Chapter VII: Passerines (2)

The CROSSBILLS (_Loxiadæ_) are remarkable for the form of their bill, the mandibles being compressed and recurved, crossing each other in contrary directions, the terminations being hooked, forming an instrument admirably adapted for dividing the scales of fir-cones so as to disclose the germs, which are favourite portions of their food. They are sometimes found near orchards, feeding on the kernels of apples, which their bill readily cuts. They are said to commit great ravages on the fruits of Normandy when they pass through that province, which they annually do in great flocks. This family present this peculiarity, which is almost unique among birds--that they build their nests and lay at all seasons. The Crossbills haunt the wooded mountains of the North of Europe and America.

The SPARROW (_Passer_) is, perhaps, the best-characterised genus among the Passerine Conirostres. In it are included a great number of species with bills more or less thick at the base. Coming to the most remarkable of them, we have the Grosbeak (_Fringilla coccothraustes_, Temm.), Fig. 225, which is the type of the genus, for it is distinguished by the possession of a bill which is about three-quarters of an inch long, not less than half an inch in thickness at the base, and of immense strength when the size of the bird is considered, which scarcely exceeds that of the Thrush. It feeds on seeds, berries, and insects; the kernels of the hardest fruit cannot resist the powerful implement with which it is provided. Widely diffused throughout Europe, it is always met with in England during autumn, continuing with us till April, but it has not been recorded as breeding here. It is constantly found in France, where it appears in open country or woods, according to temperature. It is a quarrelsome and unsociable bird; and if placed in confinement with others, it will undoubtedly maltreat, and perhaps kill them.

The Americans possess many species of _Fringilla_, some of them having plumage of a fine rose colour.

The BULLFINCHES (_Pyrrhula vulgaris_, Gould), Fig. 226, are pretty little birds. Their cheeks, breast, and belly are a bright crimson, shaded with orange red; grey round the shoulders, with black head. They feed on various kinds of seeds or berries. They are easily tamed, being of a gentle, docile disposition. Their attachment to their master, and the ease with which they are taught to pipe, are their principal recommendations. In their natural state they construct their nest in the most inaccessible part of the thicket, usually in a black or white thorn bush. This is composed of small dry twigs, lined with fibrous roots.

The SISKIN (_Carduelis spinus_, Yarrell), Fig. 227, may be mentioned among the numerous songsters which charm with their melodious notes. It is very pretty, although less richly coloured than the Goldfinch and others, its congeners. It is neat and compact in form; its bill resembles that of the Goldfinch, but is more compressed, the two mandibles in some specimens meeting only at the base. The plumage is soft, blended, and glossy.

The HOUSE SPARROW (_Passer domesticus_, Yarrell), Fig. 228, is among the most interesting of the Passerinæ. It abounds all over Europe, from its most southern regions up to extreme north.

Every one is acquainted with this little bird; lively, pert, and cunning, the true _gamin_ of the winged race. It lives in flocks in the neighbourhood of dwelling-houses, and even in the heart of large towns; it is familiar, but its familiarity is circumspect and sly. It haunts our streets and public places, but is careful to keep men and boys at a respectful distance. It has a notion that the friendship of the great is dangerous, and its prudence counsels it to avoid intimacies which might have troublesome consequences; it is only after multitudinous proofs of good offices that the Sparrow will form an unreserved treaty of friendship with man. The Sparrow quoted by Buffon, which not only followed its soldier master everywhere, but would recognise him from all the others in the regiment, proves they are both intelligent and capable of affection.

Sparrows are eminently sociable, seeking their food and building their nests near each other, whether it be in crevices of walls or under the eaves of houses, in hedges or trees, or in the deserted nests of Swallows, which they have the effrontery to appropriate. In their nest, which is a bulky, soft, and warm structure, lined with wool, bristles, and hair, the female deposits from four to six eggs three times a year; their fecundity is consequently very great. They are omnivorous, but prefer seeds and the larvæ of insects to all other food.

Oceans of ink have flowed to prove the ravages committed by Sparrows on the corn-fields, and to demonstrate that they should be exterminated by the farmer. But it is now generally agreed that the Sparrow is a benefactor, and belongs to the list of useful birds. Have we not seen in the Palatinate that after the Sparrow was proscribed and exterminated, the inhabitants were under the necessity of reimporting them in order to arrest the ravages of insects, which, in consequence of this bird's absence, had multiplied in a frightful manner?

The GOLDFINCH (_Carduelis elegans_, Yarrell), Fig. 229, is at the same time the most gentle and peaceful of birds, and one of the prettiest of European races. It has the back brown, the face red, with a bright yellow spot upon each cheek; its voice is full, sweet, and harmonious; it is exceedingly docile, easily tamed and raised as a cage-bird; in the aviary it soon becomes familiar, testifying great attachment to those who take charge of it; it readily learns to sing and go through various exercises, such as drawing up the vessel containing its food and drink, firing a miniature cannon, and other similar tricks.

The LINNETS (_Linota cannabina_, Yarrell), Fig. 230, have considerable analogy to the Goldfinch. They are, like them, extremely sociable, except at the period of incubation; that duty over, the individuals begin to muster in small flocks towards the end of autumn, which increase as the winter advances, when they betake themselves to sheltered districts, and to the neighbourhood of villages and farm-houses in search of food. They associate with various species, such as the Mountain Linnet, Green Linnet, and other small birds. The nest of the Linnet is generally placed in a bush of furze or heath. It is a neat structure, formed externally of blades of grass intermingled with moss and wool, and lined with hair of various kinds; sometimes with thistle-down. The female lays from four to six eggs, of an oval form, colour bluish white, marked with distinct spots of brownish black, purplish grey, and reddish brown. Should the nest be destroyed during incubation, the pair will build again, and lay two or three sets of eggs if needful; but the male is said to take no part in the building or incubation, although he watches the female with great solicitude, supplying her with food during the process.

