Chapter II: Some Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish Words

_Italian._—Divide si-gnore (gn = _ni_ in ‘mania’), trava-gliare (gli = _lli_ in ‘William’), tra-scinare (sci = _shi_ in ‘shin’), i.e. take over gn, gl, sci. In such a case as ‘all’ uomo’ Italians divide ‘al-l’ uomo’ when occasion arises.[48]

_Portuguese._—Divide se-nhor (nh = _ni_ in ‘mania’), bata-lha (lh = _lli_ in ‘William’), i.e. take over nh, ll.

_Spanish._—Divide se-ñora (ñ = _ni_ in ‘mania’), maravi-lloso (ll = _lli_ in ‘William’), i.e. take over ñ, ll.

III. For the division of French words, see p. 81; German, p. 90; Latin, p. 95; and Greek, p. 97.

FOOTNOTES:

[46] I was once asked how I would carry out the rule that part of the word left in one line should suggest what followed in the next, in such a case as ‘disproportionableness’, which, according to Sir James Murray, is one of the longest words in the English language; or ‘incircumscriptibleness’, used by one Byfield, a divine, in 1615, who wrote, ‘The immensity of Christ’s divine nature hath ... incircumscriptibleness in respect of place’; or again, ‘antidisestablishmentarians’, quoted in the biography of Archbishop Benson, where he says that ‘the Free Kirk of the North of Scotland are strong antidisestablishmentarians’.—H. H.

[47] ‘Even the divisions noted as preferable are not free from objection, and should be avoided when it is at all easy to do so.’—H. B.

[48] Italians follow this rule, but it is better avoided in printing Italian passages in English books.—H. H.

PUNCTUATION

The compositor is recommended to study attentively a good treatise[49] on the whole subject. He will find some knowledge of it to be indispensable if his work is to be done properly; for most writers send in copy quite unprepared as regards punctuation, and leave the compositor to put in the proper marks. ‘Punctuation is an art nearly always left to the compositor, authors being almost without exception either too busy or too careless to regard it.’[50] Some authors rightly claim to have carefully prepared copy followed absolutely; but such cases are rare, and the compositor can as a rule only follow his copy exactly when setting up standard reprints. ‘The first business of the compositor’ says Mr. De Vinne, ‘is to copy and not to write. He is enjoined strictly to follow the copy and never to change the punctuation of any author who is precise and systematic; but he is also required to punctuate the writings of all authors who are not careful, and to make written expression intelligible in the proof.... It follows that compositors are inclined to neglect the study of rules that cannot be generally applied.’[51]

It being admitted, then, that the compositor is to be held responsible in most cases, he should remember that loose punctuation,[52] especially in scientific and philosophical works, is to be avoided.[53] We will again quote Mr. De Vinne: ‘Two systems of punctuation are in use. One may be called the close or stiff, and the other the open or easy system. For all ordinary descriptive writing the open or easy system, which teaches that points be used sparingly, is in most favor, but the close or stiff system cannot be discarded.’[54] The compositor who desires to inform himself as to the principles and theory of punctuation will find abundant information in the works mentioned in the footnote on p. 55; in our own booklet there is space only for a few cautions and a liberal selection of examples; authority for the examples, when they are taken from the works of other writers, being given in all cases.

_The Comma._

Commas should, as a rule, be inserted between adjectives preceding and qualifying substantives, as—

An enterprising, ambitious man.

A gentle, amiable, harmless creature.

A cold, damp, badly lighted room.[55]

But where the last adjective is in closer relation to the substantive than the preceding ones, omit the comma, as—

A distinguished foreign author.

The sailor was accompanied by a great rough Newfoundland dog.{55}

Where _and_ joins two single words or phrases the comma is usually omitted; e.g.

The honourable and learned member.

But where more than two words or phrases occur together in a sequence a comma should precede the final _and_; e.g.

A great, wise, and beneficent measure.

The following sentence, containing two conjunctive _and_’s, needs no commas:

God is wise and righteous and faithful.{55}

Such words as moreover, however, &c., are usually followed by a comma[56] when used at the opening of a sentence, or preceded and followed by a comma when used in the middle of a sentence. For instance:

In any case, however, the siphon may be filled.[57]

It is better to use the comma in such sentences as those that immediately follow:

Truth ennobles man, and learning adorns him.[58]

The Parliament is not dissolved, but only prorogued.

