Chapter I: Part 1

Rockets, Missiles, and
Spacecraft of the
National Air and Space Museum

_SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION_

_LYNNE C. MURPHY_

_Published by the Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.,
1976_

Welcome to the National Air and Space Museum, part of the Smithsonian family. The flight of the Wrights in 1903 opened the door to ever more rapid and powerful ascents into the third dimension. This country, putting its scientific and technical talents to work, has produced an array of fascinating and complex machines. Fortunately, nearly all of the most significant ones have been preserved, and a sampling of them is included in this booklet. I hope that you will enjoy it, and that it will add to your understanding of what air and space progress has meant to all of us.

Michael Collins
Director, National Air and Space Museum

_Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data_

National Air and Space Museum.
Rockets, missiles, and spacecraft of the National Air and Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Bibliography: p.
1. Astronautics—United States—Exhibitions.
2. National Air and Space Museum.
I. Murphy, Lynne C.
II. Title: Rockets, missiles, and spacecraft of the National Air and
Space Museum ... TL506.U6W376 1976 629.4′0973′0740153 76-6961

Printed in the U.S.A.
Designed by Elizabeth Sur

_Negative numbers and photo credits_

1, A-42103 (SI); 2, 74-H-1066 (NASA); 3, 74-H-1244 (NASA); 4, A-3757 (SI); 5, 72-8670 (SI); 6, 58-Explorer I-1 (NASA); 7, 62-Mariner II-34 (NASA); 8, 63-Mariner II-26 (NASA); 9, 62-MA 6-74 (NASA); 10, 62-MA6-111 (NASA); 11, 65-H-934 (NASA); 12, 65-H-937 (NASA); 13, 69-H-1199 (NASA); 14, 69-H-1367 (NASA); 15, 76-4880-81 (SI); 16, P-14054 (JPL, NASA, Pasadena, California); 17, 73-H-993 (NASA); 18, 74-H-239 (NASA); 19, 75-15926 (SI); 20, 74-H-1220 (NASA); 21, A-50483 (SI); 22, 65-H-817 (NASA); 23, 76-1706 (SI); 24, 76-1705 (SI); 25, 71-H-413 (NASA); 26, 62-NC-2 (NASA); 27, 63-ARCAS-1 (NASA); 28, 75-16094 (SI); 29, 75-16228 (SI); 30, 75-16276 (SI); 31, 61-DELTA-4-6 (NASA); 32, 66-H-223 (NASA); 33, VAN-11 (NASA); 34, 67-H-1008 (NASA); 35, 66-H-28 (NASA); 36, 60-TIROS-5 (NASA); 37, 69-H-1915 (NASA); 38, 68-H-111 (NASA); 39, 62-RELAY-17 (NASA); 40, 71-H-1414 (NASA); 41, 69-H-285 (NASA); 42, 66-H-871 (NASA); 43, 76-H-1182 (NASA); 44, 69-H-1986 (NASA); 45, 76-1704 (SI); 46, A-459994 (SI); 47, A-5293 (SI); 48, A-1085 (SI); 49, 75-11488 (SI); 50, A-4554 (SI); 51, 72-H-1240 (NASA); 52, 63-CENTAUR-15 (NASA); 53, 75-13753 (SI); 54, 76-2756 (SI); 55, 76-2687 (SI); 56, 75-H-461 (NASA); 57, 76-4479-6 (SI); 58, 62-MA6-109 (NASA); 59, 71-H-1380 (NASA); 60, 65-H-1021 (NASA); 61, A-5367 (SI); 62, 75-10232 (SI); 63, A-5073 (SI); 64, 75-16091 (SI); 65, 76-1625-11 (SI); 66, 73-733 (SI); 67, SPACE-12 (NASA); 68, 67-H-1609 (NASA); 69, 64-H-2795 (NASA); 70, 65-H-674 (NASA); 71, 76-1707 (SI); 72, 76-1708 (SI); 73, 73-H-928 (NASA); 74, 71-H-398 (NASA); 75, 68-H-423 (NASA); 76, 68-H-422 (NASA); 77, 75-H-248 (NASA); 78, 75-H-1081 (NASA); 79, 75-H-891 (NASA); 80, 75-H-1077 (NASA); 81, 71-H-525 (NASA); 82, 61-MR3-76 (NASA); 83, 65-H-2355 (NASA); 84, 72-H-734 (NASA); 85, 62-F1-2 (NASA); 86, 67-H-1205 (NASA); 87, 71-H-1416 (NASA); 88, 70-H-1392 (NASA); 89, 71-H-335 (NASA); 90, 74-H-63 (NASA); 91, S-71-45480 (NASA, Johnson Space Center); 92, 72-H-1571 (NASA).

Contents

Introduction 6
_Milestones of Flight_ Gallery 100
Robert H. Goddard’s Rockets: March 16, 1926, and 1941 7
_Sputnik 1_ 8
_Explorer 1_ 9
_Mariner 2_ 10
_Friendship 7_ 11
_Gemini 4_ 12
Apollo 11 Command Module, _Columbia_ 13
_Life in the Universe_ Gallery 107
Ponnamperuma Experiments 14
Photomosaic Globe of Mars 15
_Mariner 10_ 16
U.S.S. _Enterprise_ 17
_Satellites_ Gallery 110
Goddard A-Series Rocket, 1935 18
WAC Corporal 19
Aerobee 150 20
Farside 21
Nike-Cajun 22
ARCAS 23
Cricket 24
Viking 12 25
MOUSE 26
Agena-B 27
Science Satellites 28
Meteorological Satellites 30
Communications Satellites 32
_East Gallery_ Gallery 112
Lunar Module 34
Lunar Orbiter 35
Surveyor 36
_Rocketry and Space Flight_ Gallery 113
Goddard Rockets: May 1926 and “Hoopskirt,” 1928 37
19th-Century Rockets: Congreve and Hale 38
American Rocket Society: Engines and Parts 39
H-1 Engine 40
RL-10 Engine 41
JATO Units 42
LR-87 Engine 43
Toward 2076: The Future of Rocket Propulsion 44
Project Orion 45
Space Suits 46
_Space Hall_ Gallery 114
V-2 (A-4) 48
V-1 49
German Antiaircraft Missiles 50
Jupiter-C 51
Vanguard 52
Scout 53
Minuteman III 54
Poseidon C-3 55
Skylab 56
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 58
M2-F3 Lifting Body 60
_Apollo to the Moon_ Gallery 210
_Freedom 7_ 61
_Gemini 7_ 62
F-1 Engine 63
Lunar Roving Vehicle 64
Apollo Lunar Tools and Equipment 65
Apollo Command Module: _Skylab 4_ 66
Moon Rocks 67
Suggested Reading 68

Introduction

There is an obvious relationship between aeronautics and astronautics since the same principles of physics apply and many materials and techniques of construction are common. Nevertheless, in the decades following World War II, rocketry, guided missiles, and space flights were rapidly developing a complex history and lore quite different from that of aviation. Accordingly, in 1965, the Museum established a Department of Astronautics parallel with a Department of Aeronautics.