The Linnets feed principally on hemp and linseed, whence their popular name. In the winter season, in the absence of their favourite food, they attack the young buds of trees, and pick up the stray seeds about farm-yards. Their song in confinement is remarkably sweet, brilliant, and varied, but will not compare with the thrilling voice of the Blackbird or Thrush. The species are numerous, both in Europe and America, but there is a tendency to reduce their number, and to regard them as seasonal varieties of the species under consideration.

The CHAFFINCH (_Fringilla coeleb, Linn.)_ Fig. 231, lives in flocks, except when breeding, like the Goldfinch and Linnets. But they differ from these members of the group in this--that their wing is less compact, and that they disperse themselves more in search of food than their congeners. Chaffinches are met with all over Europe, either as birds of passage or as permanent residents. They feed on various kinds of seeds and larvæ of insects, the latter of which they obtain in the early mornings of summer and autumn by searching the lower surface of the leaves of oak, ash, and other trees. They inhabit indifferently the woods, gardens, or high mountain ridges. In the early days of spring the mellow, modulated "tweet, tweet, tweet" of the Chaffinch is exceedingly pleasant to hear; but its monotony is apt to fatigue, for its eternal refrain makes it seem an affectation of gaiety, whence probably the French proverb, _Gai comme un pinson_.

The CANARIES (_Fringilla canaria_, Linn.), are only known by us as cage-birds, where they are recognised by their yellow plumage, more or less varied with green, although the facility with which they breed with the Linnet, Goldfinch, and others of the group, has introduced great varieties of colouring. Originally from the Canary Islands, they were first imported into Europe in the fifteenth century, and such was the charm of their song, added to their natural docility and gay plumage, that every one was eager to possess them. Buffon says, in his elegant manner, that if the Nightingale is the songster of the woods, the Canary is the chamber musician. Their race propagates, moreover, so rapidly that the poorest can afford to possess them; for these elegant little creatures are to be found among every grade of society, pouring out their joyous melody in the garret of the poor workman with as much energy as in the gorgeous saloons of the wealthy.

There are two distinct species of the Canary, the Plain and Variegated, or, as the bird-fanciers designate them, the Mealy, or Spangled, and Jonquils; but between these innumerable varieties have sprung up from cross-breeding with the Goldfinch, Linnet, and Siskin. These cross-breeds are often charming songsters; but, like all mules, they are completely sterile. Bechstein is of opinion that our Domestic Canary has a cross of the Siskin in it: this belief for a long time existed, but most naturalists now are of opinion that the Siskin belongs to a different genus.

The WIDOW BIRDS, or WHIDAH FINCHES (_Vidua_, Sw.), Fig. 233, are among the most remarkable of the hard-billed, seed-eating birds to which they belong. The long, drooping tail feathers which adorn the males in the breeding season give them a very singular appearance. The upper part of their plumage is of a faded blackish brown, assuming a paler hue on the wings and lateral tail feathers. The whole body is tinged with this faded black, gradually narrowing as it descends to the middle of the breast; a broad, rich orange-brown collar proceeds from the back of the neck, uniting with a tinge of the same colour on the sides of the breast, this last hue passing into the pale buff colour of the body, abdomen, and thighs, and the under tail coverts being of the same colour as the upper ones--a hue to which the bird is indebted for its popular and scientific name. The tail feathers are black; the four lateral ones on each side slightly graduated, and rather longer than the one immediately above. The next two are the long, drooping feathers, externally convex, so conspicuous in the male bird, which, in fine specimens, measure a foot in length from base, and about three-quarters of an inch in width. The body of the bird is about the size of a Canary. They are natives of South Africa and Senegal.

Near to the Widow Birds in the system we may place the Java Sparrow, Rice Bird, or Paddee Bird of the East Indies and Eastern Archipelago (_Fringilla oryzivora_, Sw.), Fig. 234. They are eagerly sought for as pets, in consequence of their brilliant plumage, and the facility with which they learn innumerable tricks.

The WEAVER BIRDS (_Ploceus_, Cuvier) close the series of _Fringillidæ_. They live in flocks in the interior of Africa, where they feed on the cereals and the young of weaker birds. They chirp, but have no song; and they owe their name to the inimitable art which they display in constructing their nests. These vary in form according to the species, and are composed of grass, rushes, and straw. They are usually suspended from the branches of a tree, the entrance being below. Sometimes they are spiral-shaped, occasionally round; in fact, they are of every imaginable outline. Mr. Swainson describes the nest of a species of _Loxia_ built on a branch extending over a river or a pool of water, shaped like a chemist's retort suspended from the head, while the shank was eight or ten inches long, at the bottom of which was the entrance, all but touching the water.

Another species of the _Ploceinæ_ construct their nests in a clump under one roof or cover, each nest having a separate entrance on the under side, but not communicating with that next it. Another variety is said each year to attach a new nest to that of the previous year, and nothing is more picturesque than these groups of nests thus suspended to the branches of a tree.

But the most curious of birds, in respect to nidification, are the Republican Weaver Birds (_Loxia socia_, Latham). These establish themselves, to the number of five or six hundred, upon the same tree, constructing their nests under a common roof, the one backing against the other, like the cells of a bee-hive, all living together in the happiest manner.