The French having occupied Portugal, a British squadron, under
Rear-Admiral Sir Samuel Hood, sailed for Madeira.

I believed, and therefore I spoke.

The question is, Can it be performed?

My son, give me thy heart.

The Armada being thus happily defeated, the nation resounded with
shouts of joy.

Be assured, then, that order, frugality, and economy, are the
necessary supporters of every personal and private virtue.

Virtue is the highest proof of a superior understanding, and the
only basis of greatness.{58}

When a preposition assumes the character of an adverb, a comma should follow it, to avoid awkwardness or ambiguity: ‘In the valley below, the villages looked very small.’

_The Semicolon._

Instances in which the semicolon is appropriate:

Truth ennobles man; learning adorns him.

The temperate man’s pleasures are always durable, because they
are regular; and all his life is calm and serene, because it is
innocent.

Those faults which arise from the will are intolerable; for dull
and insipid is every performance where inclination bears no part.

Economy is no disgrace; for it is better to live on a little than
to outlive a great deal.

To err is human; to forgive, divine.[59]

Never speak concerning what you are ignorant of; speak little of
what you know; and whether you speak or say not a word, do it with
judgement.{59}

Semicolons divide the simple members of a compound sentence, and a comma and dash come after the last sentence and before the general conclusion:

To give an early preference to honour above gain, when they stand
in competition; to despise every advantage which cannot be attained
without dishonest arts; to brook no meanness, and stoop to no
dissimulation,—are the indications of a great mind, the presages
of future eminence and usefulness in life.[60]

_The Colon._

This point marks an abrupt pause before a further but connected statement:

In business there is something more than barter, exchange, price,
payment: there is a sacred faith of man in man.

Study to acquire a habit of thinking: no study is more
important.[61]

Always remember the ancient maxim: Know thyself.

_The Period or Full Stop._

Examples of its ordinary use:

Fear God. Honour the King. Pray without ceasing.

There are thoughts and images flashing across the mind in its
highest moods, to which we give the name of inspiration. But whom
do we honour with this title of the inspired poet?

_The Note of Interrogation._

Examples of its ordinary use:

Shall little, haughty ignorance pronounce
His work unwise, of which the smallest part
Exceeds the narrow vision of the mind?

Was the prisoner alone when he was apprehended? Is he known to the
police? Has he any regular occupation? Where does he dwell? What is
his name?

What does the pedant mean?

Cases where the note of interrogation must not be used, the speaker simply stating a fact:

The Cyprians asked me why I wept.

I was asked if I would stop for dinner.

_The Note of Exclamation._

Examples of its ordinary use:

Hail, source of Being! universal Soul!
How mischievous are the effects of war!
O excellent guardian of the sheep!—a wolf![62]

Alas for his poor family!
Alas, my noble boy! that thou shouldst die!
Ah me! she cried, and waved her lily hand.
O despiteful love! unconstant womankind!

_Marks of Parenthesis._

Examples:

I have seen charity (if charity it may be called) insult with an
air of pity.

Left now to himself (malice could not wish him a worse adviser), he
resolves on a desperate project.[63]

_The Bracket._

These marks are used chiefly to denote an interpolation or explanation. For example:

Perhaps (alarming thought!), perhaps he [Death] aims
Ev’n now the fatal blow that ends my life.[64]

They [the Lilliputians] rose like one man.

_The Dash._

Em rules or dashes—in this and the next line an example is given—are often used to show that words enclosed between them are to be read parenthetically. Thus a verbal parenthesis may be shown by punctuation in three ways: by em dashes, by ( ), or by commas.[65]

Omit the dash when a colon is used to preface a quotation or similar matter, whether at the end of a break-line or not.

The dash is used to mark an interruption or breaking off in the middle of a sentence.[66]

_Marks of Omission._

To mark omitted words three points ... (not asterisks) separated by en quadrats are sufficient; and the practice should be uniform throughout the work. Where full lines are required to mark a large omission, real or imaginary, the spacing between the marks should be increased; but the compositor should in this case also use full points and not asterisks.

_Punctuation Marks generally._

The following summary is an attempt to define in few words the meaning and use of punctuation marks (the capitals are only given for emphasis):

A Period marks the end of a sentence.

A Colon is at the transition point of the sentence.

A Semicolon separates different statements.

A Comma separates clauses, phrases, and particles.

A Dash marks abruptness or irregularity.

An Exclamation marks surprise.

An Interrogation asks a question for answer.

An Apostrophe marks elisions or possessive case.