At that time, artifacts in categories of rocket propulsion, guided missiles, and space-flight programs were placed under curatorial control of the Astronautics Department. In 1967 the Smithsonian Institution and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration signed an agreement which provided for transfer of title to and custody of significant space artifacts by the Museum after their technical need had passed. Through provisions of this instrument the preservation and exhibit of this country’s most important spacecraft, rocket engines, launch vehicles, and missiles has been assured for posterity.

With the construction of the new Museum building on the Mall literally dozens of exciting and fascinating astronautical artifacts have been acquired, some just a few months before our opening in July 1976. All major artifacts on exhibit at the opening are described herein with brief historical summaries.

F. C. Durant III
Assistant Director, Astronautics
January 13, 1976

Robert H. Goddard’s Rockets: March 16, 1926, and 1941

Robert H. Goddard contributed the first major astronautical breakthrough on our way to space exploration—a liquid-propellant rocket. A replica of the first successful rocket of this type is displayed in this hall as is Dr. Goddard’s last sounding rocket design.

The first of Dr. Goddard’s successful rockets was launched on March 16, 1926. It traveled to an altitude of 12.5 meters (41 feet) powered by liquid oxygen and gasoline. Its flight lasted 2.5 seconds with an average speed in flight of about 96.6 kilometers (60 miles) per hour. Part of the rocket’s nozzle was burned away during the flight, and other parts were damaged by ground impact; however, pieces of the original rocket were reassembled and flown again on April 3, 1926.

The last and most advanced of Dr. Goddard’s liquid-propellant rockets were those tested between 1939 and 1941. This series incorporated most of the basic principles and elements later used in all long-range rockets and space boosters. Design improvements for this series included a fuel system that used turbopumps to force propellants from the tanks to the combustion chamber. The rocket on display did not fly, because a malfunction in the umbilical cord caused the engine to shut down shortly after ignition.

The March 16 rocket replica is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The 1941 rocket is from Mrs. Robert H. Goddard.

Sputnik 1

_Sputnik 1_, the first man-made object to be placed in orbit around Earth, was launched by the USSR on October 4, 1957.

A 29-meter (96-foot) rocket with 510,037 kilograms (1,124,440 pounds) of thrust boosted _Sputnik 1_ into orbit. The satellite’s orbital and radio data provided scientists with information on atmospheric and electron densities. _Sputnik 1_ transmitted temperature data for 22 days before its batteries ran down.

The 83.5-kilogram (184-pound) satellite reentered the earth’s atmosphere and burned up on January 4, 1958.

This _Sputnik_ model is from the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Explorer 1

The International Geophysical Year (1957-58) provided the impetus for the first official American satellite effort, designated Project Vanguard in 1955. Vanguard was a civilian effort that relied on a launch vehicle built especially for the project’s purposes. The launch by the Soviet Union of _Sputnik 1_ on October 4, 1957, caused the work on Project Vanguard to go forward under great pressure. When Vanguard Test Vehicle 3, carrying the first American earth satellite, exploded on its launch pad on December 6, 1957, United States prestige reached a low point.

On January 31, 1958, _Explorer 1_ became the first successful American satellite. It originated in Project Orbiter, a joint study program of the U.S. Army and the Office of Naval Research—a project that lapsed after the 1955 decision to designate Vanguard as the official American satellite effort. Following the _Sputnik_ success, the U.S. Army Ballistic Missile Agency was instructed to proceed with its satellite plans.

_Explorer 1_’s launch vehicle was a four-stage Jupiter-C rocket designed, built, and launched by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency team headed by Wernher von Braun. The satellite’s instrumentation was prepared by James Van Allen and George Ludwig of the State University of Iowa under project direction of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology.

_Explorer 1_ measured three phenomena—cosmic ray and radiation levels (data that led to the discovery of the earth’s radiation belts), the temperature in the vehicle (important in the design of future spacecraft), and the frequency of collisions with micrometeorites. There was no provision for data storage, and therefore the satellite transmitted its information continually.

_Explorer 1_ was not the only orbiting American satellite for long. In spite of the early problems, Project Vanguard succeeded in launching the second American earth satellite on March 17, 1958.

The back-up _Explorer 1_ on exhibit is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Jet Propulsion Laboratory. California Institute of Technology.

Mariner 2

The first successful interplanetary spacecraft probed the environment of Venus, Earth’s closest neighbor. _Mariner 2_, working flawlessly, swept by the hot and cloudy planet at a closest approach of 34,834 kilometers (21,645 miles) on December 14, 1962.

The journey began with lift-off on August 27 from Cape Canaveral atop an Atlas Agena-B launch vehicle. During the 109-day trip to the planet, _Mariner_’s on-board instruments sampled the environment of interplanetary space and telemetered information to Earth stations. Ground-based measurements of the Venerian surface temperature were confirmed by the probe to be around 425° C (800° F).

_Mariner 2_ detected no measurable magnetic field or radiation belts, indicating that Venus may have a very different history than has Earth.

_Mariner 2_ passed out of tracking range on January 4, 1963, when the spacecraft was about 87 million kilometers (54 million miles) from Earth. The probe is presently in orbit around the Sun.

The back-up craft on display would have been launched toward Venus if _Mariner 2_ had failed to reach the planet.

Prime contractor for _Mariner 2_ was the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology.

_Mariner 2_ is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Friendship 7

On the morning of February 20, 1962, a 29-meter (95-foot) Mercury Atlas launch vehicle rose from Cape Canaveral carrying John H. Glenn, Jr., in his Mercury spacecraft, _Friendship 7_. This was the lift-off for the first U.S.-manned orbital space flight.

In slightly more than 5 minutes the Atlas accelerated _Friendship 7_ to its orbital velocity of 28,230 kilometers per hour (17,540 miles per hour). Astronaut Glenn completed three orbits in 4 hours, 55 minutes. From the orbital path, which varied between 160 and 260 kilometers (100 and 160 miles) above Earth, the first American in orbit described the four sunsets he saw and reported that he was able to distinguish a ship’s wake on the ocean below.

Mercury spacecraft had been used in two previous manned suborbital flights which proved that it was a safe vehicle for manned space flights. Later orbital Mercury missions demonstrated that man could live and work in space. _Friendship 7_’s flight tested the performance of the pilot in weightless conditions and the interaction of the human pilot with the various automatic systems in the spacecraft.

_Friendship 7_ reentered the earth’s atmosphere and splashed into the Atlantic Ocean only 64 kilometers (40 miles) from the planned site. Glenn and _Friendship 7_ were recovered by the U.S.S. _Noa_ near Grand Turk Island in the Bahamas.