The BUNTINGS (_Emberizidæ_) are intimately associated with the Passerine birds. They are characterised by a short, stout, conical bill, the upper mandible narrower than the lower, its dorsal outline nearly straight, sides convex, edges inflected, the tip acute; the lower mandible has the angle short, broad, and rounded. In the palate is a hard, bony knob to bruise the seed which forms their principal food. Their general habitat is the fields and hedges upon the margin of woods; some few species haunt the banks of rivers. They build their nests on the ground, or on low bushes, and in this they deposit four or five eggs. The young, when hatched, are blue. Their plumage is deficient in brilliancy, but their song is not without attractions. In autumn, when they leave the colder regions to go south, fattened with the rich produce of the harvest-fields, they have a rich, delicate flavour, and are then in France eagerly sought after for the table, and frequently brought to market along with Larks and Ortolans.

The Buntings are divided into the Buntings properly so called, in which the claw of the back toe is short and hooked, and the Spurred or Lark Buntings (_Plectrophanes_, Meyer), in which it is long, straight, compressed, and slightly arched. To the first of these divisions belongs the Reed Bunting (_Emberiza schoeniclus_, McGillivray), Fig. 235, which may be considered the type of the group, and is a constant resident all the year round in France and England, but migratory in Scotland and other northern countries.

The Cirl Bunting (_E. cirlus_), Fig. 236, on the other hand, although found in Devon and Cornwall, and other parts of England, is only plentiful in the southern parts of Europe, and does not migrate into the colder regions.

The Ortolan Bunting (_E. hortulana_, Yarrell), Fig. 237, so well known to gourmets and pot-hunters of Southern Europe, migrates periodically. Some have been found in various parts of England, but they were evidently stragglers, driven there by accidental circumstances. They abound on the northern shores of the Mediterranean, in Western Central Asia, in France, and as far north as Norway, where they are known to breed. Their favourite resorts, according to Meyer, are the borders of woods, hedges, and fields, near a water-course, clothed with low willows and bushes. They are very shy: still great numbers are captured in nets, when they are kept in confinement, and crammed for the table.

The Snow Bunting (_Plectrophanes nivalis_, Gould) rarely shows itself in France, and Montagu describes them as rare in England, but McGillivray found them in considerable flocks all over Scotland, from the Outer Hebrides to the Lothians. On the 4th of August, 1830, being on the summit of Ben-na-muic-dhu, one of the loftiest mountains in Scotland, he observed a beautiful male flitting about in the neighbourhood of a drift of snow, and some days after, in descending from Lochnagar on a botanising expedition, he noticed a flock of eight individuals flying about among the granite rocks of a corry, evidently a family. "It is, therefore," he thinks, "very probable that it breeds on the higher Grampians."

The Conirostral Passerines include the family of _Paridæ_, or TITS. The Titmice, as they are sometimes called, are small birds, seldom attaining the size of the Common Sparrow. Their general form is moderately full, the head large in proportion, and broadly ovate. Their bill is straight, short, and tapering, furnished with hairs at the base, but their individuality is distinguished by their specific peculiarities rather than by physiognomy. A characteristic feature is their audacity, almost approaching to impudence, and their courage, the instinctive result of their sociability. These qualities secure for them a well-defined place in the group under consideration.

Who discovers the Owl during the day? Who besieges him with its clamours? Who pursues him with unintermitting blows of his bill? Who rouses the whole tribe of small birds against the nocturnal tyrant? It is the Titmouse. Bellicose as bird can be, it gives full scope to its most warlike instincts whenever a suitable occasion presents itself, its want of physical power being compensated for by the vigour of its assault. The Tit is, indeed, the incarnation of motion; it is continually on the _qui vive_, skipping from branch to branch, at one moment piercing the crevices of the bark with its bill in search of food, the next hanging suspended from a branch, to which it clings with its claws, while it picks off the insects which occupy the lower surface of the leaves.

Nevertheless, it varies its food according to seasons and circumstances. Not only does it devour all kinds of insects, not excepting wasps and bees, but even cereals and fruits. It is even carnivorous, for it has been known to kill weak or sickly birds in order to devour them. Some species have a most unnatural partiality for grease, and devour it whenever opportunity offers. They are sociable birds, inhabiting thickets or woods, living in flocks the greater part of the year, and showing strong attachment to each other, so that a flock of them will suffer themselves to be decimated, and even altogether destroyed, rather than desert a wounded companion. In the spring they pair, and each isolated couple now seek out a suitable place in which they may rear their future progeny.

The position of the nest varies with the species. The Great Tit, or Oxeye (_Parus major_, Selborne), builds in the hole of some wall, or in a cavity formed in a decayed tree. It is usually composed of moss, hair, and feathers. The Blue Tit (_P. cæruleus_, Selborne) occasionally builds its nest in very insecure places. Mr. Duncan, one of Mr. McGillivray's correspondents, in a MS. note now before us, says, "In the year 1836 I discovered the nest of a pair of Blue Tits in the shaft of a pump well, which was drenched and partly carried away every time water was drawn; still they persevered in building. Gladly would I have left them there, but they kept the water in a continually muddy state, and their removal became absolutely necessary." The Coal Tit (_P. ater_, Selborne) chooses the crevice of a wall or decayed tree. So does the Marsh Tit (_P. palustris_, Selborne). The Crested Tit (_P. cristatus_, Selborne), Fig. 238, is a retiring, solitary little bird, provided with plumage both brilliant and beautifully blended. They are rarely seen in England, but several flocks are recorded as appearing in Scotland. They are said to breed annually in plantations near Glasgow, in the forest of Glenmore, and near the Spey two were killed in 1836. In the North of Ireland, in autumn, they are not uncommon wherever plantations of larch trees are to be found. Their nest, according to Temminck, occurs in holes of trees, the oak being preferred, in rocks, or in a deserted Crow's or Squirrel's nest.