Quotation marks define quoted words.

Parentheses enclose interpolations in the sentence.

Brackets enclose irregularities in the sentence.[67]

_Quotation Marks, or ‘Inverted Commas’ (so-called)._

Omit quotation marks in poetry, as instructed on p. 45. Also omit them in prose extracts broken off in smaller type, unless contrary instructions are given.

Insert quotation marks in titles of essays: e.g. ‘Mr. Brock read a paper on “Description in Poetry”.’ But omit quotation marks when the subject of the paper is an author: e.g. ‘Professor Bradley read a paper on Jane Austen.’

Single ‘quotes’ are to be used for the first quotation; then double for a quotation within a quotation. If there should be yet another quotation within the second quotation it is necessary to revert to single quotation marks. Sometimes, as in the impossible example in the footnote, quotation marks packed three deep must be omitted.

All signs of punctuation used with words in quotation marks must be placed _according to the sense_. If an extract ends with a point, then let that point be, as a rule,[68] included before the closing quotation mark; but not otherwise. When there is one quotation within another, and both end with the sentence, put the punctuation mark before the first of the closing quotations. These are important directions for the compositor to bear in mind; and he should examine the examples which are given in the pages which follow:

‘The passing crowd’ is a phrase coined in the spirit of
indifference. Yet, to a man of what Plato calls ‘universal
sympathies’, and even to the plain, ordinary denizens of this
world, what can be more interesting than ‘the passing crowd’?[69]

If the physician sees you eat anything that is not good for your
body, to keep you from it he cries, ‘It is poison!’ If the divine
sees you do anything that is hurtful for your soul, he cries, ‘You
are lost!’[70]

‘Why does he use the word “poison”?’

But I boldly cried out, ‘Woe unto this city!’[71]

Alas, how few of them can say, ‘I have striven to the very
utmost’!{71}

Thus, notes of exclamation and interrogation are sometimes included in and sometimes follow quotation marks, as in the sentences above, according to whether their application is merely to the words quoted or to the whole sentence of which they form a part. The sentence-stop must be omitted after ? or !, even when the ? or ! precedes the closing ‘quotes’.

In regard to the use of commas and full points with ‘turned commas’, the general practice has hitherto been different. When either a comma or a full point is required at the end of a quotation, the almost universal custom at the present time is for the printer to include that comma or full point within the quotation marks at the end of an extract, _whether it forms part of the original extract or not_. Even in De Vinne’s examples, although he says distinctly, ‘The proper place of the closing marks of quotation should be determined by the quoted words only’, no instance can be found of the closing marks of quotation being placed to precede a comma or a full point. Some writers wish to exclude the comma or full point when it does not form part of the original extract, and to include it when it does form part of it; and this is doubtless correct.

There seems to be no reason for perpetuating a bad practice. So, unless the author wishes to have it otherwise, in all new works the compositor should place full points and commas according to the examples that follow:

We need not ‘follow a multitude to do evil’.

No one should ‘follow a multitude to do evil’, as the Scripture
says.

Do not ‘follow a multitude to do evil’; on the contrary, do what is
right.

When a number of isolated words or phrases are, for any reason, severally marked off by ‘turned commas’ (e.g. in order to show that they are not the expressions which the author would prefer to use, or that they are used in some technical sense), the closing quotation mark should precede the punctuation mark, thus:

‘Such odd-sounding designations of employment as “scribbling
miller”, “devil feeder”, “pug boy”, “decomposing man”, occur in the
census reports.’

_in my voice_, ‘so far as my vote is concerned’. _parlous_,
‘perilous’, ‘dangerous’, ‘hard to deal with’.

But when a quotation is complete in itself, either as a sentence or a paragraph, the final quotation mark is to be placed outside the point. For example:

‘If the writer of these pages shall chance to meet with any that
shall only study to cavil and pick a quarrel with him, he is
prepared beforehand to take no notice of it.’ (_Works of Charles
and M. Lamb_, Oxford edition, i. 193.)

Where a quotation is interrupted by an interpolated sentence, the punctuation must follow the sense of the passage, as in the following examples:

1. ‘At the root of the disorders’, he writes in the Report, ‘lies
the conflict of the two races.’ In this example the comma is placed
_outside_ the quotation mark, as it forms no part of the original
punctuation.

2. ‘Language is not, and never can be,’ writes Lord Cromer, ‘as in
the case of ancient Rome, an important factor in the execution of a
policy of fusion.’ In this example the comma is placed _inside_ the
quotation mark, as it forms part of the original punctuation.

