566), a French poetess, who married Ennemond Perrin, a rope manufacturer. She wrote in three different languages. She was distinguished for her extraordinary courage at the siege of Perpignan.

372. What was the origin of the expression “A Sardonic smile”?

Some derive it from the Greek σαιρειν, to grin like a dog; but the second and more probable derivation is that it is from a herb growing in the island of Sardinia (Greek Σαρδω). This herb, the _Ranunculus sceleratus_, has, when eaten, a contractile power on the muscles of the body, and particularly those of the face, so that those affected by it seem to laugh. It was an old belief that those who eat it would die laughing, hence Homer first, and others after him, call laughter which conceals some noxious design Sardonican. This same plant has a caustic power, so that if the fresh-pulled leaves are laid on the skin, they produce pustules, as if caused by fire.

373. Who was the first circumnavigator of the globe?

Ferdinand Magellan, though he did not survive to return home with his ship, well deserves the title of the “first circumnavigator.” He discovered the strait, which now bears his name, Oct. 20, 1520, the day dedicated in the Catholic calendar to St. Ursula and her eleven thousand virgins, hence he called it “The Strait of the Eleven Thousand Virgins.” The strait was passed Nov. 28; and though he had not quite reached the Spice Islands when he fell in conflict with the people of the isle of Mactan, April 27, 1521, his task was virtually accomplished, as he had before been as far east as the Spice Islands. The expedition, reduced from five ships and two hundred and thirty-six men to one vessel and eighteen men, reached San Lucar, Spain, Sept. 6, 1522, after an absence of three years lacking fourteen days, under the guidance of Juan Sebastian del Cano. This vessel, the _Vitoria_, was the first to make the circuit of the globe. As a reward Cano was ennobled with the globe on his coat-of-arms, and the motto, “_Primus circumdedisti me_.”

374. Which is the “City of Oaks”?

This name has been given to Raleigh, the capital of North Carolina, which possesses many fine streets shaded with native oaks. These oaks were wisely spared during the first settlement, and have since attained a giant growth.

375. Why was Gen. Grant sometimes called “Unconditional Surrender” Grant?

The origin of this sobriquet is to be found in the following note:--

HEADQUARTERS, ARMY IN THE FIELD,
CAMP NEAR DONELSON, Feb. 16, 1862.

Gen S. B. BUCKNER,
_Confederate Army_.

_Sir_,--Yours of this date proposing armistice, and appointment of commissioners, to settle terms of capitulation, is just received. No terms except an unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted.

I propose to move immediately upon your works.

I am, sir, very respectfully,
Your obedient servant,
U. S. GRANT,
_Brig. Gen._

Gen. Buckner surrendered Fort Donelson and fifteen thousand men the same day, and after that U. S. Grant was often said to signify “Unconditional Surrender” Grant.

376. When, where, and by whom was the first watch made?

Watches were first made at Nuremberg, Germany, in 1477, by Peter Hele, a clock-maker, and were accounted “a wonder of the world.” It required nearly a year’s labor to produce the first watch. It varied nearly an hour a day from the true time, and required winding twice a day. The price set upon it and its fellows by the inventor was equal to $1,500 in gold at the present day. It was egg-shaped and about the size of a goose egg, hence it was sometimes called the “Nuremberg animated egg.” The statement made by some, that Robert, king of Scotland, had a watch about the year 1310, is doubtless erroneous. The invention of spring watches has been ascribed to Dr. Hooke, and by some to Huygens, about 1658; the anchor escapement was invented by Clement, in 1680; the horizontal watch by Graham, in 1724; the repeating watch by Barlowe, in 1676; and Harrison produced his first timepiece in 1735.

377. What famous men of antiquity were killed by lice?

Lice appear to have been a great plague among the ancients, and many persons suffered from the disease now known as _Morbus pediculosus_, or _Phthiriasis_. Among the most famous persons who died of this “creeping sickness” were Acastas, the son of Pelias, Alcman the poet, Pherecydes the theologian, Callisthenes the Olynthian, Mucius the lawyer, Eunus the fugitive, who stirred up the slaves of Sicily to rebel against their masters, and Lucius Cornelius Sulla, dictator of Rome, although the immediate cause of the latter’s death was the bursting of a blood-vessel. Plutarch thus describes, in substance, the case of Sulla. In consequence of his excesses, his corrupted flesh at length broke out into lice. Many were employed day and night in destroying them, but the work so multiplied under their hands, that not only his clothes, baths, basins, but his very flesh was polluted with that flux and contagion, they came swarming out in such numbers. He went frequently by day into the bath to scour and cleanse his body, but all in vain; the evil generated too rapidly and too abundantly for any ablutions to overcome it.

378. Who was the “American Fabius”?

This sobriquet is often given to George Washington, whose military policy resembled that of the Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, who conducted operations against Hannibal by declining to risk a battle in the open field, harassing him by marches, counter-marches, and ambuscades.

379. Who were the “Seven against Thebes”?

They were the seven leaders of an expedition designed to place Polynices on the throne of Thebes, from which he had been driven by his brother Eteocles. Their names were Adrastus, Amphiaraus, Capaneus, Hippomedon (Argives), Parthenopæus (an Arcadian), Polynices (a Theban), and Tydeus (an Æolian). The expedition was a failure, as the chiefs were arrogant and boastful, and despised signs sent by the gods. Adrastus, who escaped by the swiftness of his horse Areion, the gift of Hercules, was the only one saved. Ten years afterward, a second expedition, conducted by their more pious sons, the _Epigoni_, who acted in obedience to the will of heaven, was crowned with success.

380. Who was the “Sage of Monticello”?

Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), third President of the United States, was often so called from the name of his country seat in Virginia, and in allusion to his wise statesmanship and great political sagacity.