The nest of the Long-tailed Tit, or Mufflin (_P. caudatus_), is, perhaps, the most skilful specimen of construction. It is oval in form, and has two openings, one for entrance, the other for exit--an arrangement which the long tail of the bird renders necessary. This singular bird--the most diminutive of our birds except the Kinglets--differs from the Tits in its softer and more bulky plumage and tail. Its flight is undulating and rapid; its long tail and body muffled up to the chin in dense plumage giving the observer the idea of an arrow flying through the air.

The Tits abound throughout Europe, and are also found in America; some of them remaining all the year with us, although they are all birds of passage.

The LARKS (_Alaudinæ_) complete the Conirostral Passerinæ. They are distinguished by the great muscularity of their gizzard, and their elongated and slightly-curved claws, which are sometimes longer than the toe itself, indicative of a ground-bird; in short, they pass their lives on the ground, in the bosom of great grassy plains, or soaring in the air. This family renders eminent service to agriculturists by the enormous quantity of worms, caterpillars, and grasshoppers it daily devours.

The Lark builds its nest in a furrow, or between two clods of earth, without much skill it is true, but with sufficient intelligence to know that it is necessary it should be concealed. Here it lays four or five eggs, spotted or freckled; in favourable seasons three sets of eggs in the year are sometimes hatched. The young birds break the shell after fifteen days' incubation, and are in a condition to leave their cradle at the end of fifteen more; but the mother still continues her surveillance, guides their steps, satisfies their wants, and continually hovers near them until the demands of another brood take her away, when they are abandoned to themselves, being now so fully fledged as no longer to require maternal care.

The Lark is the living emblem of happy, peaceful labour, the songster of the cultivated earth. In the early dawn the male bird rises aloft, and with soaring wing fills the air with his joyous notes, and calls the husbandman to his labour. Higher and higher he mounts, until he is lost to sight; but his voice is still heard. The song is significant; it is the hymn of good fellowship--a call to all the dwellers of the plain.

The season of incubation over, the Larks assemble in numerous flocks, having now only their food to think of; and that being plentiful, they soon get plump and fat. In countries like France this is the signal for their destruction, for persons assemble from all quarters to make a _razzia_ on these valuable innocents, using every means to accomplish their work of death; and unless the legislature interfere in their behalf by passing laws for their preservation, it will finish probably by exterminating the race.

Taking Larks by means of a mirror is a _ruse_ based upon the natural curiosity of this species, which leads it irresistibly towards any reflected light. The slaughterer places a glass, or any object that will reflect the sun's rays, in a field, concealing himself in its neighbourhood. The Larks, attracted by the light, come within reach of his blows, and fall around the mirror, undismayed by the fate of their companions.

In this family the only species which lives in confinement is the Sky-lark, and that only by very great care. It sings unceasingly in a cage, and even imitates the song of other birds. Larks are found all over the Old World, especially in Europe and Asia. The principal species are the Sky-lark (_Alauda arvensis_), the Crested Lark (_Alauda cristata_), the Wood Lark (_Alauda arborea_), and the Shore Lark (_Alauda alpestris_).

The Crested Lark (_Alauda cristata_), Fig. 239, abounds on the continent of Europe, but is rare in this country, one or two specimens only being recorded. It is migratory, moving northward in spring, and again toward the south on the approach of winter. It is a handsome bird, about the size and appearance of the Sky-lark, having a few feathers on the crown forming a crest pointing backwards.

FISSIROSTRES.

The _Fissirostral Passerinæ_ are characterised by a broad, short bill, flattened horizontally, and slightly hooked; mandibles slightly concave; mouth very wide. They are essentially insectivorous. They comprehend three genera:--1. Swallows (_Hirundo_). 2. House Martins (_Chelidon_). 3. Sand Martins (_Cotyle_).

The SWALLOWS are recognisable by their long pointed wings, forked tail, and excessively short tarsi. The air is the true element of these birds; they fly with a facility, lightness, and rapidity quite inconceivable; indeed, their existence is one eternal flight. They even feed their young on the wing when the latter first begin to fly. Watch them in the air, and they will be seen to rise and fall, tracing the shortest curves, crossing and interlacing each other's course, moderating their pace suddenly when at their utmost speed in order to follow the eccentric course of some winged insect which they have doomed for their food. Such, indeed, is the rapidity of their progress that some of the species have been known to travel at the rate of thirty leagues an hour.

This wonderful power, however, is only developed at the sacrifice of another locomotive faculty, for they are bad walkers. With their short limbs, activity on their feet is impossible; and if by chance they are placed on the ground, with difficulty they rise again on the wing. On the other hand, their sight is excellent--equal to even that of the Eagle or Falcon. According to Spallanzani, who made numerous experiments on the Swallows, the Martin perceives the winged fly passing through the air at the distance of more than a hundred and twenty yards.

Swallows are celebrated for their migratory journeys. In the early days of spring they reach Europe, not in flocks, but as isolated individuals or in pairs. They occupy themselves almost immediately either in repairing their last year's nests, or, if these have been destroyed, in constructing new ones. Among the arrivals are many young birds of the previous year which have not had nests, and yet it is not a little extraordinary that these, after six months' absence, return with unerring certainty to the old dwelling where hatched. This fact has been too often recorded to admit of any doubt on the subject.

