Chapter XXIV: Appendix: (a.) (1)

LIST OF THE RUSSIAN NAVAL FORCE IN THE BLACK SEA IN JANUARY, 1853.

-------------------+------+----------+----------+------------------------
Names of Ships. |No. of|When Laid | When | Observations.
|Guns. | Down. |Launched. |
-------------------+------+----------+----------+------------------------
[293]Silistria | 84 |Dec. 1833|Nov. 1835|} Unmanned, not being
Sultan Mahmoud | 84 |Feb. 1835|Oct. 1836|} fit for service.
[293]Tri Svetiteli | 120 |Dec. 1835|Aug. 1838|{ Docked for repairs
Tri Hezarhef | 84 |Nov. 1836| ” ” |{ in 1852.
Gabriel | 84 |Aug. 1838|Nov. 1839|}
Selafael | 84 | ” ” |July 1840|}
[293]Uriel | 84 | ” ” |Oct. ” |}
Twelve Apostles | 120 |Oct. ” |June 1841|}
Varna | 84 | ” ” |July 1842|}
[293]Yagudil | 84 |Sept. 1839|Sept. 1843|} All ships of the
[293]Rostislaf | 84 |May 1843|Nov. ” |} line are built
Sviatolaf | 84 | ” ” | ” 1845|} at Nicolaief.
Hvabri | 84 |June 1841|July 1847|}
Tchesnie | 84 |July 1842|Oct. 1849|}
Paris | 120 | ” 1847| ” ” |}
Grand Duke | | | |}
Constantine | 120 |May 1850|Sept. 1852|}
Empress Maria | 84 |Oct. 1849|On the |}
| | | stocks |}
Bosphorus | 120 |Sept. 1852|Ditto. |{ Screw steamer; engines
| | | |{ ordered in England.
—— | 120 | | |} To be laid down during
—— | 120 | | |} the year.

FRIGATES.

Flora | 44 |Nov. 1837|Sept. 1839| Built in Nicolaief.
Messembria | 60 |Oct. 1838|Oct. 1840| Ditto.
| | | |{ Built in Sevastopol;
[293]Sizopoli | 54 | ” ” |March 1841|{ docked in 1852 for
| | | |{ thorough repair.
Medea | 60 |July 1840|Sept. 1843| Built in Nicolaief.
Kagul | 44 |Oct. ” | ” ” | Ditto.
Kovarna | 52 |March 1841| ” 1845| Built in Sevastopol.
[293]Kulefehi | 60 | ” 1844| ” 1847| Built in Nicolaief.

CORVETTES.

Raylades | 20 |Oct 1838|June 1840| Built in Nicolaief.
Andromache | 18 |June 1840|July 1841| Ditto.
Calypso | 18 | ” 1841|Sept. 1845| Ditto.
Orestes | 18 |Dec. 1845|Oct. 1846| Ditto.
Ariadne | 20 |Jan. 1847|Aug. 1853| Sevastopol.

BRIGS.

Mercury | 18 |Jan. 1819|May 1820|
Argonaut | 12 |Feb. 1837|Sept. 1837| Sevastopol.
Temistocles | 16 |Oct. 1838|Nov. 1839| Nicolaief.
Perseus | 18 |June 1839|June 1840| Ditto.
Endymion | 12 |Sept. 1839|Nov. ” | Ditto.
Nearchus | 12 | ” ” | ” ” | Ditto.
Euroas | 16 |June 1840|July 1842| Ditto.
Ptolemy | 18 |July 1842|Sept. 1845| Ditto.
Theseus | 18 | ” ” | ” ” | Ditto.
Achilles | 16 |From the Baltic. |
Orpheus | 16 |Dec. 1842|Sept. 1845| Sevastopol.
Jason | 12 |Jan. 1847|Oct. 1850| Ditto.

SCHOONERS.

Gonetz | 16 |Sept. 1834|March 1835| In Nicolaief.
Latoshka | 16 |Feb. 1837|June 1838| Ditto.
Smelaya | 16 |Oct. 1838|May 1839| Sevastopol.
Drotig | 16 |Nov. 1837|June 1839| Nicolaief.
Zabiaka | 16 |Oct. 1838|Aug. ” | Ditto.
Urcilaya | 8 |March 1844|Sept. 1845| Ditto.
Skulchwaya | 8 | ” ” | ” ” |} Built in Nicolaief.
Opil | 16 |Oct. 1849| ” 1852|}
Soudjuk Kalé | 10 |Formerly Vixen, taken in 1837.

CUTTERS.

Struya | 12 |Sept. 1834|July 1835| Built in Nicolaief.
Lutch | 12 | ” ” | ” ” | Ditto.
Legki | 12 | ” ” |Sept. ” | Ditto.
Nerok | 10 |Oct. 1838|July 1839| Sevastopol.
Skori | 12 |March 1844|Sept. 1845| Nicolaief.
Pospeshnoy | 10 | ” ” | ” ” | Ditto.
Provornoy | 10 | ” ” | ” ” | Ditto.

YACHTS.

Strela | 10 |Sept. 1834|April 1835| Built in Nicolaief.
Oriánda | 10 |July 1836|May 1837| Ditto.

BOMBARD.

Peroun | — |June 1839|July 1842| Built in Nicolaief.

STEAMERS.