The Mercury spacecraft consists of a conical pressure section topped by a cylindrical recovery-system section.

During flight, the Mercury spacecraft was equipped with three 454-kilogram (1000-pound) thrust solid-propellant retro-rockets mounted in a package on the heat shield. After the three rockets were fired to slow the spacecraft, the retro-rocket package was jettisoned.

Prime contractor for _Friendship 7_ was McDonnell Aircraft Company.

_Friendship 7_ is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Gemini 4

Floating at the end of a gold “umbilical cord” attached to the _Gemini 4_ spacecraft, Edward H. White II became the first American to have only his space suit for protection from the space environment. White directed his movements during the historic 20-minute “walk” with a hand-held maneuvering device, while command pilot James A. McDivitt took pictures from within the craft.

Launched June 3, 1965 atop 3 Titan II booster, the _Gemini 4_ spacecraft made 62 revolutions during the four-day flight. Although _Gemini 4_ failed to rendezvous with the Titan II’s second stage as planned, because the stage fell away too rapidly to catch, astronauts McDivitt and White did demonstrate that the Spacecraft could be moved in and out of its orbital plane with ease.

The crew also photographed the Earth successfully. The pictures brought back from _Gemini 4_ enhanced interest in photographic surveys of Earth from space.

_Gemini 4_ splashed down in the Atlantic at 12:12 P.M. (EST) on June 7, 1965. McDivitt and White were on the deck of recovery carrier U.S.S. _Wasp_ in less than one hour.

The spacecraft frame is titanium and it is covered with steel and beryllium shingles. Displayed here is the basic spacecraft which includes the pressurized cabin vessel, the heat shield at the base, and the cylindrical reentry attitude-control system section on the nose.

The heat shield is a curved section of fiberglass honeycomb filled with a phenolic-epoxy resin. During reentry, the craft’s kinetic energy was converted to heat by friction with the atmosphere. The heat-shield material melted and vaporized and was blown away from the craft, carrying the heat with it. This process is called ablation.

The _Gemini_ was a true spacecraft, capable of maneuvering widely in space, changing its configuration for different phases of the flight, and allowing the two-man crew to work both inside and outside the craft.

Prime contractor for _Gemini 4_ was the McDonnell Aircraft Company.

_Gemini 4_ is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Length 5.6 m. (18 ft., 4 in.) in orbit; 2.3 m. (7 ft.,
4 in.) at splashdown
Base diameter Adapter, 3.1 m. (10 ft.); spacecraft, 2.3 m. (7
ft., 6 in.)

Apollo 11 Command Module, Columbia

“That’s one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind,” Neil A. Armstrong radioed Houston from Tranquility Base on the Moon. The first footprint had been left on the lunar surface. It was 10:56 P.M. (EDT) on July 20, 1969.

Neil Armstrong was Apollo 11’s commander, Michael Collins was command-module pilot, and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin was the lunar-module pilot. Their journey began at 9:30 A.M. (EDT) when their Saturn 5 lifted off under 3.4 million kilograms (7.5 million pounds) of thrust.

The three-man crew made the 383,000-kilometer (238,000-mile) journey to the Moon in three days, traveling in command-module _Columbia_.

At 1:46 P.M. (EDT), on July 20, Armstrong and Aldrin separated the lunar module from the _Columbia_ and began the descent to the lunar plain.

During the 2 hours and 47 minutes that the astronauts were out on the surface of the Moon, they collected samples, deployed instruments, took photographs, and explored Tranquility Base around the lunar module.

After completing their tasks on the Moon, the astronauts rendezvoused with Collins in the command module. Jettisoning the ascent stage, they began the three-day journey back to Earth.

Splashdown occurred in the central Pacific Ocean on July 24. The astronauts climbed out of this command module and were recovered by helicopters that took them to the carrier U.S.S. _Hornet_.

Prime contractor for Apollo 11’s command module was North American Rockwell Corporation.

The _Columbia_ is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Ponnamperuma Experiments

These experimental devices were constructed by Cyril Ponnamperuma and his colleagues to show that various forms of energy may be used to produce organic molecules of the type found in living organisms.

In one experiment, electron beams were fired through a glass tube which contained a mixture of gases believed to resemble the atmosphere of primitive Earth. A number of organic molecules, including amino acids, the “building blocks” of life, were formed as a result.

In another experiment—the apparatus on display—electric spark discharges were used to add energy to a mixture of gases and water vapor contained in the device’s upper sphere. The lower sphere contained a solution of water and salts, a solution believed to resemble the slightly salty water of ancient seas. When heat and sparks were added to the gases and salty water, a number of complex organic molecules formed.

The results of these experiments supported the hypothesis that cosmic rays and other high-energy particles bombarding the primitive atmosphere could have been responsible for the origin of life on Earth.

The experimental devices were constructed and donated by Cyril Ponnamperuma and the Laboratory of Chemical Evolution, University of Maryland.

Photomosaic Globe of Mars

This 1.2-meter (4-foot) diameter globe of Mars was assembled from photographs taken by _Mariner 9_, an unmanned spacecraft that orbited the planet from November 14, 1971, until October 27, 1972. This globe is the first such photomosaic ever made of a planet.

Launched on May 30, 1971, _Mariner 9_ succeeded in photographing the entire surface of the planet. In its 349 days of orbit around Mars, _Mariner 9_ circled the planet 698 times and took more than 7300 photographs.

In its highly elliptical orbit, _Mariner 9_ obtained a sequence of overlapping wide-angle photographs. These were processed by a computer to remove the known variations in _Mariner 9_ camera response and geometric distortions, as well as to enhance surface detail. The mosaic made from the processed photographs is a pictorial presentation of the Martian surface which shows ridges and craters in the dark regions and on the bright polar caps with equal clarity. Surface features are in correct relationship and perspective, with only a minimum of shading difference between individual photographs.

In assembling the photomosaic, each picture was taped in place on the globe. Then, the match of adjacent pictures was assessed to determine where to trim the edges so that sharp features would not be intersected. The edges of each print were feathered so that when the prints were glued into place, the lines between pieces were almost indistinguishable. The complete globe received a thin protective coating.

This globe and copies of it enable scientists to study the geology and morphology of Mars from a perspective never before possible.

The photomosaic globe was designed and assembled at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California.

The Mars Globe is on loan from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Mariner 10

_Mariner 10_ returned closeup pictures of the cloud cover around Venus and of Mercury’s sunbaked surface. _Mariner 10_ was the first spacecraft to photograph Mercury, the innermost planet. The spacecraft’s instruments also measured particles, fields, and radiation from these planets.