The form, structure, and locality of the Swallow's nest vary with the species. The Common Swallows (_H. rustica_), Fig. 240, build theirs in the upper angles of the window of some country house, under the eaves of a roof, or on the interior wall of a chimney. A chimney seems an odd place to select for such a purpose; and White of Selborne relates, not without some expressions of wonder at such a choice, that near the middle of May one of these little birds began to form her nest about five or six feet down a chimney adjoining the kitchen fire. Their nests consist of a crust or shell of mud mixed with straw, and lined with fine grass and feathers. Other species, sometimes in vast numbers, establish themselves in the clefts of dead trees. Audubon estimated at the incredible number of eleven thousand the quantity of Swallows which had taken up their dwelling in a sycamore tree (familiarly known there as a button wood) near Louisville, Kentucky, United States. Some Swallows prefer rocks or caverns, and hollow out in steep escarpments a gallery from two to three feet in depth, at the extremity of which they place their nest. Sometimes the nest is formed of twigs torn by the bird from the dead branches of trees, and bound together by a viscous liquid which flows from the bird's mouth.

When, after a month's labour, the Swallows have finished their dwellings, the female deposits from four to six eggs. Incubation commences, and continues from twelve to fifteen days, during which the male bird exhibits intense interest in the proceedings, carrying food continually to his mate, and passing the night in her immediate vicinity, twittering and chirping all day long to cheer the mother at her task. Two or three times in the season they thus raise a family.

From the time when the little ones are hatched the parent birds attend them with all the care their feebleness demands, and often exhibit remarkable proofs of affection. When the young Swallows feel strong enough to try their wings, the old ones tenderly guide them on their first attempts at flight, and teach them how pursuit of insects in the air is successfully performed. Boerhaave quotes an instance where a Swallow, returning from some distant excursion, found the house in which it had built its nest in flames. It did not hesitate an instant to throw itself into the fire in order to save its young.

Swallows generally prefer the proximity of a lake or river, the surface of water being always the rendezvous of crowds of insects, among which they can reap a plentiful harvest. Swallows are extremely sociable; they assemble in large flocks, and appear to be bound together by strong attachment, for they aid each other in trying circumstances.

"I have seen a Swallow," says Dupont de Nemours, "which was unfortunate, and had, I know not how, entangled its foot in a ball of string, one end of which was attached to the roof of the College of the Four Nations; its strength was exhausted, and it hung uttering painful cries at the end of the string, only endeavouring to release itself occasionally by fluttering attempts at flight. All the Swallows between the Tuileries and the Pont Neuf, and perhaps for a much greater distance, were assembled to the number of many thousands, forming a perfect cloud, uttering cries of alarm. All that came flew past, giving a peck of their bill at the fatal string; these blows, being frequently repeated, and always directed at the same spot, were finally successful, for in half an hour the string was cut and the captive set at liberty."

Another fact, related by the great naturalist Linnæus, proves how strong is the spirit of brotherhood with these birds. When the Window Swallows returned in spring to take possession of their nests, a certain number of them were found occupied by Sparrows. One of the more legitimate proprietors, thus despoiled of his property, endeavoured by every possible means to recover possession, but all was unavailing. Under these circumstances the assistance of its companions was demanded. The whole assembly proceeded to besiege the intruder. It resisted, intrenching itself in its fort, and in revenge the ousted Swallows brought mud in their bills, and actually walled up the entrance to the citadel and entombed the interloper in his cell. The truth of this account, which is repeated by many naturalists, has been denied; but Mr. McGillivray, than whom we have no more reliable author, records three well-authenticated similar instances.

The Swallow generally leaves us in the month of September in order to seek a milder climate, and one providing more abundant food in winter. Some time before their departure their cries are incessant, and great agitation is seen in their ranks; they assemble in some elevated place, as if to hold council and deliberate over their journey, and fix the date of their departure; finally, a day is decided on, which when it arrives, all the Swallows of the neighbourhood mass at an appointed place, and after certain evolutions, intended, no doubt, to determine the route, they advance in one mass towards the shores of the Mediterranean, whence they pass into Africa. Although they are of all birds the strongest on the wing, and best adapted for a long journey, they cannot accomplish this without rest if adverse winds should arise. Ships passing are frequently boarded by stragglers which light on the rigging; and both at Gibraltar and Tangiers large flocks are occasionally seen to arrive in a state of great exhaustion. Those stragglers which, through weakness or the duties of maternity, are prevented from joining the great flocks, depart some days later in smaller parties. Occasionally, however, a few individuals seem to remain with us all the year round, contriving to survive the most severe winters, which has given rise to the supposition that the Swallow has the power of hibernating, or of remaining in a state of torpor during the winter, and returning to animation in the spring. This much-controverted point has now been consigned among the mythical legends to which it belongs.

Swallows have in all ages possessed the sympathies of mankind, some of the ancients regarding them as sacred birds; nor are they ungrateful for the good feeling they excite. The services they render in destroying vast quantities of noxious insects, not to speak of their gentle habits, mutual attachment to each other, and the happy presage they bring with them of spring's advent, contribute to make them welcome visitors. Nevertheless there are instances where these proper sentiments yield to the love of destruction--where their innocent confidence is rewarded by death.

Swallows generally have the breast and belly white, and the upper parts of the body black, tinted with a reflected blue or peach colour. There are about sixty species spread over the globe, of which six only are natives of Europe. They are divided into Swallows proper (_Hirundo_), Martins (_Chelidons_), Sand Martins (_Cotyle_), and Swifts (_Cypselus_). The Martins are larger in size than the true Swallows; have the wings longer, and consequently their powers of flight are greater and their speed more sustained; their claws are more robust and hooked.

The principal species we have already named. It is only necessary to mention the Cliff Swallow (Fig. 241), the Chimney Martin, the Bank Martin, and the Alpine Swift (_Cypselus alpinus_), Fig. 242.