----------------+------+-------------------------------------------------
Names of |Horse | Observations.
Steamers. |Power.|
----------------+------+-------------------------------------------------
Wladimir | 400 | From England in 1848.
| |
Bessarabia | 260 | }
Gromonosetz | 260 | }
Crimea | 260 |} Line steamers } From England in 1843.
Odessa | 260 |} between Odessa and }
Chersonesus | 260 |} Constantinople. }
| |
Elbrus | 250 |{ Line steamers { From England in 1848.
Yenikale | 180 |{ between Odessa, {
Taman | 180 |{ Crimea, and { Ditto in 1849.
| |{ Soukhoum Kalé. {
| |
Bayetz | 136 |} Employed on }
Mogutchi | 136 |} the coast of } From England in 1839.
Molodela | 136 |} Circassia and }
Cholchis | 120 |} for the forts } Ditto in 1837.
| |} on the coast.
| |
Grozni | 120 | Built in Nicolaief, 1842.
Sevenain Zvezon | 120 | Ditto, in 1834.
| |
Peter the Great | 100 | From England in 1834.
| |
Andi | 100 | } From England in 1845.
Dargo | 100 | } Packet boats.
| |
Danube | 100 | } From England in 1851.
Pruth | 100 | } River boats.
| |
Berdeansk | 90 | } From England in 1845.
Taganrog | 90 | } Packet boats.
| |
Inkerman | 90 | From England in 1838.
| |
Molni | 80 | } Built in { 1840.
Meteor | 60 | } Nicolaief. { 1838.
Ordinaretr | 60 | } Tug boats. { 1847.
Skromni | 40 | } { 1842.
| |
Argonaut | 40 | From England in 1851.
| |
Vogin (Warrior) | 250 | } Now building in the
Vitiaz (Hero) | 250 | } Thames; screw steamers.
----------------+------+-------------------------------------------------

GUN-BOATS.

Twenty-eight gun-boats built between 1841 and 1852 for service in the
Danube.

TRANSPORTS.

Thirty vessels, measuring 10,627 tons, built from 1837 to 1852.

The Empress Maria, 84 guns, was launched on the 21st of May, but will not be rigged for some months.

The Bosphorus, 120 guns, has not been advanced since the day her keel was laid down, nor are the slips made for the two other three-deckers that are to be commenced this year.

There is no timber grown near Nicolaief; it comes down the Dniepr, and is employed in its green state.

(B.)

FIELD MARSHAL COUNT ALEXANDER VASSILIAVITCH SUVÓROF’S DISCOURSE UNDER THE TRIGGER.[294]

BEING

A SERIES OF INSTRUCTIONS DRAWN BY HIMSELF, FOR THE USE OF THE ARMY UNDER HIS COMMAND, AFTER THE TURKISH WAR; AND SINCE TRANSMITTED BY ORDER OF THE RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT TO EVERY REGIMENT IN THE SERVICE. IT IS COMMONLY CALLED SUVÓROF’S CATECHISM.

(_The General is supposed to be inspecting the Line and addressing the Troops._)

Heels close! Knees straight! A soldier must stand like a dart! I see the fourth—the fifth I don’t see. A soldier’s step is an archine[295]—in wheeling, an archine and a half. Keep your distance well!

Soldiers, join elbows in front! First rank three steps from the second—in marching, two!

Give the drum room!

Keep your ball three days: it may happen for a whole campaign when lead[296] cannot be had!

Fire seldom—but fire sure!

Push hard with the bayonet! The ball will lose its way—the bayonet never! The ball is a fool—the bayonet a hero! Stab once: and off with the Turk from the bayonet! Even when he’s dead you may get a scratch from his sabre.

If the sabre is near your neck, dodge back one step, and push on again. Stab the second! Stab the third! A hero will stab half-a-dozen.

Be sure your ball’s in your gun! If three attack you, stab the first, fire on the second, and bayonet the third! This seldom happens.

In the attack there is no time to load again. When you fire, take aim at their guts; and fire about twenty balls. Buy lead from your economy[297]—it costs little! We fire sure—we lose not one ball in thirty; in the light artillery and heavy artillery not one in ten.

If you see the match upon a gun, run up to it instantly—the ball will fly over your head—the guns are yours—the people are yours! Down with ’em upon the spot! pursue ’em, stab ’em! To the remainder give quarter—it’s a sin to kill without reason; they are men like you. Die for the honour of the Virgin Mary—for your mother[298]—for all the royal family! The Church prays for those that die; and those who survive have honour and reward. Offend not the peaceable inhabitant! he gives us meat and drink—the soldier is not a robber. Booty is a holy thing! If you take a camp, it is all yours! If you take a fortress, it is all yours! At Ismael, besides other things, the soldiers shared gold and silver by handsful, and so in other places; but, without order, never go to booty!

* * * * *

A battle on the field has three modes of attack.

1st. _On the Wing_

Which is weakest. If a wing is covered by wood, it is nothing; a soldier will get through. Through a morass, it is more difficult. Through a river you cannot run. All kind of intrenchment you may jump over.

2nd. _The Attack in the Centre_

Is not profitable—except for cavalry, to cut them in pieces—or else they’ll crush you.

3rd. _The Attack behind_

Is very good, only for a small corps to get round. Heavy battle in the field, against regular troops. In squares, against Turks, and not in columns. It may happen against Turks, that a square of 500 men will be compelled to force its way through a troop of 6000 or 7000, with the help of small squares on the flank. In such a case, it will extend in a column. But till now we had no need of it. There are the God-forgetting, windy, light-headed Frenchmen—if it should ever happen to us to march against them, we must beat them in columns.

_The Battle, upon Intrenchments in the Field._

The ditch is not deep—the rampart is not high—Down in the ditch! Jump over the wall! Work with your bayonet! Stab! Drive! Take them prisoners! Be sure to cut off the cavalry, if any are at hand! At Prague the infantry cut off the cavalry; and there were three-fold, and more, intrenchments, and a whole fortress; therefore, we attacked in columns.

_The Storm._[299]

Break down the fence! Throw wattles over the holes! Run as fast as you can! Jump over the palisades! Cast your faggots (into the ditch)! Leap into the ditch! Lay on your ladders! Scour the columns! Fire at their heads! Fly over the walls! Stab them on the ramparts! Draw out your line! Put a guard on the powder-cellars! Open one of the gates! The cavalry will enter on the enemy! Turn his guns against him! Fire down the streets! Fire briskly! There’s no time to run after them! When the order is given, enter the town! Kill every enemy in the streets! Let the cavalry hack them! Enter no houses! Storm them in the open places where they are gathering! Take possession of the open places! Put a capital guard! Instantly put picquets to the gates, to the powder-cellars, and to the magazines! When the enemy has surrendered, give him quarter! When the inner wall is occupied, go to plunder!