_Mariner 10_ flew by Venus on February 5, 1974, after a three-month, 240-million-kilometer (150-million-mile) journey that took the Spacecraft halfway around the Sun. _Mariner 10_ swung around the planet, taking a variety of measurements and photographs of the clouds that obscure the planet’s face. Using the planet’s gravity to “bend” its flight path, _Mariner 10_ flew on toward encounter with Mercury.

On March 29, 1974. _Mariner_ sped across the night side of the little planet closest to the Sun. Only 703 kilometers (436 miles) above the rugged surface, _Mariner_’s cameras captured the first closeup views of the planet’s daylight hemisphere. The pictures show craters, scarps—cliffs nearly 3 kilometers (2 miles) high and stretching as far as 500 kilometers (300 miles) across the surface—basins, and hilly furrowed terrain.

After providing our first glimpse of Mercury’s surface, _Mariner_ raced on around the Sun and back out across Venus’ orbit. With some trajectory adjustments using on-board thrusters. _Mariner_ returned to within 48,000 kilometers (30,000 miles) of Mercury on September 21, 176 days after the first encounter, again returning pictures and data. _Mariner_’s orbit brought it back to the planet for a third pass in another 176 days. On-board propellant exhausted, the spacecraft continues its orbit of the Sun and innermost planet.

_Mariner 10_ is the first complex spacecraft designed to travel to the inner reaches of the solar system. At closest approach to the Sun, the spacecraft received five times as much light and heat as it did on leaving Earth. Thus the solar panels, which collect and convert solar radiation into electrical energy for the spacecraft’s instruments and controls, were designed to tilt more and more away from the sunlight as _Mariner_ approached the Sun.

_Mariner_ could transmit much more information to Earth than earlier flyby spacecraft. This higher data rate enabled the craft to send back more live pictures of the planets as it flew by them. Some information was stored on magnetic tape for later transmission. This capability permitted _Mariner_ to collect data when it was hidden from Earth behind a planet, and send the information when it emerged.

Prime contractor for _Mariner 10_ was Hughes Aircraft Company.

_Mariner 10_ is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

U.S.S. Enterprise

This studio model of an interstellar space ship was used in the filming of the science-fiction television series, “Star Trek.” Many of the series’ 78 episodes dealt speculatively with the problems and results of human contacts with extraterrestrial life forms and civilizations.

The model of U.S.S. _Enterprise_ was designed by Walter M. Jeffries and Gene Roddenberry.

The model is from Paramount Television, a division of Paramount Pictures.

Length 3.4 m. (11 ft., 3 in.)
Diameter of disc 1.5 m. (5 ft.)

Goddard A-Series Rocket, 1935

Robert Hutchings Goddard, the American rocket pioneer, was one of the first to suggest the use of the rocket to gather scientific information from high altitudes. As seamen use sounding lines to measure the depth of unknown waters, so scientists use sounding rockets to investigate the nature of our atmosphere. As early as 1917, the Smithsonian Institution agreed to fund Dr. Goddard’s studies. In 1926, he built and flew the world’s first successful liquid-propellant rocket which rose to an altitude of 12.5 meters (41 feet) over a field in Massachusetts.

After the scientist received substantial grants from the Daniel and Florence Guggenheim Foundation, he established a facility near Roswell, New Mexico, where he built and tested a series of rockets and engines between 1930 and 1942.

A-Series rockets—one on exhibit—were flown during the summer of 1935, as part of Dr. Goddard’s program to develop methods of stabilizing his rockets in vertical flight. The principles he pioneered in this area were among his greatest contributions to the field of rocketry.

The greatest height reached by an A-Series rocket was about 2130 meters (7000 feet) and the greatest speed in flight was more than 1130 kilometers per hour (700 miles per hour).

The rocket on exhibit is from Robert H. Goddard.

Length 4.7 m. (15 ft., 6 in.)
Diameter 15.2 cm. (6 in.)
Fuel Gasoline
Oxidizer Liquid oxygen
Thrust about 90 kg. (200 lb.)
Velocity 1130 km. (700 mi.) per hr. (+ or -)
Altitude 2.3 km. (7600 ft.) (+ or -)

WAC Corporal

The WAC Corporal was the first successful American sounding rocket to reach significant altitude. The first WAC Corporal, launched in 1944 from White Sands Proving Ground in New Mexico, reached a height of 71,600 meters (235,000 feet). The fin-stabilized rocket was powered by a liquid-propellant engine that burned a self-igniting fuel and oxidizer combination. Use of these propellants eliminated the need for an ignition system. By March 1946, these rockets had attained altitudes of over 72.4 kilometers (45 miles) with a booster. The WAC Corporal was later used as a second stage on a German V-2 rocket. This U.S. program, code-named “Bumper,” tested techniques for ignition and separation of stages at high altitudes.

The WAC Corporal was designed in 1944 by the staff of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology.

The rocket on exhibit is from the California Institute of Technology.

Length 4.9 m. (16 ft., 2 in.) as exhibited
Diameter 30.5 cm. (12 in.)
Fuel Aniline-furfuryl alcohol
Oxidizer Red-fuming nitric acid
Thrust 680 kg. (1500 lb.)
Velocity 4500 km. (2800 mi.) per hr. at burnout
Altitude 72 km. (45 mi.) with a 11.3-kilogram (25-lb.)
payload

Aerobee 150

The half-ton Aerobee could carry a 45.4-kilogram (100-pound) payload to an altitude of 120.6 kilometers (75 miles). For many years, the Aerobee was the standard American sounding rocket due to its reliability and relatively low cost. Several versions of the original Aerobee were produced. The Aerobee relied on a short-duration, solid-fuel booster for launching, after which the main-stage, liquid-propellant engine ignited.

On display at the NASM is an Aerobee 150, a more sophisticated version of the rocket. An Aerobee 150 can lift a 68.1-kilogram (150-pound) payload to an altitude of 274 kilometers (170 miles). Payloads consisted of a variety of scientific experiments.

The Aerobee concept originated early in 1946 when Dr. James Van Allen, then of the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University, suggested that the Office of Naval Research contract for a rocket with these particular capabilities. The Aerojet General Corporation (then Aerojet, Inc.) was awarded the contract, with the Douglas Aircraft Corporation subcontracting for aerodynamic studies on the nose, fins, and tail cone, and for the final assembly of the rocket.

The Aerobee 150 is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard Space Flight Center.

Farside

Farside was a four-stage rocket launched from a balloon as an extremely high-altitude research vehicle. Achieving heights estimated at 6400 kilometers (4000 miles). Farside’s instrument payload was intended to study cosmic rays, earth’s magnetic field, certain forms of electromagnetic radiation in space, the presence of interplanetary gases, and the nature of meteoric dust.