In the case of dialogues, the punctuation mark should precede the quotation mark, as:

‘You hear him,’ said Claverhouse, smiling, ‘there’s the rock he
splits upon; he cannot forget his pedigree.’

_Punctuation in Classical and Philological Notes._

In notes on English and foreign classics, as a rule[72] follow the punctuation in the following examples:

5. _Falls not_, lets not fall. (That is, a comma is sufficient
after the lemma where a simple definition follows.)

17. _swoon._ The spelling of the folios is ‘swound’. (Here a full
point is used, because the words that follow the lemma comprise a
complete sentence.)

Note, as to capitalization, that the initial letter of the word or phrase treated (as in _Falls not_ above) should be in agreement with the text.

The lemma should be set in italics or clarendon, according to directions.

_Punctuation Marks and References to Footnotes in juxtaposition._

The relation of these to each other is dealt with on p. 70. Examples of the right practice are to be found on many pages of the present work.

_Points in Title-pages, Headlines, &c._

All points are to be omitted from the ends of lines in titles, half-titles, page-headings, and main cross-headings, in Clarendon Press works, unless a special direction is given to the contrary.

FOOTNOTES:

[49] e.g. _Spelling and Punctuation_, by H. Beadnell (Wyman’s Technical Series); _The King’s English_ (Clarendon Press), containing a valuable chapter on Punctuation; _Stops; or, How to Punctuate_, by P. Allardyce (Fisher Unwin); _Correct Composition_, by T. L. De Vinne (New York, Century Co.); or the more elaborate _Guide pratique du compositeur_, &c., by T. Lefevre (Paris, Firmin-Didot).

[50] _Practical Printing_, by Southward and Powell, p. 191.

[51] De Vinne, _Correct Composition_, pp. 241-2.

[52] How much depends upon punctuation is well illustrated in a story told, I believe, by the late G. A. Sala, once a writer in the _Daily Telegraph_, about R. B. Sheridan, dramatist and M.P. In the House of Commons, Sheridan one day gave an opponent the lie direct. Called upon to apologize, the offender responded thus: ‘Mr. Speaker I said the honourable Member was a liar it is true and I am sorry for it.’ Naturally the person concerned was not satisfied; and said so. ‘Sir,’ continued Mr. Sheridan, ‘the honourable Member can interpret the terms of my statement according to his ability, and he can put punctuation marks where it pleases him.’—H. H.

[53] Below is a puzzle passage from the _Daily Chronicle_, first with no points, and then with proper marks of punctuation: ‘That that is is that that is not is not is not that it it is.’ ‘That that is, is; that that is not, is not; is not that it? It is.’—H. H.

[54] De Vinne, _Correct Composition_, p. 244.

[55] Beadnell, pp. 99, 100.

[56] Nevertheless the reader is not to be commended who, being told that the word however was usually followed by a comma, insisted upon altering a sentence beginning ‘However true this may be,’ &c., to ‘However, true this _may_ be,’ &c. This is the late Dean Alford’s story. See _The Queen’s English_, p. 124, ed. 1870.—H. H.

[57] Beadnell, p. 101.

[58] Id., pp. 95-107.

[59] Beadnell, pp. 109, 110.

[60] Id., p. 111.

[61] Id., p. 112.

[62] All the examples are from Beadnell, pp. 113-17.

[63] Beadnell, pp. 118-19.

[64] Id., p. 120.

[65] Some writers mark this form of composition quite arbitrarily. For instance Charles Dickens uses colons: ‘As he sat down by the old man’s side, two tears: not tears like those with which recording angels blot their entries out, but drops so precious that they use them for their ink: stole down his meritorious cheeks.’—_Martin Chuzzlewit_, Oxford ed., p. 581.

[66] There is one case, and only one, of an em rule being used in the Bible (A.V.), viz. in Exod. xxxii. 32; where, I am told by the Rev. Professor Driver, it is correctly printed, to mark what is technically called an ‘aposiopesis’, i.e. a sudden silence. The ordinary mark for such a case is a two-em rule.—H. H.

[67] De Vinne, _Correct Composition_, p. 288.

[68] I say ‘as a rule’, because if such a sentence as that which follows occurred in printing a secular work, the rule would have to be broken. De Vinne prints:

‘In the New Testament we have the following words: “Jesus answered them, ‘Is it not written in your law, “I said, ‘Ye are gods’”?’”’ [H. H.]