* * * * *

There are three military talents.

1st. _The Coup d’Œil._

How to place a camp. How to march. Where to attack, to chase, and to beat the enemy.

2nd. _Swiftness._

The field-artillery must march half or a whole verst in front, on the rising ground, that it may not impede the march of the columns. When the column arrives, it will find its place again. Down hill, and on even ground, let it go in a trot. Soldiers march in files, or four abreast, on account of narrow roads, streets, narrow bridges, and narrow passes, through marshy and swampy places; and only when ready for attack draw up in platoons, to shorten the rear. When you march four abreast, leave a space between the companies. Never slacken your pace! Walk on! Play! Sing your songs! Beat the drum! When you have broken off ten versts[300] the first company cast off their load, and lie down. After them the second company; and so forth, one after the other. But the first never wait for the rest! A line in columns will, on the march, always draw out. At four abreast, it will draw out one and a half more than its length. At two abreast, it will draw out double. A line one verst in length will draw out two. Two versts will draw out four; so the first companies would have to wait for the others half-an-hour, to no purpose. After the first ten versts, an hour’s rest. The first division that arrived (upon the coming of the second) takes up its baggage, and moves forward ten or fifteen paces; and if it passes through defiles on the march, fifteen or twenty paces. And in this manner division after division, that the hindmost may get rest. The second ten versts, another hour’s rest, or more. If the third distance is less than ten versts, halve it, and rest three-quarters, half, or a quarter of an hour, that the children[301] may soon get to their kettles. So much for infantry.

The cavalry marches before. They alight from their horses and rest a short time, and march more than ten versts in one stage, that the horses may rest in the camp. The kettle-waggons and the tent-waggons go on before. When the brothers[301] arrive the kettle is ready. The master of the mess instantly serves out the kettle. For breakfast four hours’ rest, and six or eight hours at night, according as the road proves. When you draw near the enemy, the kettle-waggons remain with the tent-waggons, and wood must be prepared beforehand.

By this manner of marching soldiers suffer no fatigue. The enemy does not expect us; he reckons us at least a hundred versts distance, and when we come from far, two hundred, or three hundred, or more. We fall all at once upon him, like snow on the head. His head turns. Attack instantly with whatever arrives,[302]—with what God sends. The cavalry instantly fall to work, hack and slash! Stab and drive! Cut them off! Don’t give them a moment’s rest!

3rd. _Energy._

One leg strengthens the other! One hand fortifies the other! By firing many men are killed! The enemy has also hands, but he knows not the Russian bayonet (alluding to the Turks)! Draw out the line immediately; and instantly attack with cold arms (the bayonet). If there is not time to draw out in line, attack, from the defile, the infantry with the bayonet; and the cavalry will be at hand. If there be a defile for a verst, and cartridges over your head, the guns will be yours! Commonly the cavalry makes the first attack, and the infantry follows. In general, cavalry must attack like infantry, except in swampy ground; and there they must lead their horses by the bridle. Cossacks will go through anything. When the battle is gained, the cavalry pursue and hack the enemy, and the infantry are not to remain behind. In two files there is strength: in three files, strength and a half.[303] The first tears, the second throws down, and the third perfects the work.

_Rules for Diet._

Have a dread of the hospital! German physic stinks from afar, is good for nothing, and rather hurtful. A Russian soldier is not used to it. Messmates know where to find roots, herbs, and pismires. A soldier is inestimable. Take care of your health! Scour the stomach when it is foul! Hunger is the best medicine! He who neglects his men—if an officer, arrest; if a sub-officer, lashes;[304] and to the private, lashes, if he neglects himself. If loose bowels want food, at sunset a little gruel and bread. For costive bowels, some purging plant in warm water, or the liquorice-root. Remember, gentlemen, the field physic of Doctor Bellypotski.[305] In hot fevers eat nothing, even for twelve days,[306] and drink your soldier’s quas[307]—that’s a soldier’s physic. In intermitting fevers neither eat nor drink. It’s only a punishment for neglect if death ensues. In hospitals, the first day the bed seems soft; the second comes French soup; and the third the brother is laid in his coffin, and they draw him away! One dies, and ten companions around him inhale his expiring breath. In camp, the sick and feeble are kept in huts, and not in villages: there the air is purer. Even without an hospital you must not stint your money for medicine, if it can be bought; nor even for other necessaries. But all this is frivolous: we know how to preserve ourselves. Where one dies in a hundred with others, we lose not one in five hundred in the course of a month. For the healthy, drink, air, and food; for the sick, air, drink, and food. Brothers, the enemy trembles for you! But there is another enemy, greater than the hospital,—the damned “_I don’t know_.”[308] _From the half-confessing, the guessing, lying, deceitful, the palavering, equivocation, squeamishness, and nonsense of_ “_Don’t know_,” many disasters originate. Stammering, hackering,[309] and so forth; it’s shameful to relate! A soldier should be sound, brave, firm, decisive, true, honourable! Pray to God! from Him come victory and miracles! God conducts us! God is our general! For the “_I don’t know_” an officer is put in the guard; a staff-officer is served with an arrest at home. Instruction is _light_! Not instruction is _darkness_! The work fears its master.[310] If a peasant knows not how to plough, the corn will not grow! One wise man is worth three fools! and even three are little, give six! and even six are little, give ten![311] One clever fellow will beat them all, overthrow them, and take them prisoners!

In the last campaign the enemy lost 75,000 well counted men—perhaps not much less than 100,000. He fought desperately and artfully, and we lost not a full thousand.[312] There, brethren, you behold the effect of military instruction.

Gentlemen, officers, what a triumph!

* * * * *

N.B. This translation has been rendered perfectly literal, so that effect is often sacrificed to a strict attention to the real signification of the words, instead of introducing parallel phrases.

(C.)