The 908-kilogram (2000-pound) Farside was lifted to an altitude of 30.5 kilometers (19 miles) by a polyethylene balloon. An aluminum structure suspended from the balloon carried the 7.3-meter (24-foot) rocket to launch altitude. Positioned vertically in its casing, Farside was fired directly through the balloon.

Six Farsides were launched by the United States in 1957 from Eniwetok Atoll in the Pacific.

Farside’s first stage consisted of four solid-fuel Recruit rockets, manufactured by Thiokol Chemical Company. A single Recruit served as the second stage. Four Arrow II solid-fuel rockets by the Grand Central Rocket Company constituted the third stage. The final stage, a single Arrow II, carried the instrument payload provided by S. F. Singer of the University of Maryland.

Farside was developed by Aeronutronics Systems, Inc., for the U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific Research and Development.

The rocket on exhibit is from the Aeronutronics Division, Ford Motor Company.

Length 7.3 m. (24 ft.)
Propellants Solid
Thrust
First stage 68,220 kg. (150,400 lb.)
Second stage 17,055 kg. (37,600 lb.)
Third state 4120 kg. (9080 lb.)
Fourth stage 1030 kg. (2270 lb.)
Velocity 29,000 km./hr. (18,000 mi./hr.)
Altitude 3220-6440 km. (2000-4000 mi.)

Nike-Cajun

The Nike-Cajun was used extensively during International Geophysical Year (1957-58) to perform a variety of research tasks. These included weather photography, studies of water-vapor distribution in the upper atmosphere, and magnetic soundings in the ionosphere.

For photographic studies, the instrument package separated from the nose cone at about 80 kilometers (50 miles) and then coasted to a peak altitude of about 120 kilometers (75 miles), during which time data was collected. Then parachutes opened, lowering the cameras for recovery. Other data was radioed to Earth.

The Cajun rocket was developed by the Pilotless Aircraft Division of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and the University of Michigan. The solid-fuel engine was designed and manufactured by Thiokol Chemical Company. The Nike booster was also solid fuel.

The rocket on exhibit is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Length 7.9 m. (26 ft.); Cajun, 4.1 m. (13.5 ft.)
Diameter 41.9 cm. (16.5 in.) max; Cajun, 17.1 cm. (6.75
in.)
Propellant Solid
Thrust Sustainer, 4364 kg. (9620 lb.)
Velocity 6760 km./ hr. (4200 mi./hr.)
Altitude 161 km. (100 mi.) with a 23 kg. (50 lb.)
instrument package; higher with a lighter
payload

ARCAS

All-purpose Rocket for Collecting Atmospheric Sounding (ARCAS) gathers local meteorological data helpful to weather forecasters. Its 5.4-kilogram (12-pound) payload may include instruments which measure temperature, pressure, humidity, wind velocity and direction, and magnetic conditions. The single-stage ARCAS vehicle reaches an altitude of 64 kilometers (40 miles), propelled by a slow-burning solid-fuel engine which produces 141.4 kilograms (312 pounds) of thrust.

When the ARCAS is boosted by a Sparrow or Sidewinder missile engine, it can reach altitudes of 182,880 meters (600,000 feet).

The 32-kilogram (71-pound) ARCAS is far less expensive than the larger two-stage weather rockets it has replaced. It was developed and produced by the Atlantic Research Corporation.

The ARCAS is from the Atlantic Research Corporation.

Length 2.1 m. (7 ft.)
Diameter 11.3 cm. (4.45 in.)
Propellant Solid
Thrust 159 kg. (350 lb.)
Velocity 3590 km./hr. (2230 mi./hr.)
Altitude 64 km. (40 mi.) with standard 5.4-kg. (12-lb.)
payload; 91.7 km. (57 mi.) with a 2.3-kg.
(5-lb.) instrument package

Cricket

The reusable Cricket, often called the “meteorologist’s handyman,” weighs only 2.5 kilograms (5½ pounds), 1.4 kilograms (3 pounds) of which is propellant. Recovered by parachute after each flight, Cricket costs less than $10 to refuel.

The Cricket’s .34-kilogram (three-fourth pound) instrument package zooms to 975 meters (3200 feet) in only 12 seconds, gathering data on air temperature, pressure and wind direction.

One of the rocket’s most noteworthy features is that it uses “cold” propellants. Compressed carbon dioxide to which acetone is added is pumped into a storage tank in the rocket at a pressure of 56.3 kilograms per square centimeter (800 pounds per square inch). Release of the pressurized mixture gives Cricket its thrust. Cricket is fired from its launcher by a separate charge of carbon dioxide in order to preserve the rocket’s fuel for flight.

This rocket was developed by Texaco Experiment, Inc., for the U.S. Air Force’s Cambridge Research Laboratory.

The Cricket is from Texaco, Inc.

Length 1.2 m. (3 ft., 10 in.)
Diameter 11 cm. (4 in.)
Propellant Pressurized carbon dioxide and acetone
Thrust 23 kg. max. (50 lb.)
Velocity 168 m./sec. max. (550 ft./sec.)
Altitude 975 m. (3200 ft.)

Viking 12

The Viking rocket family, numbering 14, grew out of the Navy’s efforts to develop an upper atmosphere research program. With enough time between launches to incorporate modifications suggested by experience with earlier Vikings, no two rockets of the series were exactly alike; however, there were two basic types of Vikings. The first seven rockets were taller, thinner, and had larger fins than those numbered 8-14; rockets in the second set were heavier, with fuel capacity greatly increased, and were designed either to go higher than the early Vikings or to carry heavier payloads to the same altitude.

Viking’s highest altitude was 254 kilometers (158 miles) following a launch from White Sands on May 24, 1954. Experiments flown on these rockets measured air temperature, density, pressure, and composition, as well as providing cosmic and solar radiation data.

One of the few failures in this program was Viking 8, the first rocket of the second set, which unexpectedly tore loose from the launch stand while being test-fired.

Viking was conceived at the Naval Research Laboratory, designed and produced by the Glenn L. Martin Company of Baltimore, Maryland, and powered by a liquid-propellant engine by Reaction Motors, Inc.

The rocket on exhibit is from the Hayden Planetarium and Martin Marietta Aerospace.

Length 13.7 m. (45 ft.)
Diameter 1.1 m. (3 ft., 9 in.)
Propellant Alcohol
Oxidizer Liquid oxygen
Thrust 9300 kg. (20,500 lb.)
Velocity 6480 km. (4025 mi.) per hr.
Altitude 193 km. (120 mi.) with a 402-kg. (887-lb.)
payload

MOUSE

The concept of artificial earth satellites was a logical extension of existing sounding-rocket programs. The MOUSE, or Minimum Orbital Unmanned Satellite of Earth, was conceived in 1951 as the smallest possible orbital vehicle capable of performing scientific tasks. While the MOUSE was never built or flown, it demonstrated what could be accomplished by an orbiting vehicle of modest size and weight.