381. What was the origin of the term “Johnnies,” as applied to the Confederate soldiers during the late Rebellion?

This term Johnnies, or Johnny Rebs, is said to have originated in a taunting remark addressed to a rebel picket, to the effect that the Southern States relied on “John Bull” to help them gain their independence, and that the picket himself was no better than a “John Bull”; an accusation which he indignantly denied, saying that he would “as soon be called a ‘nigger’ as a ‘Johnny Bull.’”

382. What was the “Day of Corn-sacks”?

The 3d of January, 1591, is so called, in French history, from an attempt made by Henry IV. to surprise Paris on that day. Some of his officers, disguised as corn dealers, with sacks on their shoulders, endeavored to get possession of the gate St. Honore; but they were recognized, and obliged to make a hasty retreat.

383. Who were the “Copperheads”?

This popular nickname originated in the time of the late Rebellion, and was applied to a faction in the North, which was very generally considered to be in secret sympathy with the Rebellion, and to give it aid and comfort by attempting to thwart the measures of the government. The name is derived from a poisonous serpent, called the copperhead (_Trigonocephalus contortrix_), whose bite is considered as deadly as that of the rattlesnake and whose geographical range extends from forty-five degrees north to Florida. The copperhead, unlike the rattlesnake, gives no warning of its attack, and is, therefore, the type of a concealed foe.

384. What was “Symnes’ Hole”?

An enormous opening imagined by Capt. John Cleve Symnes (1780–1829), a visionary American theorizer, to exist in the crust of the earth at eighty-two degrees north. Through this opening, he thought a descent might be made into the interior of the globe, which he supposed to be peopled with plants and animals, and to be lighted by two small subterranean planets, named Pluto and Proserpine, which diffused a mild radiance.

385. Who is the “Quaker Poet”?

This name is often given to John Greenleaf Whittier, a noted American poet, who was born of Quaker parentage and is a member of the Society of Friends.

The name was also given to Bernard Barton (1784–1849), an English poet of some note, and a member of the Society of Friends. His poems fill eight or nine volumes, the “Household Verses” being among his best productions.

386. Who was the “Newton of Antiquity”?

This title has been given to Hipparchus, who flourished in the second century B. C. He was the most celebrated of the Greek astronomers. He calculated the length of the year to within six minutes, discovered the precession of the equinoxes, and made the first catalogue of the stars, 1081 in number.

387. What are the eight motions of the earth?

1. Diurnal rotation on its axis.

2. Annual revolution in its orbit.

3. Precession of the equinoxes, which requires 25,816 years for the equinoctial points to make a complete revolution of the ecliptic.

4. Change of perihelion. In the year 4089 B. C. the earth was in perihelion at the autumnal equinox. It is now in perihelion on the 1st of January. In the year 17267 A. D., the long cycle of 21,356 years will be completed, and for the first time since the creation of man the autumnal equinox will coincide with the earth’s perihelion.

5. Change in the obliquity of the ecliptic. The orbit of the earth vibrates backward and forward, each oscillation requiring a period of about 10,000 years.

6. Nutation caused by the moon. This movement requires eighteen and three fourths years for completing a revolution.

7. Planetary perturbations.

8. Translation through space, the greatest of all.

388. Which is the floral emblem of the United States?

The violet is the national emblematic flower of our country. Perhaps it is symbolic of the native modesty of Americans.

389. Who was the first white child born in America?

The first of which we have any record was SNORRE THORFINNSON, who was born at Straumfjord (Buzzard’s Bay), in the present State of Massachusetts, in the year 1008. He was the son of Thorfinn Karlsefne and his wife Gudrid. From him the famous sculptor, Albert Thorwaldsen, is lineally descended, besides a long train of learned and distinguished men, who have flourished during the last eight centuries in Iceland and Denmark.

390. What king wrote an essay against tobacco?

King James I., of England, issued in 1616 a _Counterblaste to Tobacco_, in which he describes its use as “a custom loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain, dangerous to the lungs, and in the black, stinking fume thereof nearest resembling the horrible Stygian smoke of the pit that is bottomless.”

391. What metals are valued at over $1,000 a pound?

Vanadium,--a white metal discovered in 1830, is valued at $10,000 an avoirdupois pound.

Rubidium,--an alkaline metal, so called from exhibiting dark red lines in the spectrum analysis, $9,070.

Zirconium,--a metal obtained from the mineral zircon and hyacinth, in the form of a black powder, $7,200.

Lithium,--an alkaline metal, the lightest metal known, $7,000.

Glucinum,--a metal in the form of a grayish-black powder, $5,400.

Calcium,--The metallic base of lime, $4,500.

Strontium,--a malleable metal of a yellowish color, $4,200.

Terbium,--obtained from the mineral gadolinte, found in Sweden, $4,080.

Yttrium,--discovered in 1828, is of a grayish-black color, and its lustre perfectly metallic, $4,080.

Erbium,--a metal found associated with yttrium, $3,400.

Cerium,--a metal of high specific gravity, a grayish-white color, and a lamellar texture, $3,400.

Didymium,--a metal found associated with cerium, $3,200.

Ruthenium,--of a gray color, very hard and brittle; extracted from the ores of platinum, $2,400.

Niobium,--previously named columbium, first discovered in an ore found at New London, Conn., $2,300.

Rhodium,--of a white color and metallic lustre, and extremely hard and brittle. It requires the strongest heat that can be produced by a wind furnace for its fusion, $2,200.

Barium,--the metallic base of baryta, $1,800.

Palladium,--a metal discovered in 1803, and found in very small grains, of a steel-gray color and fibrous structure, $1,400.