ON THE TIMBER TRADE OF NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN RUSSIA.[313]

Most people will acknowledge it to be a matter of some difficulty to turn the habitual course of trade into any new channel. For a century the forests of Lithuania exported by the Duna from Riga timber, and more especially masts; supplying thereby all the dockyards of Europe. The value of this branch of commerce amounted to about 2,000,000 roubles per annum. Each piece of timber passed through the hands of two sorters, who are an incorporated body, and are responsible, by their oath, for the quality of the article. These qualities varying in different countries, the merchants are in the habit of sending their orders to the principal sorters, naming the quantity and the quality which they require. These men then despatch a cutter to the spot, to select and appropriate the timber according to the orders which they receive; and the timber so selected is inspected afresh at Riga previous to shipment. This sorting or surveying is a joint-stock affair, the profits upon which go to a general fund, and are divided at the end of the year. There are two modes of bargaining with the wood-growers: either by purchasing of them a certain number of trees, chosen by a competent judge, or by taking an entire wood on lease, with the right of felling such trees as may from time to time suit the lessee; in which latter case the price is regulated according to the quantity of timber removed, charging so much for masts and so much for planks. The time for felling the trees is in the months of October and November; and although it would be better to postpone it until the sap shall have left the trees, yet, at a further period of the season, the snow would render the woods almost inaccessible: and it is necessary to avail one’s self of the drawing or sledging, just in time to bring away the timber already cut. Nevertheless, the felling sometimes continues until the month of January, or even February. Despite the care of the surveyor, 10 per cent. may reasonably be deducted from the original cost of timber on account of the occasional felling of trees that are objectionable; which are left on the land. It is commonly understood that masts of this description shall be left to the land-owner, and that no more shall be paid for than are taken away. The timber intended for Riga is all lopped and trimmed on the spot; and upon the breaking up of the ice in the Dniepr or in the Beresina (near to which rivers the greater part of the woods are situated) the timber is launched, in order afterwards that it may be sent down the Duna to Riga. It is only from the nearest forests that timber can be delivered at Riga in the same year in which it is felled; for with reference to the more distant, a second land-carriage betwixt the Dniepr and the Duna becomes indispensable. It often happens that, the time to complete the squaring of the timber during the first winter being insufficient, advantage is taken of the delay caused by the frost, in the breaking up of the ice of the Duna, to complete it. By this means the timber arrives at Riga in the fine season, and is fit for immediate shipment.

The thinning of the forests of Lithuania has compelled the fellers to move gradually farther and farther southward. Even now but few maiden forests are to be found near the river in the government of Minsk; and the supplies of timber are now chiefly furnished by the government of Tchérnigof and of Kief. The timber trade must, therefore, necessarily be driven into the hands of the Southern Russians. In lieu of transporting the timber, as before, against the current of the Dniepr, and of a long journey over land, it is now abandoned to the stream, and thus floats rapidly down to Kherson, where it arrives between May 15 and July 1.

The masts and bulks are commonly fastened together in rafts of 100 pieces each, and are managed by four or five men. Planks and staves are conveyed by means of large barks, manned with fifteen or sixteen men. The expense of water-carriage is about 25 roubles each for large masts. The vessels that are without decks cost as much as 1200 roubles; those that are decked are worth double this sum; but owing to their inability to reascend the river, are usually sold at Kherson for a few hundred roubles each. The merchants of Odessa have not as yet directed much of their attention to the timber trade; either because grain chiefly occupies their attention, or because of the want of proper experience on the part of the speculators; the first purchases of masts at Kherson, for the arsenals at Toulon and at Carthagena, proved disastrous in their results. Nevertheless, as Odessa possesses some very rich houses, with whom it is become almost a point of duty to open fresh outlets to the commerce of the country, and since bad harvests have obliged other houses to direct their capital to articles till then almost unknown, the timber trade at Kherson has progressed very rapidly. In 1833 the value of the timber and wood exported from that place amounted to 1,000,000 roubles, or nearly 180,000_l._ In 1834 many ships loaded with masts and staves for France and Spain. The great saving effected in the charges of transportation to ports of shipment, as well as on freights, will render it impossible for the trade of Riga, henceforward, to compete with that of the Black Sea, in supplying the south of Europe, where the consumption (of staves more particularly) is very great. _Kherson is able to obtain timber from the very same forests which supply Riga, at from 20 to 30 per cent. cheaper_, owing to the loss of interest on the capital employed, six months being the intermediate time of its arrival at Kherson, whilst the passage to Riga occupies at least twenty months. Besides, on landing the timber from the Dniepr, it remains a long time exposed to the air before being again launched in the Duna, which cannot fail to injure it. A sorter, or surveyor, from Riga, is already established at Kherson, for the purpose of placing the timber trade on the same footing as in the former city. He is accompanied by twelve Lithuanian labourers, practised in the trimming of masts, which are prepared on the spot where they are felled. A skilful workman will not be able to trim a large mast in less than a week. Excepting pine planks, which are sawn in the town, all other sorts of timber are sent to Kherson ready trimmed. The largest masts shipped hence are not more than about 20 palms in diameter, and about 85 feet in length. Those of larger dimensions, being purchased chiefly for Holland, are sent of course to Riga, but there is no doubt of the possibility of conveying them to Kherson with as much facility as to the former place. Even the smaller masts, which are all very cheap, are very superior in quality to, and much more durable than, those of Moldavia, Tuscany, and the Adriatic. The Oak, on the contrary, like that of Moldavia, is too soft for ship-building; nevertheless for staves it is certainly superior to that of the Romagna. These staves are cut from six to eight feet in length, and six inches broad, by two and a half to three inches thick. They are sold in lots of sixty, called shocks, the cost of one of which shocks, at Kherson, of six feet, was, in 1834, about 37 roubles. They can, however, be had of all dimensions, by apprising the seller beforehand in the months of August and September.