The MOUSE would have weighed 45.4 kilograms (100 pounds). It was designed to study cosmic rays, interplanetary dust, and solar ultraviolet and X rays, with the instruments attached to rods projecting from either end. The satellite was to be powered by solar cells.

MOUSE was conceived by Kenneth W. Gatland, Anthony Kunesch, and Alan Dixon of England. Dr. S. F. Singer of the University of Maryland designed the MOUSE and constructed the model on exhibit. The model displays some of the earliest solar cells produced by the Bell Telephone Laboratories.

The MOUSE is from S. F. Singer.

Agena-B

The Agena launch vehicle has been an integral part of both unmanned and manned space programs. Flown as an upper stage on Thor and Atlas boosters, Agena orbited an impressive roster of spacecraft including the Echo communications satellites, the Ranger and Lunar Orbiter Moon probes, and the Mariner vehicles that traveled to Venus and Mars.

As the target for docking experiments during Project Gemini, Agena made substantial contributions to the eventual success of the Apollo program. The vehicle earned the distinction of being the first to place a payload in polar orbit, and was also the first to achieve circular orbit. The Agena engine was the first which could be stopped and restarted in space.

The Agena launch vehicle was developed and manufactured by the Lockheed Missiles and Space Company for the United States Air Force.

Length 7.1 m. (23.25 ft.)
Diameter 1.5 m. (5 ft.)
Weight Empty 674 kg. (1484 lb.)
Fuel Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine
Oxidizer Inhibited red-fuming nitric acid
Thrust 7260 kg. (16,000 lb.)

The Agena-B is from the United States Air Force and the Lockheed Missile and Space Company.

Science Satellites

The first artificial earth satellites were sometimes called “long-playing rockets” because they carried the same instruments and investigated the same problems as had the sounding rockets. The great advantage of the satellite was its ability to provide a continuous flow of information for long periods of time. The first science satellites were the forerunners of later vehicles that would demonstrate the direct benefits that satellites could offer to such varied fields as weather observation and communication.

The advent of the earth satellite provided scientists with a new and valuable research tool. Science satellites have been used for such tasks as solar and astronomical observations, biology experiments, or atmospheric investigation. Explorer 1 (launched January 31, 1958) and Vanguard 1 (launched March 17, 1958), the first American earth satellites, carried scientific payloads into space.

Project Vanguard’s important contributions to America’s space program were the creation of the minitrack tracking system, the first use of silicon solar cells for electric power in a satellite, as well as the discovery that Earth is not quite round. The Vanguard program drew to a close with the 1959 launch of Vanguard 3. This satellite studied variations in solar and x-ray radiation and the earth’s magnetosphere. It also determined air density in the upper atmosphere.

The mysteries of the near-earth space environment drew _Explorer 6_, launched August 7, 1959. _Explorer 6_ instruments measured radiation levels in the Van Allen radiation belts, mapped the earth’s magnetic field, counted micrometeorites, and studied the behavior of radio waves in space. In addition, _Explorer 6_ carried a scanning device which returned the first complete television cloud-cover picture of the earth’s surface.

_Explorer 10_, launched on board a Thor-Delta rocket on March 25, 1961, confirmed the existence of the solar wind—the stream of particles that carries the Sun’s magnetic field beyond the orbit of Earth. During the satellite’s planned 52 hours in orbit, it relayed information on the relationship between terrestrial and interplanetary magnetic fields and the solar wind.

To continue the study of solar wind and interplanetary magnetic fields, _Explorer 12_ was orbited by a Delta launch vehicle on August 16, 1961. It was the first in a series of satellites to study energetic particles in space. These electrons and protons constitute the earth’s radiation belts and they affect weather and other phenomena on Earth.

_Atmosphere Explorer-A_ was the first of NASA’s aeronomy satellites. It was designed to remain in operation three months, studying the composition, density, pressure, and temperature of the upper atmosphere. This satellite discovered a belt of neutral helium atoms around the Earth.

Deriving its name from a spirit in Shakespeare’s play, _The Tempest_, _Ariel 1_ explored the ionosphere, a region of electrically charged air which begins about 40 kilometers (25 miles) above the surface of the Earth. Launched April 26, 1962, _Ariel_ was a cooperative venture between Great Britain and the United States. It was both the first British satellite and NASA’s first international satellite. The Royal Society’s British National Committee on Space Research coordinated the experimental program; NASA scientists and technicians built the craft.

Two small scientific laboratories, called Interplanetary Monitoring Platforms, were launched in 1967 to study the solar wind and other phenomena. IMP-E investigated interplanetary magnetic fields in the vicinity of the Moon. IMP-F investigated the interplanetary magnetic field also, in addition to the earth’s magnetosphere and radiation levels in space.

Interplanetary space between the Earth and Venus was the subject area for _Pioneer 5_, launched March 11, 1960. The satellite tested long-range communications systems, developed methods for measuring astronomical distances, studied the effects of solar flares, and performed other tasks before it went into orbit around the Sun.

With increasing interest in the earth’s space environment, a satellite was launched on September 7, 1967, to investigate the impact of space on biological processes. _Biosatellite 2_ was the second satellite in the program of three such vehicles. Frog eggs, plants, micro-organisms and insects were placed in orbit to enable scientists to study the combined effects of weightlessness, artificially produced radiation, and the absence of the normal day-night cycle on these organisms. Following two days in space, the capsule containing the experimental package reentered the atmosphere and was caught in mid-air by an Air Force recovery aircraft.

_Vanguard 1_ is from John P. Hagan. _Vanguard 3_, _Explorer 10_, _Explorer 12_, _AE-A_, _Ariel 1_, IMP-E & F, and _Biosatellite 2_ are from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The models of _Explorer 6_ and _Pioneer 5_ are from Space Technology Laboratories.

Meteorological Satellites

Weather forecasts are important to everyone—in planning whether or not to carry an umbrella, when to plant crops, when to evacuate riverbank areas. Nineteenth-century American meteorologists relied on local weather observations telegraphed to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and then plotted on a large map of the nation from which forecasts were prepared.

When _Tiros-1_ returned the first global cloud-cover picture in 1960, meteorologists were on their way to more accurate forecasts. Since the satellite pictures offered more comprehensive weather data over a larger geographic area, the identification of weather patterns became more reliable.

While our knowledge of atmospheric conditions is still imperfect, we have learned to make reasonably accurate regional weather forecasts and to identify and track violent storms and hurricanes based on satellite information.

The TIROS series (Television Infrared Observations Satellites) were designed to test the feasibility of weather observation from orbit. The TIROS satellite on exhibit was the prototype for the entire series of vehicles. The prototype made eight trips to the launch stand at Cape Kennedy, where it was used to check communications and handling procedures prior to the launch of the scheduled TIROS. All 10 TIROS satellites were successful. Launched between April 1, 1960, and July 1, 1965, they carried a variety of camera systems for experimental purposes.