Among the foreign species the SALANGANE SWALLOW (Fig. 243) may be mentioned, so famous over the world for its edible nest. This bird inhabits the rocks and caverns of the sea-shore in Sumatra and Java. When building it eats of the plant called fucus, which abounds in these regions; this is metamorphosed in the bird's stomach, and afterwards disgorged, to fabricate the walls of its nest. The fucus thus devoured forms the nutritive substance so eagerly sought after by the Eastern gourmet. The consumption of the nest of the Salangane (Fig. 244) in China, in spite of its high price, is very considerable. From the days of Buffon there have been exported from the coast of Cochin China four millions of them annually; and the proprietors of one cavern in the island of Java receive annually fifty thousand florins for rent alone.

The distinctive features of the GOATSUCKERS (_Caprimulgus_) are a short, much-depressed bill; the body small in proportion to the plumage; the neck short; the head large, broad, and depressed; the eyes very large and broad; the feet very small; tarsi partially feathered; toes four, the lower surface broad and flattened, the anterior toes connected by basal membranes; claws moderate, arched, and compressed. The plumage is full, soft, downy, and blended, like the Owl's; the wings have the second and third quills longest; tail long and rounded. Almost all the species have strong bristles along the base of the upper mandible, and some have the feathers of the face radiated, like those of the Owls.

The Goatsuckers are solitary birds, living generally in pairs, sleeping during the day, and issuing from their nest with the setting sun, or possibly earlier in gloomy weather, to chase the crepuscular and nocturnal insects on which they feed. They move silently and with great rapidity. Some authors say that when on the wing they keep the mouth open; but this is not supported by facts, and is opposed to reason. The insects they principally devour are moths, dragon-flies, beetles, crickets, cockchafers, and mosquitoes. Their usefulness, therefore, is nearly equal to that of the Swallow. As they get very plump and fat in the autumn, they fall a sacrifice to the gunner, and in their turn are eaten by gourmets greater than themselves. They are migratory birds, travelling only during the night. They are readily distinguished by the bristles at the base of the bill, and by the claws of the middle toe, which is toothed. The object of this toothed appendage has been the subject of speculation. Some writers fond of the marvellous even surmise that it is intended to comb and smooth the head feathers. Mr. Vigors is of opinion that it may be useful as a further power of prehension, citing, in support of his view, the family of the _Ardeidæ_ among the Wading birds, which exhibit an analogous construction in the middle nail.

Through Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Australia the Goatsuckers are diffused, and naturalists have divided them into several sub-genera, such as _Podargus_, represented by _Podargus humeralis_ of the Gold River, and _Podargus javanensis_, the Chabba-wonno of Java, and the Guacharo Bird, _Steatornis villot_ of Humboldt and Bonpland.

The typical species of _Caprimulgus_ is the NIGHT-JAR (_C. europæus_), Fig. 245. It is about the size of a Thrush; and Montagu states that he observed on one occasion a flock of eight or ten on the wing together, in the dusk of the evening, skimming over the surface of the ground, after the manner of Swallows, in pursuit of insects. Its nest is of the simplest kind, for it deposits its eggs on the bare ground, or upon a few dry leaves. These eggs, in number only two, are hatched by the female in fourteen days.

The Common Night-jar is chiefly found on furzy commons, wild bushy heaths, and broken hilly ground in the neighbourhood of thickets and woods. During the day it lies concealed in the scrub, issuing forth in the balmy summer evenings to pursue its insect prey on the wing.

On the prairies of North America, especially those intersected by sloughs, dozens of these birds may be seen at the hour of sunset, their swift, powerful, and graceful flight being worthy of the greatest admiration. They are there called Bull Bats, and are often accused by the ignorant of the crime of sucking milk from cows--about as probable as snakes being guilty of the same offence; yet there are hundreds who believe in such impossibilities.

The Night-jar is a bird of evil omen in the estimation of our rural population: such it has been considered since the days of Aristotle, and possibly even further back. The reverse should be the case, for the benefit it produces by clearing the air of noxious insects is incalculable.

The GUACHAROS are singular birds, which were first described by MM. Humboldt and Bonpland as being found in the interior of a vast Columbian cavern--the Grotto of Caripe. Their hooked bill and general aspect are more robust than the Night-jars, for they more resemble birds of prey. They inhabit in thousands the deep recesses of the caverns of the Cumana Chain, hanging to the walls by their pointed claws. In these caves, which they only leave during the night, they build their nests. Unlike their congeners, they feed only on grain and seeds. The Indians of Caripe enter these sombre domains from time to time, and make raids upon their ranks, for they are deservedly esteemed as great delicacies.

DENTIROSTRES.

The _Passerine Dentirostres_ are characterised by a bill more or less strong, compressed on each side of the point. They feed on berries and insects, and comprehend numerous genera, including the Fly-catchers (_Muscicapidæ_), the Manakins (_Piprinæ_), the Warblers (_Sylvinæ_), the Lyres (_Lyra_), the Orioles (_Oriolus_), the Philedons (_Meliphagidæ_), the Dippers (_Cucelus_), the Thrushes (_Turdus_), the Tanagers (_Tanagrinæ_), the Caringas (_Coracina_), and the Butcher Birds (_Lanius_).

M. Lesson thinks the _Muscicapidæ_ should consist of the genera _Tyrannus_, _Monacha_, _Eurylaimus_, _Platyrhynchus_, _Todus_, _Myiagra_, _Muscicapa_, _Alectrurus_, _Drymophila_, _Formicivora_, _Rhipidura_, _Seisura_, _Psophodes_, and _Euicurus_. Of these, _Eurylaimus_ have a very large, depressed, and cleft bill. They are of more elegant form than plumage; for their colouring is devoid of brilliant tints. They live a retiring life in marshes, and upon the banks of lakes and rivers, feeding upon the worms and insects which abound in such localities. They are about the size of the Thrush, and they inhabit the isles of Oceania.