In addition to the timber destined for ship-building, wood of almost every shape is brought from the greatest part of Southern Russia for building, and for other purposes. This trade is in the hands of speculators from Kherson, and is carried on at places where the timber is felled; it is only the timber intended for foreign shipment, and certain sorts, that would find but a very limited sale at home, that are ordered beforehand. Igren and Kakhóvka, the one above, the other below, the cataracts of the Dniepr, are important places for the trade in wood. At these places, the carmen of the environs, who fetch fish and salt from the ports of the Sea of Azof, load the wood that has come down the Dniepr; in this manner it comes to the same price as that which is brought down the Volga and the Don in small quantities. But it is probable that, in time, the oak of Kasan, which now supplies the shipyards of the North, will be obtainable by this last-mentioned route. The forests, with which the mountains of the Crimea are covered, furnish to the shipyard of Sevastopol excellent building timber and much firewood; Odessa, in particular, which procures it from the north of Bessarabia, likewise consumes a great deal of it; still, as a great part of this latter province is entirely stripped of wood, it is under the necessity of supplying itself from Moldavia, especially from the district of Kiatra, which is very woody, and which exports wood also to Constantinople. Bessarabia derives from thence only firewood; but building-timber, masts, planks, and staves, are sent down the Seret (a river which separates Moldavia from Wallachia), and find a vent at Galatz, whence they are sent off in great rafts to Constantinople; and, before the Sultan prohibited it, these articles were sent from thence into Egypt. In 1832 the value of these exports amounted to more than 500,000 francs. The masts of Moldavia are of a very inferior quality compared with those of Russia; but many vessels buy them at Constantinople, because they are so very cheap. Neither is the oak for ship-building so hard as that of Bulgaria, which, on this account, is generally preferred. In general, a great quantity of timber is imported from Bulgaria into Ismail and into Reni, as, for the last five years, that article has not been burthened with any duty, and it forms one of the most important branches of commerce at both places. Roumelia likewise exports a considerable quantity of timber, especially staves, from the port of Bourgas.

(D.)

COMMERCE OF PORTS OF CRIMEA, 1852.[314]

I. PORT OF EUPATORIA.

There was imported into this port in 1852—

Goods 132,902 S. R.
Coin 2,240 S. R.
-------
Total 135,142 S. R.

Exports—

Russian produce 266,719 S. R.,

and no coin.

31 foreign vessels entered the port of Eupatoria.

The coasting trade presented the following numbers:—Arrivals, 189—of which, 1 from Petersburg. Departures, 188—of which, 5 for Petersburg.

II. AKMÉSHED.—III. SEVASTOPOL.—IV. BALACLAVA.—V. YALTA.

These four ports have only a coasting trade.

-----------+-------------------------
| Number of Coasters.
+-----------+-------------
| Arrivals. | Departures.
+-----------+-------------
Akméshed | 5 | 5
Sevastopol | 452 | 466
Balaclava | 7 | 10
Yalta | 66 | 62
-----------+-----------+-------------

Besides, steamers anchored 49 times in the port of Yalta.

The coasters brought and discharged in these four ports, besides provisions for the state, goods of the following value:—

-----------+-----------+-----------
| Brought. | Took away.
+-----------+-----------
| S. R. | S. R.
Akméshed | | 3,883
Sevastopol | 1,051,451 | 107,793
Balaclava | | 749
Yalta | 137,408 | 130,315
-----------+-----------+-----------

VI. THEODOSIA.

The imports into the port of Theodosia in 1852 were—

Goods 137,822 S. R.
Coin 10,841 S. R.
-------------
Total 144,663 S. R.

Exports—

Goods 57,237 S. R.

+----------------+-----------+-------------+
| | Arrivals. | Departures. |
| +-----------+-------------+
|Foreign vessels | 97 | 14 |
|Coasters | 144 | 229 |
+----------------+-----------+-------------+

The coasters brought goods, 150,823 S. R.; and loaded to a value of 96,862 S. R.

VII. KERTCH.

1852: Foreign Imports Goods 40,395 S. R.
Coin 2,900 S. R.
------
Total 43,275 S. R.
Exports 41,386 S. R.

and no coin.

113 foreign vessels arrived, and 73 left: of these 113 arrivals, 52, after passing quarantine at Kertch, entered the Sea of Azof. The coasting trade had 1111 arrivals, and 1094 departures.

The coasters brought, in 1852—goods, 834,671 S. R., besides stores to the account of the state. They loaded goods 359,418 S. R.; of salt from the Lakes of Kertch, 1,464,140 poods were sent from the Lakes of Kertch to the ports of the Sea of Azof; 91,435 poods to the Black Sea; and 74,775 poods to Petersburg:—total, 1,630,360 poods; which makes 911,445 poods more than in 1851, and 576,020 poods more than in 1850. This is the largest exportation of salt that has ever been made; for even in 1837 the exports only reached 1,431,975 poods.

The reduction of the excise, and the permission to pay for it in the ports of the Sea of Azof, are the causes of this increase in the export of salt to the interior of the empire.

_Résumé._

It results, from the accounts given above, that the commerce of the Crimea was more important in 1852 than in 1851. The reason was the good harvest of 1852. The export of its production was on a larger scale, and consequently the import was larger; more cottons and mixed Turkish silks were imported into Theodosia; more fruits and tobacco to Eupatoria; more coal to Kertch. The export of wheat and other grains was also larger; also of walnut-wood from Theodosia, and more linseed and wool, and tallow and butter, from Eupatoria. The increase in commercial affairs, of course, occasioned activity in the shipping.

* * * * *

The coasting trade, always more important in the Crimean ports than foreign commerce, has continued slowly to improve, as may be seen from the following tables for 1851 and 1852.