Nine TIROS Operational Satellites (TOS) followed _TIROS 1-10_. Except for the first TOS, these satellites flew in pairs with one craft storing pictures on board for later transmission to major receiving centers, while the other broadcast its photographs continuously to any ground station within range. The satellite on display is of the latter type. These vehicles were launched between 1966 and 1969. They were placed in near-polar orbits by reliable Thor-Delta launch vehicles.

After launch, TOS vehicles were referred to as ESSA satellites. ESSA was an acronym both for Environmental Survey Satellite and for the Environmental Science Service Administration, the federal agency that operated the spacecraft. This organization became a part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration which currently has responsibility for operational meteorological satellite programs.

From about 1392 kilometers (865 miles) above Earth, two wide-angle television cameras mounted on either side of the spacecraft took in 10.4-million square kilometers (4-million square miles) per photo.

The Improved TIROS Operational Satellite (ITOS) opened the world of radiometric measurement to meteorologists—information about surface temperatures on the ground, at sea level, or at the cloud tops obtained by scanning devices sensitive to energy that is invisible to the naked eye. ITOS spacecraft could return accurate day or night surface and cloud-cover images. Seven of these satellites were launched between 1970 and 1973.

_TIROS_ was presented to the National Air and Space Museum by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; _TOS_ is from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; _ITOS_ is from the Astro-Electronics Division of RCA, Inc.

Communications Satellites

Communications satellites can be grouped into two broad categories. Passive vehicles reflect signals from one ground station to another. Active satellites accept ground signals and either amplify and rebroadcast them immediately or record messages for later transmission.

The Echo satellite balloons typified the passive category of communications spacecraft. These satellites “bounced” radio signals from one ground station to another. Uninflated Echo payloads were carried into orbit packed in special storage containers. When released in space, the balloon was inflated by chemicals packed inside which subliminated to produce inflating gas. The mylar plastic skin of the satellite was sandwiched between two layers of aluminum foil. _Echo 2_—on display—included a system for releasing gas over a long period of time to maintain the satellite’s spherical shape. Launched January 25, 1964, _Echo 2_ was the first satellite used for communication experiments between the United States and the Soviet Union.

Project West Ford, launched May 9, 1963, was a unique experiment in passive satellite communications. It was not a solid vehicle, but a series of 400-million tiny individual copper filaments called dipoles. The dipoles formed a reflective layer some 64,300 kilometers (40,000 miles) long, 32 kilometers (20 miles) thick, and 32 kilometers (20 miles) wide. The distance between the individual dipoles averaged 536 meters (one-third mile). The West Ford experiment proved disappointing, and advances in the design of active communications satellites made further experiments of this nature unnecessary.

_Oscar 1_ (Orbital Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio) was conceived, designed, and constructed by American amateur radio “hams.” Launched as a “piggyback” satellite on December 12, 1963, Oscar transmitted a series of Morse code dots spelling “hi.” The message was picked up by 5000 operators in 28 nations during the 18 days of transmission. Oscar investigated radio propagation phenomena in space on that portion of the radio frequency spectrum allocated to amateur radio (144-146 megaherz).

Testing the use of a “delayed-repeater” satellite in global military communications, _Courier 1-B_ was placed in a high-altitude orbit on October 4, 1960. The craft accepted and stored messages as it passed over one ground station, then replayed them on command.

_Relay_, another active repeater satellite, was placed in orbit on December 13, 1962. _Relay_ carried communications experiments to test a variety of relay equipment—including that for photofacsimile, teleprinter, and data transmission. During its 25-month lifespan, _Relay 1_ introduced the nations of the world to satellite communication. A second, improved _Relay_ was launched in 1964.

The world’s first commercial communications satellite was called “Early Bird,” or INTELSAT 1. Built a decade ago by Hughes Aircraft Company for Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT), Early Bird could transmit simultaneously on 240 two-way channels for telephone, telegraph, or data transmission. Transatlantic telephone circuit capability increased by 50 percent once Early Bird went into orbit on April 6, 1965. Although the craft had a life expectancy of 18 months, it operated satisfactorily in full-time service for more than three and one-half years.

INTELSAT 2 introduced multipoint communications between earth stations in the Northern and Southern hemispheres. With almost twice the power of Early Bird, INTELSAT 2 proved particularly important as communications support for the Apollo missions to the Moon.

INTELSAT 2 established a global network of three satellites that was effective in linking two-thirds of the world’s people in one communications chain. The first of the series was launched on January 11, 1967. These spacecraft were designed and manufactured by the Hughes Aircraft Company for Intelsat, Inc., and had a design lifetime of three years.

INTELSAT 3 was a series of five communications satellites which provided global coverage for the first time. This INTELSAT had a capacity of 2400 voice, data, facsimile, and telegraph circuits, plus four television channels and had a design lifetime of five years.

The satellite featured a de-spun antenna which remained pointed at a particular area of the globe, while the body of the satellite spun around it. It was the first commercial satellite capable of transmitting voice and television broadcasts simultaneously.

INTELSAT 3 satellites were manufactured by TRW Systems, Inc., for Intelsat, Inc.

_Echo 2_, _Courier 1-B_, and _Relay_ are from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; _OSCAR 1_ is from Project Oscar, Inc.; INTELSAT 1, INTELSAT 2, and INTELSAT 3 are from the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization.

Lunar Module

The lunar module is one of twelve built for the Apollo moon-landing program. Although this one never flew because an earlier test flight was completely successful, two-stage lunar modules like this one have been used for each manned moon landing.

Lunar modules do not have to be streamlined for flights through the vacuum of space or to withstand reentry. The lunar module (LM) lifts off from Earth enclosed in a compartment of the Saturn 5 launch vehicle, below the command-service module that houses the astronauts. The command module pulls the LM from its storage area once the spacecraft are on their way to the Moon, and the two travel together until they arrive in lunar orbit.

When the crew is ready to land, two of the three astronauts enter the LM and undock it, leaving the third to pilot the command module. After touchdown on the Moon, the astronauts exit through the door above the ladder.

The silver and black ascent stage, containing the astronauts’ pressurized compartment and the clusters of rockets that control the spacecraft, fits on top of the shiny gold descent stage that actually touches down on the Moon. The descent stage contains a main, centrally located rocket engine. This segment of the craft remains on the Moon as the crew lifts off in the ascent stage to rejoin the command module.

After the crew transfers to the command module, the ascent stage is also left behind as the three crew members start their return journey.

The LM is displayed just as it would look during a moon-landing mission. The gold and black materials insulate the spacecraft’s inner structure from temperature extremes and protect it from micrometeoroids. Thin sheets of both materials are used in “blankets” to accomplish the necessary protection in a foreign environment.