[69] Beadnell, p. 116.

[70] Id., p. 126.

[71] Allardyce, p. 74.

[72] There are exceptions, as in the case of works which have a settled style of their own.

FIGURES AND NUMERALS

IN ARABIC OR ROMAN

Do not mix old-style and new-face figures in the same book without special directions.

Nineteenth century, not 19th century.

Figures to be used when the matter consists of a sequence of stated quantities, particulars of age, &c.

Example:

‘Figures for September show the supply to have been 85,690 tons, a
decrease on the month of 57 tons. For the past twelve months there
is a net increase of 5 tons.’

‘The smallest tenor suitable for ten bells is D flat, of 5 feet
diameter and 42 cwt.’

In descriptive matter, numbers under 100 to be in words; but print ‘90 to 100’, not ‘ninety to 100’.

Spell out in such instances as—

‘With God a thousand years are but as one day’; ‘I have said so a
hundred times’.

Insert commas with four or more than four figures, as 7,642; but print dates without commas, as 1908; nor should there be commas in figures denoting pagination or numbering of verse, even though there may be more than three figures. Omit commas also in Library numbers, as—British Museum MS. 24456.

Roman numerals to be preferred in such cases as Henry VIII, &c.—which should never be divided; and should only be followed by a full point when the letters end a sentence. If, however, the author prefers the full title, use ‘Henry the Eighth’, not ‘Henry the VIIIth’.

Use a decimal point · to express decimals, as 7·06; and print 0·76, _not_ ·76. When the time of day is intended to be shown, the full point . is to be used, as 4.30 a.m.

As to dates, in descriptive writing the author’s phraseology should be followed; e.g. ‘On the 21st of May the army drew near.’ But in ordinary matter in which the date of the month and year is given, such as the headings to letters, print May 19, 1862; not May 19th, 1862,[73] nor 19 May, 1862.

To represent pagination or an approximate date, use the least number of figures possible; for example, print:

pp. 322-30; pp. 322-4, _not_ pp. 322-24. But print: pp. 16-18,
_not_ pp. 16-8; 116-18, _not_ 116-8.

In dates: 1897-8, _not_ 1897-98 (use en rules); and from 1672 to 1674, _not_ from 1672-74.

Print: 250 B.C.; but when it is necessary to insert A.D. the letters should precede the year, as A.D. 250. In B.C. references, however, always put the full date, in a group of years, e.g. 185-122 B.C.

When preliminary pages are referred to by lower-case roman numerals, no full points should be used after the numerals. Print:

p. ii, pp. iii-x; _not_ p. ii., pp. iii.-x.

When references are made to two successive text-pages print pp. 6, 7, if the subject is disconnected in the two pages. But if the subject is continuous from one page to the other, then print pp. 6-7. The compositor in this must be guided by his copy. Print p. 51 sq. if the reference is to p. 51 and following page; but pp. 51 sqq. when the reference is to more than a single page following.[74]

In a sequence of figures use an en rule, as in the above examples; but in such cases as Chapters III—VIII use an em rule.

Begin numbered paragraphs: 1. 2. &c.; and clauses in paragraphs: (1) (2) (3), &c. If Greek or roman lower-case letters are written, the compositor must follow copy. Roman numerals (I. II. III.) are usually reserved for chapters or important sections.

References in the text to footnotes should be made by superior figures—which are to be placed, as regards punctuation marks, according to the sense. If a single word, say, is extracted and referred to, the reference must be placed immediately after the word extracted and before the punctuation mark. But if an extract be made which includes a complete sentence or paragraph, then the reference mark must be placed outside the last punctuation mark. Asterisks, superior letters, &c., may be used in special cases. Asterisks and the other signs (* † ‡ &c.) should be used in mathematical works, to avoid confusion with the workings.

In Mathematics, the inferior in P_{1}′ should come immediately after the capital letter.

FOOTNOTES:

[73] Sir James Murray says, ‘This is not logical: 19 May 1862 is. _Begin_ at day, _ascend_ to month, _ascend_ to year; not _begin_ at month, _descend_ to day, then _ascend_ to year.’ (But I fear we must continue for the present to print May 19, 1862: authors generally will not accept the logical form.—H. H.)

[74] In references of this nature different forms are used, as—ff., foll., et seq. Whichever form is adopted, the practice should be uniform throughout the work.