I. FOREIGN COMMERCE.

+------------+---------------------------------------+
| | Value of Goods. |
| +-------------------+-------------------+
| | Importations. | Exportations. |
| +---------+---------+---------+---------+
| | 1851. | 1852. | 1851. | 1852. |
| +---------+---------+---------+---------+
|Eupatoria | 119,289 | 132,902 | 126,070 | 266,719 |
|Balaclava | 648 | | | |
|Theodosia | 94,832 | 133,822 | 44,933 | 57,237 |
|Kertch | 35,353 | 40,395 | 21,677 | 41,386 |
| +---------+---------+---------+---------+
| Total | 250,122 | 307,119 | 192,689 | 365,342 |
+------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

Less coin was imported in 1852 than in 1851; it was 15,981 S. R. More was exported.

+------------+---------------------------------------+
| | Navigation. |
| +-------------------+-------------------+
| | Arrivals. | Departures. |
| +---------+---------+---------+---------+
| | 1851. | 1852. | 1851. | 1852. |
| +---------+---------+---------+---------+
|Eupatoria | 22 | 30 | 14 | 31 |
|Balaclava | 3 | | | |
|Theodosia | 56 | 97 | 10 | 14 |
|Kertch | 108 | 113 | 64 | 73 |
| +---------+---------+---------+---------+
| Total | 189 | 240 | 88 | 108 |
+------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

II. COASTING TRADE.

+------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| | Value of Merchandise. |
| +-----------------------+-----------------------+
| | Importations. | Exportations. |
| +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | 1851. | 1852. | 1851. | 1852. |
| +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
|Akméshed | | | 380 | 3,883 |
|Eupatoria | 243,097 | 116,878 | 199,799 | 262,410 |
|Sevastopol | 757,920 | 1,051,451 | 143,522 | 107,793 |
|Balaclava | 4,162 | | 2,190 | 749 |
|Yalta | 177,290 | 137,408 | 85,153 | 130,315 |
|Theodosia | 94,832 | 150,823 | 44,933 | 96,862 |
|Kertch | 877,285 | 834,671 | 266,378 | 359,419 |
| +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Total | 2,154,586 | 2,291,231 | 742,355 | 961,431 |
+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

+------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| | Departures. | Arrivals. |
| +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | 1851. | 1852. | 1851. | 1852. |
| +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
|Akméshed | 2 | 5 | 1 | 5 |
|Eupatoria | 195 | 188 | 187 | 189 |
|Sevastopol | 463 | 466 | 483 | 452 |
|Balaclava | 15 | 10 | 12 | 7 |
|Yalta | 84 | 62 | 96 | 66 |
|Theodosia | 247 | 229 | 201 | 144 |
|Kertch | 1,038 | 1,094 | 1,053 | 1,111 |
| +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Total | 2,044 | 2,054 | 2,033 | 1,974 |
+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

(E.)

ADVANTAGES LIKELY TO ACCRUE TO THE TRADE OF THE DANUBE FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A FREE PORT AT THE ST. GEORGE’S MOUTH OF THE RIVER.

The subject of the opening of the Danube is so intimately connected with the countries about which I have written, that I think it will be interesting to the public to read the following memorandum which has just been sent home by Mr. Cunningham, the English Consul at Galatz, and a merchant at that port.

MEMORANDUM.

As the navigation of the Danube forms one of the Four Points to be settled between the Allies and Russia, there can be little doubt that the present war will not terminate without the navigation of that river being placed on a clear, secure, and lasting footing, and such as to encourage the investment of capital in mercantile enterprises in the vicinity of this river. Further, that those nations interested in the trade and navigation of the river will adopt proper means not only to remove all material impediments to the navigation in the first instance, but also that they will provide a permanent fund, by a tax on vessels frequenting the river or otherwise, to keep the channels in the best state for the security and despatch of shipping; and will further make such arrangements as shall appear most conducive to the extension of the trade of the countries situate along its banks.

No one measure would conduce more to the facility of the trade and navigation of the river, to the prosperity of the countries on the Lower Danube, and to the extension of their agriculture, than the formation of a free port at the mouth of the river Danube.

In order to understand the advantages which a free port at the mouth of the Danube would confer on the trade of the river, it is necessary to state how it is carried on at present, and the difficulties it has to contend with, particularly in the export trade in grain.

All the grain of Wallachia is exported from Ibraila.

All the grain of Moldavia is exported from Galatz.

All the grain of Bulgaria which goes out by the Danube is exported from Matchin.

NOTE.—In spring, when the water in the Danube is high, some
small sea-going vessels go up to Silistria to load Bulgarian
wheat, and to Giurgevo to load Wallachian wheat.

All the grain of Bessarabia which goes out by the Danube is shipped from Reni and Ismail.

The grain, the produce of one of these provinces, cannot be brought to any other province, not even for shipment, but the vessel must go to the port where the grain is in order to receive it.

This state of things causes much trouble, inconvenience, and expense to the merchant, as the merchant residing in one of the towns mentioned (generally in Galatz) may be shipping grain from all these ports at one time, without being able to ascertain the quality or condition of the grain he is shipping at any port excepting at the place where he resides. It is also inconvenient and expensive to shipmasters, who must first call at Galatz for orders, and may afterwards be sent to any of the ports mentioned.

Galatz and Ibraila are called free ports by their respective governments, but most improperly so: first, grain and tallow cannot be brought from Wallachia into Galatz, nor from Moldavia into Ibraila; the importation of these two articles into Moldavia or Wallachia from any quarter whatever, even for exportation, is prohibited. It follows therefore that the grain of Turkey cannot be warehoused in Galatz or Ibraila for exportation. As grain forms nine-tenths of the export trade of the Danube, it follows that the name of Free Port is altogether illusory.

Excepting the above two articles, and salt, all other articles may be brought into Galatz and Ibraila, and exported without payment of duty, provided the following forms be observed. On introducing the article it must be declared for exportation, and it must not be sold. If sold, the buyer must pay duty on exporting the article. But it must be observed that all articles the production of Moldavia and Wallachia are brought into Galatz and Ibraila respectively by land without payment of duty, and the duty is only paid on being exported by water from the so-called free port.

It is scarcely necessary to add that as in Turkey and Russia there is no pretension to a free port, the duty on all articles sent into either of these countries would have to be paid on entering, and again on being exported. The introduction of grain into Russia is prohibited.