The MANAKINS (_Piprinæ_, Sw.) have the bill rather short; the upper mandible much curved, and pierced with large nostrils; the feet longish, slender, and weak; the external toes reverted towards the middle. These birds are natives of South America, and are gifted with brilliant plumage.

The _Rupicola_ (Briss.), or Cock of the Rock, is remarkable for the lively and delicate shades of the colour of its plumage, and for a graceful crest which decorates its crown. It prefers sombre localities, and retires into clefts and caverns when pursued. It is very wild, and only issues from its hiding-place in search of the fruits which form its food. Under the most favourable circumstances these birds are difficult to approach, taking flight at the slightest appearance of danger. Their name comes from their size, and also from their habit of scratching up the earth, and flapping their wings like the Domestic Cock. They are natives of South America and Malaya. The best-known species, _Rupicola aurantia_ (Vieillot), is a native of Guiana; its plumage is bright orange, and the crest is formed by two rows of feathers, so arranged as to form a semicircle.

The WARBLERS (_Sylvianæ_, Sw.) are readily recognised by their short, slender, and tapering bill, constituting a numerous series of birds, among which we note the Fauvette (_Sylvia hortensis_), Gold-crested Wren (_Regulus auricapellus_), the Wren (_Troglodytes_), the Whin Chats (_Saxicola_), and many other genera.

All these are of small size, and have the singular property of imparting a vibratory motion to their tails. They are chiefly denizens of our woods, thickets, and gardens, where they fill the air with their melody. They are generally migratory, arriving in the spring, and departing at the fall of the leaf. Living, except in autumn, almost exclusively on insects and their larvæ, they render in this respect eminent services to man; but it is a curious fact that at that period these birds cease to be insectivorous, and feed on fruits--among others, figs and grapes, whence the name of _Bec-figues_ applied to them in the South of France. There they are most eagerly sought for, the attraction being their flesh, which is considered most delicate.

Warblers prefer the woods and sloping hill-sides, or the banks of rivers, clothed with trees and shrubs, for their residence.

In the first rank of the Warblers stands the NIGHTINGALE (_Philomela luscinia_, Selby), Fig. 246, celebrated all over the world for its song, which is superior, without any doubt, to that of all other birds. In size it is somewhat greater than the Garden Warbler, which it resembles in its homely attire. Many have been the attempts made to describe this far-famed bird. Naturally shy, the Nightingale retires into the freshest and most sheltered places, rarely exposing itself to observation. Brushwood and thickets, witch-elms and evergreen trees, growing on the banks of some retired water-course, are its favourite dwelling. It is among these that it establishes its nest, built without care, at irregular height, and sometimes even on the ground. It possesses this peculiarity--that it sings not only during the day, but also in the night; but let any alarming noise approach its retreat, and it stops instantly. It seems to love solitude above all things. Audubon, the American naturalist, has described some of the distinctive characteristics of the bird with a few graphic touches. He has left his downy couch, and sallied forth to watch the eventful moment when nature arises, fresh, blooming, and full of renovated vigour. In his wanderings he comes upon a Nightingale. "In the midst of a thicket," he says, "I now see a solitary bird, humble in its attire, and of most modest mien, peeping at me with a caution so uncommon, and yet so inviting, that I feel tempted to seek its acquaintance. With care I approach the feathered stranger. Its form is somewhat elongated, yet not incompact; its eyes are large, and of peculiar mildness; it stands rather high, on a pair of light flesh-coloured, and, as it were, transparent legs; its wings, which are of moderate length, droop, and seem at intervals to tremble; and, as it moves from one twig to another, I see it hops, or leaps, and does not walk step by step, like many other birds. Its colour is a dull brownish olive, but the hind part of the back and the tail are of a richer tint, though corresponding with the general hue. At this moment it flies lightly to the ground, hops a few steps, picks up a grub, and returns to its former station."

"The Nightingale," says McGillivray, "which in summer is spread over the greater part of the Continent, extending its migrations to Sweden and the temperate parts of Russia, arrives in the South of England about the middle of April, or a few days later, should the weather be severe. The females, according to various observers, come from a week to ten days after the males. Individuals settle in the southern counties, including part of Devonshire, in the eastern and midland districts, and as far north as York and Carlisle; but none are to be seen in Cornwall, Wales, or the north-western parts of England, although it is found much farther north on the Continent." It is alleged that the migration of the Nightingale does not extend into Scotland. Mr. Duncan, one of Mr. McGillivray's most reliable correspondents, states that a pair of Nightingales arrived in Calder Wood, in West Lothian, in the early part of the summer of 1826. "Before and about midnight, when the full moon shone bright and clear, the warble of the male was first heard; it soon attracted a number of admiring listeners, who hastened to the spot. The owner of the wood was anxious to preserve them, thinking they might breed; but, in spite of his care, the male was shot, upon which the female left the wood." In France they arrive singly, and depart alone about the middle of August, in order to pass into Africa or Asia.

The SEDGE WARBLER (_Salicaria phragmites_, Yarrell) is a delicate, lively little bird, haunting the margins of streams and pools overgrown with weeds, sedges, and other aquatic plants, in the midst of which it seeks its food, and nestles so secretly that it very frequently eludes observation. Mr. McGillivray found a nest of this species on the marshy borders of Duddingston Loch, near Edinburgh. It was placed in the midst of a large clump of _Solanum dulcamara_, supported by the branches, and so hidden that he only found it after cutting off a great number of flowering twigs. This nest was composed of leaves, grasses, and other slender plants, loosely but neatly put together.