The black material is heat-resistant nickel-steel alloy. Each sheet is only .002 millimeters (1/12,000 of an inch) thick. These absorb heat and radiate it back into the blackness of space.

The shiny gold material on the descent stage is aluminum that is thinly coated over plastic film. The thin sheets of plastic and aluminum are used in blankets of up to 25 layers for protection and insulation of the spacecraft.

Prime contractor for the lunar module was Grumman Aerospace Corporation.

The lunar module on exhibit is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Height 7 m. (22 ft., 11 in.), legs extended
Diameter 9.4 m. (31 ft.) diagonally across landing gear
Weight
Earth launch 14,700 kg. (32,400 lb.)
LM (dry) 3900 kg. (8600 lb.)
Volume
Pressurized 6.7 cu. m. (235 cu. ft.)
Habitable 4.5 cu. m. (160 cu. ft.)

Lunar Orbiter

Directional Antenna
Velocity Control Rocket Engine
Fuel Tank
Nitrogen Gas Reaction Jets
Oxidizer Tank
Lenses
Micrometeoroid Detectors
Flight Programmer
Photographic Subsystem
Sun Sensor (located under equipment deck)
Solar Panel
Canopus Star Tracker
Inertial Reference Unit
Omni Directional Antenna

The Lunar Orbiter project was initiated in 1963 as part of the U.S. Apollo program to land men on the Moon during the decade of the nineteen sixties.

Lunar Orbiter’s primary mission was to take and transmit both wide-angle and closeup images of the Moon. Lunar Orbiters photographed many areas of scientific interest and provided general photographic coverage of much of the moon’s surface. These pictures were then used to select the best landing sites for the first manned lunar landings. Orbiters also showed that the moon’s gravitational field permitted stable orbits.

_Lunar Orbiter 1_ was launched atop an Atlas-Agena D rocket on August 10, 1966. The last in the project, _Lunar Orbiter 5_, was launched on August 1, 1967. All five missions were successful.

The first three missions were similar. After each launch, the Agena stage’s booster engine was fired to send the spacecraft on a 90-hour coasting trajectory to the Moon, about 386,160 kilometers (240,000 miles) distant.

As the spacecraft neared the Moon, its on-board engine was fired as a retrorocket to slow the _Orbiter_ and permit it to go into orbit around the Moon.

The closest approach to the Moon in each orbit was about 45 kilometers (28 miles), and the spacecraft swung out to about 1850 kilometers (1150 miles) from the Moon.

Photography was conducted while the _Orbiter_ was near the lunar surface. Lunar photography for the Apollo Program landing-site selection was completed by the first three Lunar Orbiters. Each was then intentionally crashed into the Moon to prevent it from interfering with later missions.

The last two Lunar Orbiters were used for scientific photography of the Moon. Both were placed into polar orbits so that they could photograph all of the sunlit areas of the Moon.

Each Lunar Orbiter carried a camera with both a telephoto and a wide-angle lens. The telephoto lens was capable of resolving objects on the lunar surface as small as 91.4 centimeters (three feet) in diameter. The wide-angle lens could resolve objects as small as 7.6 meters (25 feet) in diameter. The photographic images were converted to electrical signals for transmission to Earth.

The Lunar Orbiter project was a complete success. All spacecraft operated properly, photographing a total of more than 36-million square kilometers (14-million square miles) of the moon’s surface.

Prime contractor for the Lunar Orbiter program was the Boeing Company. Principal subcontractors were Eastman Kodak Company and RCA.

The Lunar Orbiter in the National Air and Space Museum’s collection was used for thermal testing of spacecraft systems.

_Lunar Orbiter_ is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Maximum span
Antenna booms 5.6 m. (18 ft., 6 in.)
Solar panels 3.7 m. (12 ft., 2 in.)
Height 1.68 m. (5 ft., 6 in.) without panels
Weight 385.6 kg. (850 lb.)
Power Electrical; four solar panels with a total area
of just over 4.8 sq. m. (58 sq. ft.) providing
375 w. to nickel-cadmium batteries
Velocity control A 45.4 kg (100 lb.) thrust engine burning a
system hydrazine mixture and nitrogen-tetroxide
oxidizer

Surveyor

High-gain Antenna
Omnidirectional Antenna A
Thermally Controlled Compartment A
Radar Altitude - Doppler Velocity Sensor
Vernier Propellant Tanks
Footpad 2
Crushable Block
Attitude Control Gas Tank (Nitrogen)
Solar Panel
TV Camera
Thermally Controlled Compartment B
Alpha Scattering Instrument Electronics
Canopus Star Sensor
Omnidirectional Antenna B
Footpad 3
Vernier Engine 3
Vernier Propellant Pressurizing Gas Tank (Helium)
Alpha Scattering Instrument

The Surveyor Project, begun in 1960, consisted of seven unmanned spacecraft which were launched between May 30, 1966, and January 6, 1968. The craft were used to develop lunar soft-landing techniques, to survey potential Apollo landing sites, and to improve scientific understanding of the Moon.

Five of the seven Surveyor spacecraft successfully landed on the Moon and performed their tasks well. They responded to 600,545 commands from Earth and returned 87,632 television images of their lunar surroundings. (_Surveyors 2_ and _4_ crashed into the Moon and were destroyed.)

Besides returning TV images, _Surveyors 3_, _5_, _6_, and _7_ carried a soil-sampling claw which could dig a trench, and test soil hardness and other characteristics. The soil-sampler tests showed that the lunar surface would bear the weight of an Apollo Lunar Module.

_Surveyors 5_, _6_, and _7_ carried instruments capable of making simple chemical analyses of the lunar soil near the spacecraft. This information told scientists that most lunar soil near the Surveyors was basalt, a common rock on Earth as well.

The Surveyor spacecraft on exhibit, designated _S-10_, was used in ground-based tests of on-board equipment, and was not used on a mission. _S-10_ is exhibited as it would have appeared just before landing on the Moon.

Prime contractor for the Surveyor spacecraft was the Hughes Aircraft Company. The project was managed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California.

The spacecraft on exhibit is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Height 3 m. (10 ft.)
Distance across 3.5 m. (11 ft., 6 in.)
footpads
Weight 1000 kg. (2204 lb.) at launch; 292 kg. (644 lb.)
as exhibited
Electrical power One .83 sq. m. (9 sq. ft.) solar panel providing
89 w. to a silver-zinc battery
Landing vernier Three throttleable liquid-propellant rockets
rocket system each providing from 14.6 to 47.2 kg. thrust
(30 to 104 lb. thrust).
Fuel—Monomethylhydrazine monohydrate; oxidizer
90% nitrogen tetroxide and 10% nitric oxide.

Goddard Rockets: May 1926 and “Hoopskirt,” 1928