It must be evident that it would be very advantageous to the export trade of the Danube, which is at present almost entirely confined to grain, to have some one point where the grain from all the different shipping ports could be brought forward in river craft, and there loaded on board of sea-going vessels. This can only be effected by having a free port established. But this free port would be equally advantageous for imports, which, being brought to one place, could be more conveniently sent forward to their various ports of destination along the Danube.

As steam power for river navigation has such an evident advantage over sailing vessels, it is quite behind the age to take sailing vessels 100 miles up a river for cargo, when the cargo can be brought down more easily and economically to the mouth of the river by steam; it is therefore apparent that, in seeking to establish _a free port on the Danube for the first time_, it ought to be placed as near as possible to the sea. For this reason the free port should be placed either at the Sulina mouth or at the St. George’s mouth. As, however, Sulina consists only of a narrow strip of land between the river and a marsh, and as that strip is subject to be overflowed, Sulina is not suited for the site of a town. At the St. George’s mouth, on the right bank of the river, the land is high and well suited for the erection of a town, therefore the free port should in preference be placed there. It is probable that, on application being made, the Turkish Government would grant the rights of a free port to the whole of the island Ruselm formed by the Danube, the branch called Donnawitza, the lake Ramsim, and the sea. Even on the left bank, on the island of St. George, the ground is much higher than at Sulina. At the outset the St. George’s mouth presents a difficulty in comparison to that of Sulina, namely, whereas the Sulina mouth has only a single bar of about 150 yards broad, the St. George’s mouth has banks extending out fully a mile; _but, as the entrance into the St. George’s has never been carefully surveyed_, it is not known whether a channel may not extend all the way out, which only requires to be marked out by buoys; but in every case there can be no doubt that a channel could be opened up and kept open, at an expense which would fall very light on the number of vessels likely to enter it, in comparison to the heavy lighterage which they have hitherto had to pay at Sulina. The St. George’s branch is much finer than the Sulina; it discharges at least ten times more water than the Sulina does, and this should render it easy to make a deeper channel than at Sulina; it is much broader, and therefore would afford more accommodation for shipping. It may be asked why, when the St. George presents so many advantages over the Sulina, no attempt has been made to render these advantages available? but when it is considered that Russia only held the left bank of this branch, while Turkey held the right bank, whereas Russia held both sides of the Sulina branch, it is evident that it was for the advantage of Russia to keep the St. George closed, and thus have the whole trade of the Danube under her control.

To show precisely the disadvantage of having to ascend the river with sailing vessels to receive cargo, it may be stated that sailing vessels seldom arrive from Sulina at Galatz in less than fourteen days, and not unfrequently they take a month to come up. Again, in going down, what between putting part of their cargo into lighters in order to go over the shoals in the river, and what by grounding and getting the vessel off again, three weeks or a month are frequently consumed between Galatz and Sulina. But the best proof is in the rates of freight, as a vessel, obtaining 12_s._ per quarter from Galatz to England, would take cargo from the mouth of the Danube to England for 8_s._ per quarter.

No doubt a vessel might save much time by being towed up the river by a steamer; but there would always be danger of the vessel grounding, and part of the cargo would always have to be put into lighters. The steamer could bring down four times more grain in proper barges than the vessel could carry, and in less time.

The uncertain political position of the Danube, and the difficulties and delays caused by quarantines, have hitherto prevented steam navigation from taking any considerable extension in that river; in fact, there have not yet been any steamers exclusively for the trade of the Principalities and Bulgaria. The steam navigation on the Lower Danube at the commencement of the present war with Russia was as follows:—The Imperial Royal Danube Steam Navigation Company of Vienna despatch a steamer weekly from Vienna to Galatz, and _vice versâ_. A steamer went weekly both up and down between Galatz and Turno Severin, on the Wallachian side of the river; and a steamer weekly between Galatz and Skella Cladova, on the Turkish side of the river. Besides these steamers, this Company had occasionally tugsteamers between this place and Calafat; and within the last four years it has had a number of iron barges, called _shlepfs_, on the Lower Danube, to be towed by steamers, for the conveyance of grain and other merchandise. The Austrian Lloyd’s Steam Company of Trieste had steamers performing six voyages monthly between Galatz and Constantinople: this Company also kept a steamer plying between Galatz and Ibraila. The Russians had a steamer performing two voyages monthly between Galatz and Odessa.

When, however, the trade and navigation of the Danube shall have been placed on a satisfactory and permanent footing, there can be little doubt that the companies having steamers on the Danube will increase their number, so as to meet the requirements of trade; or, should such not be the case, other companies will be established, as capital cannot be long wanting for an investment which offers at once security and good returns.

Until the war between Russia and Turkey in 1828, grain and tallow from the Principalities could only be sent to Constantinople. Certain Turkish commissioners came yearly to the provinces and purchased grain, fixing their own price for it, and that price was so low as not to be remunerative to the cultivator. Consequently, very little grain was then grown in the Principalities, and it was harvested and brought to market in a most careless manner, having a great deal of earth and dirt mixed with it, and the quality was very bad.

By the Treaty of Adrianople, the Russians gave free trade to the Principalities and the cultivation of grain was extended. So soon as the exportation of grain from the Principalities began to take a certain extension, the Russian Government perceived the double error it had committed, and endeavoured to correct it: this double error was, first, the trade of the Principalities was increased, and the attention of Europe was thereby called to them; secondly, the grain exported from the Principalities came into competition and lowered the price of the grain of the Russian ports on the Black Sea. For this end the Russians prevented the establishment of a general entrepôt on the Danube; they imposed vexatious quarantine regulations on shipping and merchandise; and they prevented the removing of banks and shoals and other impediments to the navigation of the river.