The NIGHT WARBLER (_Salicaria arundinacea_, Yarrell), Fig. 247, closely resembles the preceding in form and size. Its song is loud, cheerful, and much diversified, night being generally selected for the display of its vocal powers. Its nest is composed of blades and stalks of grasses, lined with finer plants and hair; is of a conical form, with the apex downwards; in depth from four to five inches externally, and three in the interior, and as much in breadth at the top; and is fastened to the stalks of several reeds, placed some distance above the ground--"an arrangement," says Montagu, "which gives security to the eggs," which are four or five in number, of an oblong shape, greyish-brown colour, spotted with dark olive, and usually marked with one or two blackish, irregular lines.

The Warbler known to French writers as _la Fauvette Couturière_ is the most curious of all in respect to the manner of building its nest. Aided by bill and claws, it stretches out into a thread fibres gathered from the trees; selecting broad resistant leaves, it drills them with its bill, sews them together with the cotton which it has prepared, and in this manner constructs a bag which serves the purpose of completely hiding its nest from the observation of enemies. This species belongs to India and the islands of the Indian Ocean, and is unknown in Europe.

Among other well-known species we may mention the GARDEN WARBLER (_Carruca hortensis_, Selby), known also as the Whitethroat, Greater Prettychaps, and other pet names; also the BLACKCAP (_Sylvia atricapilla_), both of which abound near dwelling-houses surrounded by gardens.

The ROBIN, or REDBREAST (Fig. 248), is too familiar a friend to require description. It is lively, pert, pugnacious, cheerful, and a universal favourite. In April the Robin betakes itself to the woods and thickets, where it rears its brood. On the approach of winter it returns to civilised life, when, as M. Figuier informs us, it constitutes excellent game! No doubt it is edible; but where is the consumer of such to be found? Not in the British Islands, we hope.

The WRENS (_Motacilla_) are the smallest of European birds. The Golden-crested Kinglet (_Motacilla regulus_, Linn.), Fig. 249, inhabits the woods and thickets of the cold and temperate regions of the earth, where, among the twigs, with great agility it searches for insects, on which it feeds. While thus occupied it emits a single shrill, feeble note, too often accepted by heartless boys as a tell-tale of its whereabouts.

The European Wren (_Troglodytes europæus_, Cuvier), Fig. 250, is widely diffused over Europe, from Greenland to the southern parts of Italy, and from Trebizond to the west coast of Ireland. Like the Robin, it has become, in a sense, a sacred bird, and few venture to commit any outrage on the familiar little creature. Its nest is found in all kinds of situations; a favourite one being under the turfed summit of a stone wall skirting a brook, or on the edge of a wood or shrubbery. It is an elegant structure, oval in form, and dome-shaped, with the entrance at the side, the materials varying with the locality; but the lining generally is soft, downy feathers.

The Wood Warbler, or Wood Wren (_Motacilla trochilus_, Bewick), Fig. 251, is a delicate, active little bird, pretty generally diffused. It is of retiring and unobtrusive manners, its favourite haunt being among the willows and osiers which skirt some sluggish stream. While flitting about in such localities it emits a small chirping noise; but during the months of May and June it is often heard chanting a soft, mellow, and very pleasing song. In autumn great numbers of them may be seen gliding among the fruit trees and bushes.

The STONE CHAT (_Saxicola rubicola_, Temm.), Fig. 252, has the head and throat black in the male, the breast brownish red, the sides of the neck white, a white spot on the wings, the upper parts brownish black, and the feathers edged with brownish red. In the female the head and upper parts are streaked with brownish red, the throat yellowish grey, the breast dull brownish red, a white spot on the wings, and the upper tail coverts yellowish red. "In April," says McGillivray, "it forms its nest, generally under some furze bush, or other shrub, or among rank grass; it is formed of stems and blades of grasses, intermixed with moss, and lined with finer straws, fibrous roots, hair, and wool, as well as feathers. These birds manifest intense anxiety should any one approach their nest, fluttering and flitting about, and incessantly emitting their sharp, snapping note, while endeavouring to lead the intruder off in pursuit of themselves."

The WAGTAILS (_Motacilla_, Cuvier) are remarkable for their slender, elegant form; the neck of moderate length; the head ovate, small, and narrow; plumage soft and blended; the wings long, broad, and pointed; tail long, straight, slender, consisting of twelve weak, narrow feathers. The Wagtails are intimately allied to the Pipits, and resemble them in many of their habits, differing chiefly in the lengthened tail and shorter claws. Both are remarkable for the vibratory motion of their body while standing or walking, which their long tail renders a conspicuous feature.

The Pied Wagtail (_Motacilla cinerea_, Gmelin), Fig. 253, which is generally distributed in England, seems to have been confounded with the White Wagtail (_Motacilla alba_, Linn.) by naturalists until both species were examined by Mr. Gould. In form and proportion the two species closely resemble each other, the Pied Wagtail being the smaller. Mr. Gould states, in the "Magazine of Natural History," that while preparing his work on the Birds of Europe he was surprised to find that the sprightly Pied Wagtail, so common in our island at all seasons, could not be referred to any described species, and that its habitat was limited to the British Islands, Norway, and Sweden. The true _Motacilla alba_ of Linnæus, on the other hand, is abundant in France, particularly in the neighbourhood of Calais, but has never been discovered on the opposite Kentish coast.

The QUAKETAILS (_Budytes_, Cuv.), Fig. 254, form the transition from the Pipits to the Wagtails, but incline more to the latter. They are the _Bergeronnettes_ of French authors. The claw on the hind toe, which is long, and greatly resembles that of the Larks, distinguishes them from Wagtails. They are said to follow flocks of sheep; hence the name given them in France.