Notwithstanding all these discouragements and impediments, the exportation of Moldavia and Wallachia by Galatz and Ibraila down the Danube in the year 1852 had reached the following quantities:—

+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | Galatz. | Ibraila. | Total. |
| +-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | Quarters. | Quarters. | Quarters. |
|Wheat | 187,555 | 343,584 | 531,139 |
|Indian Corn | 329,279 | 725,259 | 1,054,538 |
|Rye | 96,900 | 1,296 | 98,196 |
|Barley | 468 | 80,278 | 80,746 |
|Millet | — | 5,180 | 5,180 |
| +-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Total | 614,202 | 1,155,597 | 1,769,799 |
+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

The exportation of grain from Turkey, and consequently from Bulgaria, was prohibited until the year 1839, when the exportation was allowed by the treaty of commerce made between Turkey and England in that year. The exportation of grain from Bulgaria by the Danube has made very little progress hitherto, and not more than 200,000 quarters of grain of all sorts have been exported by the Danube in any one year.

There are many reasons no doubt for this want of progress; among which are, the improper interference of the Turkish Government, which has already forbidden the exportation of grain four different times, under pretext that there was a scarcity of grain in Turkey; the interference of pashas and other Turks in authority, who are always endeavouring to have a monopoly of the grain trade of their districts; also the insufficient protection of the cultivators. But another reason, and which had great influence, was the want of a proper place for shipping on board of sea-going vessels, as there is no place on the Turkish side of the Danube with suitable warehouses, and Turkish grain was not allowed to be warehoused in Wallachia or Moldavia.

Little doubt can be entertained, that inquiry will be made into the causes which prevent the extension of agriculture in Turkey for the purpose of removing them, and that, in consequence, the exportation of grain from Bulgaria will increase rapidly.

Grain of Bessarabia is exported from Reni and Ismail on the Danube, but by far the larger portion of the produce of that province goes to Odessa for shipment, being attracted to that place by the lower rate of freights which prevails there than on the Danube. Were the freights from the Danube reduced to the same rates as those from Odessa, there can be little doubt that nearly the whole of the grain produced in Bessarabia would be brought to the Danube for shipment. The quantity of grain exported from Ismail is larger than what is exported from Reni; in the year 1852 the quantity exported from these two ports may have amounted, to 400,000 quarters. It is proper to observe, that although Ismail is situate on the Kilia branch of the Danube, yet the vessels at present frequenting that port enter and go out by the Sulina branch, and would consequently go by the St. George’s were it rendered more commodious.

From what has been stated it results that the quantity of grain exported from the Danube in 1852 was:—

Imperial Quarters.
From Galatz 614,202
” Ibraila 1,155,597
” Bulgaria (about) 200,000
” Bessarabia 400,000
---------
2,369,799
=========

But the production of Moldavia and Wallachia goes on increasing at the rate of about five per cent. yearly, and should this free port be obtained, a further impetus will be given to the exportation by the reduction of freights. For the same reason it may be expected that the exportation of Bessarabia by the Danube will be greatly increased, as produce, in place of being carried to Odessa, will be brought to the Danube for shipment. Then as regards Bulgaria, taking into account internal impediments to cultivation, which may be expected to be removed, and facilities to exportation and lower freights, it cannot be doubted that the production and exportation of grain from Bulgaria will increase very rapidly. For these reasons it may safely be reckoned, that ten years after the establishment of peace, and a convenient free port near the mouth of the Danube, the following quantities of grain will be exported from the Danube:—

Imperial Quarters.
From Wallachia 2,000,000
” Moldavia 1,000,000
” Bulgaria 1,500,000
” Bessarabia 1,000,000
---------
5,500,000
=========

Regarding the present manner of bringing forward grain for shipment on board of sea-going vessels, it is to be observed that all the grain shipped from Galatz comes forward to that place by land. Of that shipped from Ibraila, not over one-fifth comes forward by land; the rest is brought down the Danube by river craft, called _kerlatze_, from Calafat, Islas, Giurgevo, Calarrach, &c. Latterly, the Vienna Danube Steam Navigation Company has occasionally brought down grain from Upper Wallachia in shlepfs or iron barges. Of the grain shipped from Bulgaria, a portion is shipped from Silistria by small vessels, which go up to that place in spring when the water is high; the remainder is brought down, by kerlatze, from Widdin, Sistove, Rustchuk, &c., to Matchin, for shipment. At Matchin some warehouses have lately been built. The grain shipped from Bessarabia is all brought forward to Reni and Ismail by land.

The rate of freight, by kerlatze, from Calafat to Ibraila, in the course of the last four years, has ranged from P. 60-P. 120 of the G. S. per 1000 okes, equal per quarter to 2_s._ 2_d._ to 4_s._ 3_d._; but P. 80 per 1000 okes may be taken as the usual freight, or per quarter 2_s._ 10_d._, for conveyance the distance of 300 miles English. The freight charged by the Austrian Danube Steam Company for conveying grain in iron barges, towed by steamers from Calafat to Ibraila, varies according to the season and demand, but may be taken on an average at 30 kreutzers per 100 funti, 4_s._ per imperial quarter. The kerlatze, or river craft, perform a voyage from Ibraila up to Calafat, empty and back with a cargo of grain, in about two months. A steamer towing shlepfs can perform the same voyage in ten days.

The freight from Galatz to England may be taken as 50 per cent. higher than the freight from Odessa to England; thus, when freight from Odessa is 7_s._ per quarter, the freight from Galatz is 10_s._ 6_d._: these are low freights. But were there a port at the St. George’s mouth, the freight from thence to England could never be more than from Odessa, but would probably be 10 per cent. less. Thus allowing 1_s._ or 1_s._ 6_d._ per quarter for freight from Galatz to St. George, there would be a saving, when freights were low, of at least 2_s._, and when freights were high 5_s._ to 6_s._ per quarter, in favour of bringing grain to the ships, in place of sending the ships to the grain.

There would also be a great saving on the Insurance, and in the time of sending the merchandise to market.

CHARLES CUNNINGHAM.

_Galatz, April 4, 1855._

LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,
AND CHARING CROSS.

_Published by John Murray Albemarle Sᵗ. February 1855._